Editor’s Choice Articles

The basic leucine zipper (bZIP) transcription factors play important regulatory roles, influencing plant growth and responses to environmental stresses. In the present study, 132 bZIP genes identified in the tobacco genome were classified into 11 groups with Arabidopsis and tomato bZIP members, based on the results of a phylogenetic analysis. An examination of gene structures and conserved motifs revealed relatively conserved exon/intron structures and motif organization within each group. The results of an investigation of whole-genome duplication events indicated that segmental duplications were crucial for the expansion of the bZIP gene family in tobacco. Expression profiles confirmed that the NtbZIP genes are differentially expressed in various tissues, and several genes are responsive to diverse stresses. Notably, NtbZIP62, which was identified as an AtbZIP37/ABF3 homolog, was highly expressed in response to salinity. Subcellular localization analyses proved that NtbZIP62 is a nuclear protein. Furthermore, the overexpression of NtbZIP62 in tobacco significantly enhanced the salt stress tolerance of the transgenic plants. The results of this study may be relevant for future functional analyses of the bZIP genes in tobacco. Full article

The soybean cyst nematode (SCN; Heterodera glycines Ichinohe) is a major soybean-yield-limiting soil-borne pathogen, especially in the Midwestern US. Weed management is recommended for SCN integrated management, since some weed species have been reported to be hosts for SCN. The increase in the occurrence of resistance to herbicides complicates weed management and may further direct ecological–evolutionary (eco–evo) feedbacks in plant–pathogen complexes, including interactions between host plants and SCN. In this review, we summarize weed species reported to be hosts of SCN in the US and outline potential weed–SCN management interactions. Plants from 23 families have been reported to host SCN, with Fabaceae including most host species. Out of 116 weeds hosts, 14 species have known herbicide-resistant biotypes to 8 herbicide sites of action. Factors influencing the ability of weeds to host SCN are environmental and edaphic conditions, SCN initial inoculum, weed population levels, and variations in susceptibility of weed biotypes to SCN within a population. The association of SCN on weeds with relatively little fitness cost incurred by the latter may decrease the competitive ability of the crop and increase weed reproduction when SCN is present, feeding back into the probability of selecting for herbicide-resistant weed biotypes. Therefore, proper management of weed hosts of SCN should be a focus of integrated pest management (IPM) strategies to prevent further eco–evo feedbacks in the cropping system. Full article

Models can provide a structured way to think about adoption and provide a method to investigate the impacts of different factors in the adoption process. With at least 70 years of research in the adoption of agricultural innovations, there has been a proliferation of adoption models, both conceptual and numerical. This diversity has resulted in a lack of convergence in the way adoption is defined, explained, and measured, causing agricultural extension and policy to rely on a body of literature that is often not able to offer clear recommendations on the variables or mechanisms that can be used to design interventions. We conducted a review of conceptual models to clarify the concepts and approaches used in the practice of modeling adoption in agriculture. We described general adoption conceptual models originating from sociology, psychology, economics, and marketing and reviewed examples of models specifically defined for the study of adoption in agriculture. We also broadly assessed the ability of conceptual models to support building numerical models. Our review covered a range of modeling approaches for diffusion and individual adoption, illustrating different perspectives used in the literature. We found that key elements that should be used in adoption models for agriculture include: a way to assess the performance of the proposed new technology (e.g., relative advantage, both economic and non-economic) in relation to the existing technology or practice in place, the process of learning about this advantage, the interaction between individual decision-making and external influences, and characteristics of potential adopters affecting their attitudes towards the technology. We also detected inconsistencies in how different elements are treated in different conceptual models, particularly behavioral elements such as attitudes, motivations, intentions, and external influences. In terms of modeling, the main implication of these inconsistencies is the difficulty to generate quantitative evidence to support these models since multiple interpretations make it difficult to achieve consistency in the definition of observable, measurable variables that can be used to quantify cause-effect relationships. Suggestions for further research in the field include: questioning whether the adoption of all technologies and practices can be represented by the same adoption or learning process, exploring the dynamics in the relationship between adopters and technology before and after adoption, and questioning the basic assumptions behind the process of individual decision-making models and the role of collective decision-making. Findings from this review can be considered by adoption researchers and modelers in their work to assist policy and extension efforts to improve the uptake of future beneficial agricultural innovations. Full article

Berberis lyceum Royle has such pronounced medicinal values that it is used as cure of many diseases and has exhibited great therapeutic effects among the local communities throughout the world. The present research was carried out to evaluate the quantitative ethnobotanical status and phytochemical analysis of B. lyceum. Regular field trips were arranged to the study area (Shangla District) in August 2017 to October 2019 and interviews with 100 residents (age range: 30 to 50 years) were conducted. The approach adopted for ethnobotanical data was semi-scientific as the inhabitants were not aware about the modern names of some diseases and therefore physician prescriptions were also consulted. Ethnobotanical data were examined using relative frequency of citation and % use value. The % use value of B. lyceum indicates that the people of District Shangla mostly used it for curing of different diseases. In spite of tremendous uses the plant still survived in this area mainly due to the non-accessibility for humans of the mountain tops; otherwise, increase in anthropogenic activities even in these hilly areas poses a threat of the eradication of this plant. To correlate the folkloric uses with its phytochemical composition, HPLC (high performance liquid chromatography) analysis was performed and a total of six phenolic compounds (quercetin, chlorogenic acid, berberine, rutin, mandellic acid, and hydroxy benzoic acid) were identified in its root. As most of the health complications are correlated to oxidative stress therefore in vitro antioxidant activity were also performed using DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) and ABTS (2,2′-azinobis-3-ethyl benzo thiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) assays. The observed antioxidant potential may most probably be due to berberine and chlorogenic acid that were present in highest concentration in the analyzed extract. The effectiveness of the selected plant as remedy for a number of diseases (that were pointed out by the local community) may be due to its phytochemical composition especially berberine and chlorogenic acid as oxidative stress is the root cause of many diseases. The plant extract exhibited high antioxidant potential (DPPH IC₅₀ = 165µg/mL; ABTSIC₅₀ = 110µg/mL) in relation to the detected concentration of berberine and chlorogenic acid. It can be inferred from experimental results that the ethnopharmacological efficacy of this endangered species may be due to its phytochemical composition and antioxidant activities. This case study helps to revive the importance of B. lyceum in local communities and emphasizes the need for its conservation. Full article

