nZVI Mobility and Transport: Laboratory Test and Numerical Model
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- -
- Physical mechanisms: the filtration and straining phenomena. The first one is a generally irreversible phenomenon, according to which the particles are greater than the pores, so the colloids remain trapped [30,31]. On the contrary, the latter is a reversible process in which particles, being smaller than pores, are filtered by the intergranular contact points [30,31];
- -
- Chemical mechanisms. These mechanisms typically result in dynamic deposition and release phenomena, with different behaviors in the early and advanced stages of deposition. During the initial phase, no particle is attached on the surface of the solid grains, and therefore the attached colloids do not influence the total interaction energy between particles and solid grains. During the advanced stages of deposition, a significant number of particles is already deposed on the porous matrix, and thus influences deposition kinetics. In this way, the collector includes both the porous medium and the deposed particles [30]. The main processes are: (i) irreversible attachment, if attractive Van der Waals forces are predominant and the nZVI attachment in primary minimum is generally considered to be irreversible; (ii) linear reversible attachment (known as attachment—detachment), if attractive Van der Waals forces and EDL repulsive forces are similar and the deposition is not limited or affected by the amount of deposed particles [24,32,33]; (iii) blocking phenomenon, if repulsive energies are predominant and the deposed particles exclude the suspended colloids that are close to the soil grain, reaching a maximum concentration of colloids on the surface grain [30,32] and (iv) ripening phenomenon, if attractive energies are predominant and the deposed particles tend to attract the suspended ones, leading to higher concentrations of attached colloids until the porous medium is completely clogged [24,30].
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Laboratory Investigation: Experimental Set-Up
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- Point 1 (P1): x = 21 cm and y = 5 cm
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- Point 2 (P2): x = 30 cm and y = 5 cm
2.2. Numerical Model
3. Results and Discussion
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Micro Glass Beads | |
---|---|
Diameter | 400–800 μm |
Refractive index | 1.52 |
Porosity ε (measured) | 0.4 |
Bulk density | 1.49 kg/L |
Hardness (according to Mohs) | ≥6 |
Nanofer25S | |
---|---|
Composition mixture (weight % content) | 77% Water 14–18% Iron (Fe) 3% Polyacrylic acid (PAA). 2–6% Magnetite (Fe3O4) 0–1% Carbon © |
Granulometry | d50 < 50 nm |
pH | 11–12 |
Specific surface | >25 m2/g |
Specific gravity | 1.15–1.25 g/cm3 (20 °C) |
nZVI + Water Solution for Permeation Injection Test | ||
---|---|---|
nZVI stock solution concentration | 250 | g/L |
nZVI volume | 10 | mL |
nZVI mass | 2.5 | g |
nZVI + water solution volume | 550 | mL |
nZVI + water solution concentration | 4.54 | g/L |
Attachment and Detachment Coefficients | ||
---|---|---|
kATT | 0.1 | 1/s |
kDET | 0.0001 | 1/s |
Parameter | Values | Units | |
---|---|---|---|
Physical width | 0.52 | m | |
Physical height | 0.29 | m | |
Rows (m) | 26 | - | |
Columns (n) | 43 | - | |
Injection/Extraction flow rate (Q) | 168 | L/h | |
Porosity (ε) | 0.4 | - | |
Micro glass beads hydraulic conductivity | kx | 2.5 × 10−3 | m/s |
ky | 4.3 × 10−3 | m/s | |
Micro glass beads dispersion 1 (D) | 2.6 × 10−5 | m2/s | |
Bulk Density (ρb) | 1.49 × 106 | g/m3 | |
Injection Point 1 (P1) | xP1 | 0.21 | m |
yP1 | 0.05 | m | |
Injection Point 2 (P2) | xP2 | 0.30 | m |
yP2 | 0.05 | m | |
nZVI + water solution concentration | 4.545 × 103 | g/m3 | |
nZVI volume | 10 | mL | |
nZVI mass | 2.5 | g |
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Viotti, P.; Sappa, G.; Tatti, F.; Andrei, F. nZVI Mobility and Transport: Laboratory Test and Numerical Model. Hydrology 2022, 9, 196. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology9110196
Viotti P, Sappa G, Tatti F, Andrei F. nZVI Mobility and Transport: Laboratory Test and Numerical Model. Hydrology. 2022; 9(11):196. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology9110196
Chicago/Turabian StyleViotti, Paolo, Giuseppe Sappa, Fabio Tatti, and Francesca Andrei. 2022. "nZVI Mobility and Transport: Laboratory Test and Numerical Model" Hydrology 9, no. 11: 196. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology9110196