Halophytic plants can adapt to grow and thrive in highly saline conditions. Suaeda species are annual halophytes with high salt tolerance and are most suitable in the restoration of salinized or contaminated saline land and as food, forage, medicine, and bioenergy. In this study, we comprehensively analyzed the different metabolic responses of Suaeda species under salt and drought stress at ambient and elevated CO₂ conditions. Seedlings of Suaeda species were treated with 500 mM NaCl and 5% of polyethylene glycol under elevated CO₂ stress conditions for 24 h. Then, widely untargeted metabolites were detected by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Different metabolites involved in amino acid metabolism, glycolysis, photorespiration, and tricarboxylic acid cycle were quantitatively determined after stress treatments. A total of 61 primary metabolites were annotated. Different treatments increased the contents of certain metabolites, such as amino acids, sugars, and organic acids, as well as some antioxidants, such as quininic acid, kaempferol, and melatonin. These substances may be correlated with osmotic tolerance, increased antioxidant activity, and medical and nutritional value in the species. This study suggests that various metabolites differentially accumulated in C₄Suaeda species under varying stress conditions. Furthermore, this work provides new insights into the key secondary metabolite pathway involved in stress tolerance. Full article

The crop yield and quality of seven annual forages (four grasses and three legumes) in sole crop and in mixtures (ratio 50:50) for oat (Avena sativa L.), Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum Lam.), triticale (x Triticosecale Wittmack), barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), pea (Pisum sativum L.), berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum L.) and common vetch (Vicia sativa L.) were evaluated in a two-year field experiment adopting two harvesting times, green fodder and silage. The main bio-agronomic traits, dry matter forage yield (DMY) and quantity of crude protein (CP) were determined in both sole crop and intercrop. The land equivalent ratio (LER) was used for evaluating biological efficiency and competitive ability of the intercrops. Our results showed that the total calculated LER for fodder and protein yields was always greater than one and corresponded to crop yield advantages of 16.0% and 11.5%, respectively. Our data also highlighted the low competitive ability of the ryegrass in intercrop, which achieved the lowest yield among all the mixtures. Conversely, the same grass showed the best green fodder quality, due to the high incidence of the legume, equal (on average) to 46%. Triticale and barley, harvested for silage (hard dough stage), provided the best quantitative and qualitative results both in sole crop and intercropped with common vetch and pea, determined mainly by the cereal grain. Full article

Wheat is one of the most important cereals in terms of its role in the human diet. The distribution of the nutrients in wheat grains depends largely on their morphology, the bran fraction being the richest in minerals, thus developing important functions related to human health. The main purpose of this study was to point out the potential nutritional and health claims related to the mineral composition based on the current European legislation in order to valorize the interesting wheat varieties traditionally consumed in Spain. The mineral composition (microelements: Fe, Cu, Mn, and Zn; and macrolements: Ca, Mg, Na, and K) were evaluated in different milling fractions (white flour, whole grain flour, and bran fraction) of 4 wheat varieties of durum (Triticum turgidum ssp. durum Linnaeus) and bread (Triticum aestivum Linnaeus) wheat. As expected, the mineral concentration was higher in the case of bran and whole grain flour, K and Mg being the principal minerals found. A difference between wheat genotype and harvesting year have been found. Moreover, regarding these preliminary results, some samples analysed in the present study met the conditions of use of different approved health claims that could support the possibility to consider wheat flours, especially whole grain flour and bran fraction as functional foods, but some did not. Full article

Plant growth regulators and Rhizobium are actively involved in the regulation of flowering, pod formation, nodulation, and ultimately the growth and yield of legumes. However, very limited information is available on the combined effect of gibberellic acid (GA₃) and Rhizobium on growth attributes and yield of legume crops. This experiment was designed to fill this gap by studying the performance of chickpea under exogenous application of GA₃ (10⁻⁴ and 10⁻⁵ M) alone and in combination with Rhizobium. Exogenous application of GA₃ (10⁻⁵ M) combined with rhizobium inoculation gave the highest values for number of nodules per plant (16) and their dry biomass (0.22 g). Moreover, GA₃ application and seed inoculation with Rhizobium, when applied singly, significantly enhanced chickpea growth. However, the most promising results were obtained by the inoculation of Rhizobium accompanied with GA₃ (10⁻⁵ M). Plant height, grain and stover yield, and chlorophyll contents were enhanced up to 35%, 39%, 21%, and 51%, respectively. Likewise, the bioaccumulation of macronutrients (N, P and K) was maximum in plants receiving both Rhizobium inoculation and GA₃ application. It is concluded that the combined application of Rhizobium and GA₃ has synergistic effects on the growth, yield, and nutrient contents of chickpea. Full article

Extreme temperatures are considered one of the main constraints that limit the growth and development of rice. We elucidated the root and shoot developmental plasticity of 64 rice genotypes during early seedling establishment, using the sunlit plant growth chambers at 22/14 (low), 30/22 (optimum), and 38/30 °C (high) day/night temperatures. Low temperature severely inhibited 23 traits, such as shoot (68%), root (57%), and physiological (35%) attributes. On the contrary, the high temperature positively affected most of the shoot (48%) and root (31%) traits, except root diameter and root/shoot ratio, compared with the optimum. Alternatively, leaf chlorophyll fluorescence-associated parameters declined under low (34%) and high (8%) temperatures. A weak correlation between cumulative high-temperature response index (CHTRI) and cumulative low-temperature response index (CLTRI) indicates the operation of different low- and high-temperature tolerance mechanisms at the early seedling stage. Groups of distinct rice genotypes associated with low or high-temperature tolerance were selected based on CHTRI and CLTRI. The genotypes that commonly performed well under low and high temperatures (IR65600-81-5-2-3, CT18593-1-7-2-2-5, RU1504114, RU1504122, Bowman, and INIA Tacuari) will be valuable genetic resources for breeders in developing early-season high- and low-temperature-tolerant genotypes for a broad range of both tropical and temperate rice-growing environments. Full article

Farmers that intend to access Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) contributions must submit an application to the territorially competent Paying Agencies (PA). Agencies are called to verify consistency of CAP contributions requirements through ground campaigns. Recently, EU regulation (N. 746/2018) proposed an alternative methodology to control CAP applications based on Earth Observation data. Accordingly, this work was aimed at designing and implementing a prototype of service based on Copernicus Sentinel-2 (S2) data for the classification of soybean, corn, wheat, rice, and meadow crops. The approach relies on the classification of S2 NDVI time-series (TS) by “user-friendly” supervised classification algorithms: Minimum Distance (MD) and Random Forest (RF). The study area was located in the Vercelli province (NW Italy), which represents a strategic agricultural area in the Piemonte region. Crop classes separability proved to be a key factor during the classification process. Confusion matrices were generated with respect to ground checks (GCs); they showed a high Overall Accuracy (>80%) for both MD and RF approaches. With respect to MD and RF, a new raster layer was generated (hereinafter called Controls Map layer), mapping four levels of classification occurrences, useful for administrative procedures required by PA. The Control Map layer highlighted that only the eight percent of CAP 2019 applications appeared to be critical in terms of consistency between farmers’ declarations and classification results. Only for these ones, a GC was warmly suggested, while the 12% must be desirable and the 80% was not required. This information alone suggested that the proposed methodology is able to optimize GCs, making possible to focus ground checks on a limited number of fields, thus determining an economic saving for PA and/or a more effective strategy of controls. Full article

Preserving soil quality and increasing soil water availability is an important challenge to ensure food production for a growing global population. As demonstrated by several studies, conservative crop management, combined with soil cover and crop diversification, can significantly reduce soil and water losses. The aim of this review is to evaluate the spread of smart solutions to perform conservation agriculture (CA) well in the Mediterranean Basin, taking into account the evolution of the strategies and the machines used to perform conservative tillage systems in different contexts in the last 30 years, as well as the effects induced by their adoption on the productivity of herbaceous and horticultural crops, weed control and economic feasibility, in comparison with those obtained utilizing conventional techniques based on soil inversion. Full article

Seed germination and seedling establishment are the most critical stages in the barley (Hordeum vulgare ssp. vulgare L.) life cycle that contribute substantially to grain yield. These two phases are exposed to several forms of environmental stresses such as salinity due to high level of salt accumulation in the soil rhizosphere where seed germination takes place and seedlings emerge from. Previously, we have reported genotypic variability and independent QTLs associated with salinity tolerance at seedling and germination stages. However, genotypic studies on revival of a seedling germinating under salinity stress are yet to close the lack of information between germination and seedling stages. Here, we attempt to close the genetic gap by targeting early seedling survival traits in barley after germination under salinity (NaCl) stress and the various seedling vigour indices. Seedling vigour parameters formed the basis for Quantitative trait locus (QTL) linkage mapping in 103 Doubled Haploid (DH) lines of CM72/Gairdner population, and validated the phenotypic response using a selected diverse panel of 85 barley germplasm. The results indicate that 150 mM NaCl stress significantly reduced all the recorded phenotypic traits compared to 75, 90 and 120 mM NaCl. In both DH population and diversity panel barley germplasm, the highest percentage reduction was recorded in shoot length (65.6% and 50.3%) followed by seedling vigour index length (56.5% and 41.0%), while root length (28.6% and 15.8%) and root dry weight (29.3% and 28.0%) were least reduced when control was compared to150 mM NaCl stress treatment. Six QTLs containing 13 significant markers were detected in the DH population, 3 on chromosomes 1H, 8 on 3H and 2 on 4H with LOD values ranging from 3 to 8 associated with seedling survival traits under salinity stress. Three QTLs one on 1H and two on 3H with closely linked significant markers (Bmac0032, bPb-9418 and bPb-4741), (bPb-4576 and bPb-9624) and (bPb-3623, bPb-5666 and bPb-6383) for 1H and two on 3H respectively formed the regions with high possibility of candidate genes. A QTL on 3H flanked with markers bPb-4576 and bPb-9624 that were detected in more than one salinity survival trait and were closely linked to each other will form a basis for detailed studies leading to gene functional analysis, genetic transformation and marker assisted selection (MAS). Full article

To understand the physiological basis of tolerance to combined stresses to low phosphorus (P) and drought in mungbean (Vignaradiata (L.) R. Wilczek), a diverse set of 100 accessions were evaluated in hydroponics at sufficient (250 μM) and low (3 μM) P and exposed to drought (dehydration) stress. The principal component analysis and ranking of accessions based on relative values revealed that IC280489, EC397142, IC76415, IC333090, IC507340, and IC121316 performed superior while IC119005, IC73401, IC488526, and IC325853 performed poorly in all treatments. Selected accessions were evaluated in soil under control (sufficient P, irrigated), low P (without P, irrigated), drought (sufficient P, withholding irrigation), and combined stress (low P, withholding irrigation). Under combined stress, a significant reduction in gas exchange traits (photosynthesis, stomatal conductance, transpiration, instantaneous water use efficiency) and P uptake in seed and shoot was observed under combined stress as compared to individual stresses. Among accessions, IC488526 was most sensitive while IC333090 and IC507340 exhibited tolerance to individual or combined stress. The water balance and low P adaptation traits like membrane stability index, relative water content, specific leaf weight, organic acid exudation, biomass, grain yield, and P uptake can be used as physiological markers to evaluate for agronomic performance. Accessions with considerable tolerance to low P and drought stress can be either used as ‘donors’ in Vigna breeding program or cultivated in areas with limited P and water availability or both. Full article

Peat is a common substrate used for the cultivation of potted plants. However, the use of peat in horticulture has recently been questioned from an environmental standpoint, since it is a non-renewable resource and plays a major role in atmospheric CO₂ sequestration. The aim of this work was to assess the potentialities of substrates obtained from vermicompost, compost and anaerobic digestion processes to partially substitute peat for sage (Salvia officinalis L.) cultivation. Therefore, we planned an experiment to assess the effect of these substrates on essential oil (EO) yield and composition, as well as on leaf nutrients concentration of sage plants. The three substrates were mixed with commercial peat (Radicom) at a ratio of 40% of alternative substrates and 40% of commercial peat. The chemical properties of the alternative substrates did not affect the leaf content of macro and micronutrients, as well as of heavy metals. Moreover, the EO yield and quality was not affected by the substrates and did not differ among them. Results provided evidence that the three alternative substrates can be used to partially substitute peat in soilless cultivation of sage plants. However, due to the higher values of the electrical conductivity of the substrates obtained from composting and anaerobic digestion processes, such substrates must be used with caution. Full article

Plant bioactive compounds (PBC) are widespread in the plant kingdom, including in forage species, but their impact on silage fermentation and ruminant use of PBC-containing silage has been under-researched. The beneficial effects of PBC include plant-protein protection against excessive degradation by tannins or polyphenol oxidase leading to reduced soluble nitrogen (N) and better N use efficiency by animals, reduced emissions of pollutants such as enteric methane (CH₄), improved animal health through antimicrobial, anthelmintic or antioxidant activities, and positive effects on animal product quality—especially greater increased polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) content. However, there are still gaps in the research that require an interdisciplinary effort to ensure a balanced approach that co-addresses the economic, environmental and health pillars of sustainability. Here we review the potential offered by PBC to improve silage quality, nutrient use efficiency, performances and health of ruminants, and product quality. In addition, we use an example of cross-fertilization between disciplines to show that incorporating PBC-containing legume species in grass silage can provide multiple and additive effects from silage fermentation to product quality. Full article

The present work reveals the beneficial role of sodium nitroprusside (SNP; NO donor concentration: 50 and 100 µM) in mitigation of water stress accompanied by a reduction in viral disease incidence in tomato plants subjected to deficit irrigation. The plants were grown under two irrigation regimes: well-watered (WW; irrigated after the depletion of 55–60% of available soil water) and water deficit (WD; irrigated after the depletion of 85–90% of available soil water) in two seasons of 2018 and 2019. The results indicated that under water stress conditions, plant growth, chlorophyll, relative water content (RWC), and fruit yield were decreased. Conversely, water stress significantly increased the MDA, proline, soluble sugars, and antioxidant enzymes’ activities. Moreover, it was obvious a negligible increase in the fruit content from NO₂ and NO₃. Water-deficit stress, however, had a positive impact on reducing the percentage of viral disease (TMV and TYLCV) incidence on tomato plants. Similarly, SNP application in the form of foliar spray significantly reduced the disease incidence, the severity, and the relative concentrations of TMV and TYLCV in tomato plants raised under both WW and WD conditions. The treatment of SNP at 100 µM achieved better results and could be recommended to induce tomato plant tolerance to water stress. Thus, the present work highlights the role of NO (SNP) in the alleviation of water stress in tomato plants and subsequent reduction in viral disease incidence during deficit irrigation. Full article

The interest in natural phenolic compounds has increased because of their attractive use especially as antioxidant and antimicrobial agents in foods. The large content in phenolic compounds of interest in Santolina chamaecyparissus L. (S. chamaecyparissus) makes this plant a target source that is worthy of note. In this work, new extraction technologies comprising ultrasound (UAE) and microwave (MAE) assisted extraction of the phenolic compounds in S. chamaecyparissus have been developed, optimized, and compared. Several extraction factors have been optimized based on a Box-Behnken design. Such optimized factors include the percentage of methanol in water (25–75%), the temperature (10–70 °C), the ultrasound amplitude (20–80%), the ultrasound cycle (0.2–1 s), the solvent pH (2–7) and the solvent-sample ratio (5/0.2–15/0.2 mL/g) with regard to UAE, while the percentage of methanol in water (50–100%), the temperature (50–100 °C), the pH (2–7) and the solvent-sample ratio (5/0.2–15/0.2 mL/g) were optimized for MAE. The solvent composition was the most influential parameter both on MAEs (64%) and UAEs (74%). The extraction optimum time was established as 15 min for MAE and 25 min for UAE. Five major phenolic compounds were detected and identified by Ultra-High-Performance Liquid Chromatography—Quadrupole Time of Flight—Mass Spectrometry (UHPLC-QToF-MS) in the extracts: chlorogenic acid, quercetin 3-O-galactoside, quercetin 3-O-glucoside, isoorientin, and cynarin. With the exception of chlorogenic acid, the other four compounds have been identified for the first time in S. chamaecyparissus. The findings have confirmed that MAE is a significantly more efficient extraction method than UAE to extract phenolic compounds from S. chamaecyparissus. Full article

The study assessed the changes in the quality and physical and chemical parameters of apples of four cultivars (‘Gala’, ‘Idared’, ‘Topaz’, ‘Red Prince’) subjected to mechanical vibration during transport under model conditions and after storage (shelf-life). Quality changes in apples were evaluated based on skin and flesh colour, total soluble solids, dry matter, firmness, titratable acidity, pH value, total polyphenol content, and antioxidant capacity. The vibration applied at a frequency of 28 Hz caused changes in the above parameters, which were visible also after storage and depended on the cultivar, but often did not show any clear trend or direction or were not statistically significant. The values of the total colour difference factor ΔE showed considerable variations in the skin colour but only small variations in the flesh colour of individual cultivars. Vibration resulted in a decrease in firmness. Variations in dry matter, total soluble solids, pH, and titratable acidity were small, often insignificant. Mechanical vibration and storage led to an increase in the polyphenol content and antioxidant capacity of all studied cultivars. The greatest stability of quality parameters, relatively high content of bioactive compounds, and antioxidant capacity were observed for ‘Red Prince’. The lowest quality parameters were noted for ‘Gala’. The analysed cultivars continued to show a high level of antioxidant capacity after treatment, which allows the conclusion that they remain a good source of bioactive compounds after transport and short-term storage. Full article

The olive tree (Olea europaea L.) is an ancient traditional crop in the Mediterranean Basin. In the Mediterranean region, traditional olive orchards are distinguishable by their prevailing climatic conditions. Olive trees are indeed considered one of the most suitable and best-adapted species to the Mediterranean-type climate. However, new challenges are predicted to arise from climate change, threatening this traditional crop. The Mediterranean Basin is considered a climate change “hotspot,” as future projections hint at considerable warming and drying trends. Changes in olive tree suitability have already been reported over the last few decades. In this context, climate change may become particularly challenging for olive growers. The growing evidence for significant climate change in the upcoming decades urges adaptation measures to be taken. To effectively cope with the projected changes, both short and long-term adaptation strategies must be timely planned by the sector stakeholders and decision-makers to adapt for a warmer and dryer future. The current manuscript is devoted to illustrating the main impacts of climate change on olive tree cultivation in the Mediterranean Basin, by reviewing the most recent studies on this subject. Additionally, an analysis of possible adaptation strategies against the potentially negative impacts of climate change was also performed. Full article

The primary objectives of modern agriculture includes the environmental sustainability, low production costs, improved plants’ resilience to various biotic and abiotic stresses, and high sowing seed value. Delayed and inconsistent field emergence poses a significant threat in the production of agri-crop, especially during drought and adverse weather conditions. To open new routes of nutrients’ acquisition and revolutionizing the adapted solutions, stewardship plans will be needed to address these questions. One approach is the identification of plant based bioactive molecules capable of altering plant metabolism pathways which may enhance plant performance in a brief period of time and in a cost-effective manner. A biostimulant is a plant material, microorganism, or any other organic compound that not only improves the nutritional aspects, vitality, general health but also enhances the seed quality performance. They may be effectively utilized in both horticultural and cereal crops. The biologically active substances in biostimulant biopreparations are protein hydrolysates (PHs), seaweed extracts, fulvic acids, humic acids, nitrogenous compounds, beneficial bacterial, and fungal agents. In this review, the state of the art and future prospects for biostimulant seedlings are reported and discussed. Biostimulants have been gaining interest as they stimulate crop physiology and biochemistry such as the ratio of leaf photosynthetic pigments (carotenoids and chlorophyll), enhanced antioxidant potential, tremendous root growth, improved nutrient use efficiency (NUE), and reduced fertilizers consumption. Thus, all these properties make the biostimulants fit for internal market operations. Furthermore, a special consideration has been given to the application of biostimulants in intensive agricultural systems that minimize the fertilizers’ usage without affecting quality and yield along with the limits imposed by European Union (EU) regulations. Full article

Stomata, the microscopic pores surrounded by a pair of guard cells on the surfaces of leaves and stems, play an essential role in regulating the gas exchange between a plant and the surrounding atmosphere. Stomatal development and opening are significantly influenced by environmental conditions, both in the short and long term. The rapid rate of current climate change has been affecting stomatal responses, as a new balance between photosynthesis and water-use efficiency has to be found. Understanding the mechanisms involved in stomatal regulation and adjustment provides us with new insights into the ability of stomata to process information and evolve over time. In this review, we summarize the recent advances in research on the underlying mechanisms of the interaction between environmental factors and stomatal development and opening. Specific emphasis is placed on the environmental factors including light, CO₂ concentration, ambient temperature, and relative humidity, as these factors play a significant role in understanding the impact of global climate change on plant development. Full article

The aim of this article is to present the issues related to the significance of microorganisms in the mineralization of crop residues and the influence of environmental factors on the rate of this process. Crop residues play a very important role in agriculture because they can be used both as an environment-friendly waste management strategy and as a means of improving soil organic matter. The inclusion of crop residues in the soil requires appropriate management strategies that support crop production and protect the quality of surface water and groundwater. Crops need nutrients for high yields; however, they can only absorb ionic forms of elements. At this point, the microorganisms that convert organically bound nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur into soluble NH₄⁺, NO₃⁻, H₂PO₄⁻, HPO₄²⁻, and SO₄²⁻ ions are helpful. Mineralization is the transformation of organic compounds into inorganic ones, which is a biological process that depends on temperature, rainfall, soil properties, the chemical composition of crop residues, the structure and composition of microbial communities, and the C:N ratio in soil after the application of plant matter. An adjustment of the values of these factors enables us to determine the rate and direction of the mineralization of crop residues in soil. Full article

Agrivoltaic systems are a strategic and innovative approach to combine solar photovoltaic (PV)-based renewable energy generation with agricultural production. Recognizing the fundamental importance of farmer adoption in the successful diffusion of the agrivoltaic innovation, this study investigates agriculture sector experts’ perceptions on the opportunities and barriers to dual land-use systems. Using in-depth, semistructured interviews, this study conducts a first study to identify challenges to farmer adoption of agrivoltaics and address them by responding to societal concerns. Results indicate that participants see potential benefits for themselves in combined solar and agriculture technology. The identified barriers to adoption of agrivoltaics, however, include: (i) desired certainty of long-term land productivity, (ii) market potential, (iii) just compensation and (iv) a need for predesigned system flexibility to accommodate different scales, types of operations, and changing farming practices. The identified concerns in this study can be used to refine the technology to increase adoption among farmers and to translate the potential of agrivoltaics to address the competition for land between solar PV and agriculture into changes in solar siting, farming practice, and land-use decision-making. Full article

Increased energy demands in today’s world have led to the exploitation of fossil resources as fuel. Fossil resources are not only on the verge of extinction but also causing environmental and economic issues. Due to these reasons, scientists have started focusing their interest on other eco-friendly processes to biofuel and recently, second-generation biorefinery is gaining much more attention. In second-generation biorefinery, the main objective is the valorization of lignocellulosic biomass cost-effectively. Therefore, many scientists started different bioprocessing techniques like Consolidated Bioprocessing (CBP) to produce ethanol by using a single or plethora of microorganisms to produce ethanol in a single process. In this review, in-depth study on CBP is assessed as well as biofuel’s socio-economic value and a brief study of biorefineries. The study not only involves innovative approaches used in CBP but their effect on society and economic aspects. Full article

Composting has become a preferable option to treat organic wastes to obtain a final stable sanitized product that can be used as an organic amendment. From home composting to big municipal waste treatment plants, composting is one of the few technologies that can be practically implemented at any scale. This review explores some of the essential issues in the field of composting/compost research: on one hand, the main parameters related to composting performance are compiled, with especial emphasis on the maturity and stability of compost; on the other hand, the main rules of applying compost on crops and other applications are explored in detail, including all the effects that compost can have on agricultural land. Especial attention is paid to aspects such as the improvement of the fertility of soils once compost is applied, the suppressor effect of compost and some negative experiences of massive compost application. Full article

This study was conducted to establish a weed management system based on the sequential application of pre-emergence (PRE) and post-emergence (POST) herbicides for soybean production in Primorsky krai. Field experiments were conducted for two years in a field located in Bogatyrka, Primorsky krai, Russia (N43°49′, E131°36′). No herbicide application resulted in significant soybean yield loss, 0.03–0.3 t ha⁻¹, which is more than 91.6% yield loss compared with that of the weed-free plot. The PRE application of acetochlor showed good weed control efficacy (greater than 90% weed control) with acceptable soybean safety (less than 10% soybean damage), while the other PRE herbicides performed poorly in terms of weed control. The POST application of bentazon + acifluorfen, bentazon, and imazamox at 30 days after soybean sowing (DAS) showed good weed control efficacy with good soybean safety. Neither the PRE nor POST application alone showed a sufficient soybean yield protection, resulting in much lower soybean yield than the weed-free plot. The sequential application of acetochlor (PRE), followed by either bentazon + acifluorfen (POST) at 30 DAS in 2012 or bentazon + imazamox (POST) at 60 DAS in 2013 showed the best performance in soybean yields, 1.7 t and 1.9 t ha⁻¹, respectively, provided with 724.5 US$ and 1155.6 US$ ha⁻¹ of economic returns. For alternative PRE herbicides of acetochlor, which is now banned, our tests of the sequential application of S-metolachlor with other POST herbicides and the sole application of other PRE herbicides revealed that S-metolachlor and clomazone could also be considered. Our results thus demonstrate that the sequential applications of PRE and POST herbicides should be incorporated into the weed management system for soybean production in Primorsky krai, Russia. Full article

Agroforestry systems (AFSs) are promoted as environmentally friendly and climate-change-resilient cultivation systems with the potential of increasing ecosystem services. Especially under temperate climatic conditions, the implementation in agricultural practice is low so far, inter alia due to the lack of knowledge regarding longer-term effects of such systems. This study investigated biomass yields and crop development during the second rotation of an alley cropping system with willows (clone “Tordis” ((Salix schwerinii x S. viminalis) x S. vim.)) and grassland that was established in March 2011, as reported in a former study of the authors. Two grassland swards (white clover grass (Lolium perenne L. and Trifolium repens L.) (CG) and a diversity mixture with 32 plant species (DIV)) were proven in an intensive (3/4 cuts per year) and extensive management system (two cuts per year). Total yield (sum of three years) of AFS increased substantially in the second rotation (year four to six after establishment of the AFS). This was particularly due to a fivefold increase in woody biomass. At the same time, yields of grassland biomass decreased slightly. Biomass of CG outperformed DIV, especially in the intensive managed systems with a dry matter (DM) yield of 18 t ha⁻¹, compared to 12.6 t ha⁻¹. However, AFS grassland yields were always lower than yields of reference areas with grassland in pure stand. Nevertheless, lower yields are probably caused by competition effects between woody crops and grassland. Grassland yields along transects across the grassland alleyways showed a strong decrease in the border areas in all treatments. Higher grassland yields in the alley center did not compensate yield reductions in border areas. Furthermore, the botanical composition of grassland was modified in border areas with reduced legume DM contribution and increases of both grasses and forbs. Thus, the width of grassland alleys with 9 m caused strong competition effects by the willows. Full article

In China, the quantity of nitrogen fertilizer applied is large, but as a consequence of a high level of loss, its utilization rate is low. Compared to common rice, the new giant rice has interesting characteristics, namely high biological yield and good efficient use of fertilizer. However, it becomes urgent to further consider the appropriate rate of nitrogen fertilizer to be applied. The giant rice varieties Feng5 and Feng6 were set up in a pot experiment and a field experiment under five doses of nitrogen fertilizers, namely, 0 kg·ha⁻¹ (CK), 75 kg·ha⁻¹ (T1), 150 kg·ha⁻¹ (T2), 225 kg·ha⁻¹ (T3) and 300 kg·ha⁻¹ (T4). Parameters such as leaf area index (LAI), lodging index (LI), nitrogen utilization rate, photosynthesis rate and grain yield were measured. The results showed that with the increase of nitrogen dose in a certain range, LAI, plant height, the number of tillers, net photosynthetic rate (NPn), the transpiration rate (Tr), and the grain yield increased while the lodging index (LI), the nitrogen agronomic utilization rate (AE) and nitrogen partial productivity (PFPN) decreased. Additionally, with the increase of nitrogen application, the grain yield index (HI) and nitrogen contribution rate (FCRN) of rice presented a parabolic trend. Full article

Bayberry is an attractive, nutritious, and popular fruit in China. The plant fungal pathogen Pestalotiopsis versicolor XJ27 is the causative agent of bayberry twig blight disease, which severely affects bayberry production. Traditional control techniques, such as chemical fungicides, are being used to control this disease; however, these techniques cause environmental and health hazards. In this study, we screened sweet potato rhizospheric bacteria with biocontrol potentials against P. versicolor XJ27, the bayberry twig blight pathogen. Ten isolates showed inhibition; Bacillus siamensis S3 and Bacillus tequilensis S5 showed the highest fungal growth inhibition. The antagonistic bacterial culture suspensions of S3 and S5 inhibited the mycelial growth by 82.9% and 76.2%, respectively. Their extracellular culture filtrates had mycelial growth inhibition of 86.8% and 82.2%, respectively. In detached leaf assay, the extracellular culture filtrates of S3 and S5 inhibited the size of the leaf lesion by 82.3% and 76.2%, respectively. SEM and TEM imaging showed a severe hyphal-damaged structure caused by the antagonistic bacteria. The fungal inhibition mechanisms might employ the hydrolytic enzymes and lipopeptides produced by the bacteria. Both the S3 and S5 have chitinase and protease activity; they produce a series of lipopeptides such as surfactin, iturin, and mycosubtilin. Therefore, we can suggest these bacteria as biocontrol agents for bayberry twig blight disease as an alternative to fungicides based upon their attributes of antifungal activity. Full article

The chemical properties and enzymatic activity of the surface soil horizon were compared between an organic farm (OF) (crop rotation with legume plants, fertilisation with manure) and a conventional farm (CF) (simplified crop rotation, mineral fertilisation, chemical crop protection products). In the years 2001-2017 on the OF (near the village of Juchowo, northern Poland), a reduced tillage system (ploughless) was used, while plough cultivation was used on a CF located in its immediate vicinity. The parameters used to assess the properties of soils were: particle size composition, pH, total organic carbon (TOC) and total nitrogen (TN), dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and dissolved organic nitrogen (DON). The activity of dehydrogenases (DEH), catalase (CAT), alkaline phosphatase (AlP) and acid phosphatase (AcP) and the content of easily extractable glomalin-related soil protein (EEGRSP) were also determined. Sixteen years of soil use in accordance with ecological principles significantly increased the average content of TOC, NT, DOC and DON. Soil samples rich in TOC and DOC showed significantly higher DEH and AcP activity, and EEGRSP content. Statistical analysis showed that the activity of DEH, AlP and CAT in the soil was significantly higher for the OF than for the conventional cultivation system. Limiting soil cultivation procedures on the OF improved the balance of soil organic matter (SOM) and pH value, and significantly increased the content of EEGRSP as compared to the cultivation system used on the CF. Full article

Insect pests represent a major global challenge to important agricultural crops. Insecticides are often applied to combat such pests, but their use has caused additional challenges such as environmental contamination and human health issues. Over millions of years, plants have evolved natural defense mechanisms to overcome insect pests and pathogens. One such mechanism is the production of natural repellents or specialized metabolites like glucosinolates. There are three types of glucosinolates produced in the order Brassicales: aliphatic, indole, and benzenic glucosinolates. Upon insect herbivory, a “mustard oil bomb” consisting of glucosinolates and their hydrolyzing enzymes (myrosinases) is triggered to release toxic degradation products that act as insect deterrents. This review aims to provide a comprehensive summary of glucosinolate biosynthesis, the “mustard oil bomb”, and how these metabolites function in plant defense against pathogens and insects. Understanding these defense mechanisms will not only allow us to harness the benefits of this group of natural metabolites for enhancing pest control in Brassicales crops but also to transfer the “mustard oil bomb” to non-glucosinolate producing crops to boost their defense and thereby reduce the use of chemical pesticides. Full article

Prolific growth of weeds, especially when followed by abundant rainfall, is common in Texas farmlands during early winter and progresses into spring when farmers begin chiseling and disking operations for spring-seeded cropping. This research sought to develop aerial application technologies designed to control unwanted vegetation in croplands left fallow until spring. The aerial nozzles used in the study were conventional hydraulic (CP), rotary atomizer, and electrostatically (ES) charged nozzles. Glyphosate at 0.4145 kg ae·ha⁻¹ was applied on weeds using a fixed-wing aircraft equipped with various aerial nozzles used as treatments. The spray application rate for the conventional and rotary atomizer nozzles was 28.1 L·ha⁻¹, while that for the ES charged nozzle was 9.4 L·ha⁻¹. Aerial and ground-based remote sensing and visual estimates quantified weed vigor and canopy health. Both the CP and rotary atomizer nozzles were efficacious in suppressing weeds. ES charged on nozzles at one-third of the spray application rate of the CP and the rotary atomizer nozzles were equally effective in reducing weed vigor. More aerially applied replicated field research trials conducted over time and space are needed to unravel the differences between aerial spray nozzle technologies for controlling weed populations in Texas farmlands. Full article

Advances in electromagnetic sensor technologies in recent years have made automated irrigation scheduling a reality through the use of state-of-the-art soil moisture sensing devices. However, correct sensor positioning and interpretation of the measurements are key to the successful implementation of these management systems. The aim of this study is to establish guidelines for soil moisture sensor placement to support irrigation scheduling, taking into account the physiological response of the plant. The experimental work was carried out in Vegas Bajas del Guadiana (Extremadura, Spain) on a drip-irrigated experimental orchard of the early-maturing Japanese plum cultivar “Red Beaut”. Two irrigation treatments were established: control and drying. The control treatment was scheduled to cover crop water needs. In the drying treatment, the fruit trees were irrigated as in control, except in certain periods (preharvest and postharvest) in which irrigation was suspended (drying cycles). Over 3 years (2015–2017), a series of plant parameters were analyzed in relation to the measurements provided by a battery of frequency domain reflectometry probes installed in different positions with respect to tree and dripper: midday stem water potential (Ψstem), sap flow, leaf stomatal conductance, net leaf photosynthesis and daily fraction of intercepted photosynthetically active radiation. After making a comparison of these measurements as indicators of plant water status, Ψstem was found to be the physiological parameter that detected water stress earliest. The drying cycles were very useful to select the probe positions that provided the best information for irrigation management and to establish a threshold in the different phases of the crop below which detrimental effects could be caused to the crop. With respect to the probes located closest to the drippers, a drop in the relative soil water content (RSWC) below 0.2 would not be advisable for “non-stress” scheduling in the preharvest period. When no deficit irrigation strategies are applied in the postharvest period, the criteria are similar to those of preharvest. However, the probes located between the dripper at 0.15 and 0.30 m depth provide information on moderate water stress if the RSWC values falls below 0.2. The severe tree water stress was detected below 0.1 RSWC in probes located at 60 cm depth from this same position. Full article

Small-scale farms represent about 80% of the farming area of China, in a context where they need to produce economic and environmentally sustainable food. The objective of this work was to define management zone (MZs) for a village by comparing the use of crop yield proxies derived from historical satellite images with soil information derived from remote sensing, and the integration of these two data sources. The village chosen for the study was Wangzhuang village in Quzhou County in the North China Plain (NCP) (30°51′55″ N; 115°02′06″ E). The village was comprised of 540 fields covering approximately 177 ha. The subdivision of the village into three or four zones was considered to be the most practical for the NCP villages because it is easier to manage many fields within a few zones rather than individually in situations where low mechanization is the norm. Management zones defined using Landsat satellite data for estimation of the Green Normalized Vegetation Index (GNDVI) was a reasonable predictor (up to 45%) of measured variation in soil nitrogen (N) and organic carbon (OC). The approach used in this study works reasonably well with minimum data but, in order to improve crop management (e.g., sowing dates, fertilization), a simple decision support system (DSS) should be developed in order to integrate MZs and agronomic prescriptions. Full article

Two factorial field experiments were carried out between 2003 and 2018 in the Experimental Stations in Eastern and Western Poland using four crop rotations with winter oilseed rape, winter wheat, maize and spring barley. The initial value of phosphorus (P) in Grabów soil was 69.8 mg P·kg⁻¹ soil and in Baborówko soil it was 111.3 mg P·kg⁻¹ soil (Egner-Riehm Double-Lactate DL). P fertilizer was added annually at 39 kg P·ha⁻¹ under winter oilseed rape, 35 kg P·ha⁻¹ under maize and 31 kg P·ha⁻¹ under wheat and barley using superphosphate and nitrogen (N), which was added at five levels (30–250 kg N·ha⁻¹) per year as ammonium nitrate in addition to controls with no added fertilizer. Through the several years of the experiment, P fertilizer had no effect on crop N use efficiency (NUE) nor crop productivity. There was significant soil P mining particularly in the high-N fertilizer trials causing a reduction in the content of available soil P by up to 35%. This work recommends that, based on soil P analysis, P fertilizer should not be added to high-P soils. This practice may continue uninterrupted for several years (16 in this case) until the excess soil P has been reduced. This mechanism of removal of “legacy” P from soil has major implications in reducing runoff P into the Baltic Sea drainage area and other water bodies. Full article

In Europe, conservation agriculture (CA) is currently challenged by higher weed pressure, potential glyphosate ban and reduced crop yield. Based on preliminary results and a critical analysis, we provide insights on how to assess the effect of introducing different levels of tillage intensity, after a long-term CA sequence, on weed communities and crop yield. The experiment compared three types of fallow management (ploughing (CT), reduced tillage (RT), no-till with glyphosate (NT)) on four fields after 17 years of no-plough, which ended with 7 years of CA. The introduction of tillage proved to be a major driver of weed communities before weeding (density, richness and composition) in winter wheat. Weed density and species richness before weeding was greatest in RT, intermediate in CT and lowest in NT. The number of grains per ear and crop yield increased with tillage intensity (+11% for RT, +31% for CT). We provide avenues for future research through detailed methods and key references. Differences in winter wheat productivity were possibly related to enhanced soil structure and increased mineralisation of soil organic matter. Potential benefits of occasional ploughing will depend on the density and composition of the newly upwelled weed seedbank, which will need to be assessed before implementing tillage. From a multicriteria perspective, the long-term benefits associated with CA could largely exceed short-term yield increases associated with occasional tillage. Future studies will need to characterize the impact of occasional tillage operations on the long-term multiperformance of CA systems. Full article

Salinity is one of the major issues that limits field crop productivity in an arid and semiarid environment. Therefore, two field trials were carried out over two seasons of 2018 and 2019 to investigate the enhancement of different methods of potassium application (i.e., recommended soil amendment (control; K₂O), seed soaking (SS) and foliar spray (FS) in the form of potassium sulfate (K₂SO₄, 6 mM)) on antioxidant protection, physio-biochemical, yield and quality traits of soybean (cv. Giza 22) grown in normal (electrical conductivity; EC = 2.68 dS m⁻¹) and saline soil (EC = 7.46 dS m⁻¹). Physio-biochemical attributes (total chlorophyll, carotenoids, K⁺ and K⁺/Na⁺ ratios, performance index and catalase (CAT) activity), growth traits (i.e., shoot length, number and area of leaves plant⁻¹ and shoot dry weight), yield and its components and seed quality (number of pods plant⁻¹, 100-seed weight, seed yield ha⁻¹ and seed protein and oil contents) were significantly decreased when soybean plants were grown in saline soil compared with those grown in normal soil. In contrast, activity of enzymatic antioxidants (i.e., superoxide dismutase (SOD), ascorbate peroxidase (APX) and glutathione peroxidase (GPX)), contents of non-enzymatic antioxidants and osmoprotectants (i.e., total soluble sugars, free proline, ascorbic acid and α-tocopherol), Na⁺, Cl⁻, H₂O₂ and malondialdehyde (MDA) were increased in soybean plants grown in saline soil compared with normal soil. However, under salt-stressed conditions, potassium applied through SS or FS significantly enhanced all soybean growth, photosynthetic efficiency, K⁺ content, ratio of K⁺/Na⁺ and activity of CAT, SOD, APX and GPX as well as improved yield and quality traits, while potassium application did not affect the contents of non-enzymatic antioxidants and osmoprotectants. For instance, foliar potassium application (FS) increased seed yield ha⁻¹ by 92.31% and protein content by 63.19% compared with the control under the salt stress condition. In addition, both applications of potassium significantly reduced Na⁺, Cl⁻, H₂O₂ and MDA contents in soybean plants compared with those obtained from control treatments. Exogenous application of K₂SO₄ was more effective than SS at improving soybean physio-biochemical attributes, yield and seed quality traits under soil-salinity stress. Full article

Tree responses to fertilizer management are complex and are influenced by the interactions between the environment, other organisms, and the combined genetics of composite trees. Increased consumer awareness of the environmental impact of agriculture has stimulated research toward increasing nutrient-use efficiency, improving environmental sustainability, and maximizing quality. Here, we highlight recent advancements and identify knowledge gaps in nutrient dynamics across the soil–rhizosphere–tree continuum for fruit crops. Beneficial soil management practices can enhance nutrient uptake and there has been significant progress in the understanding of how roots, microorganisms, and soil interact to enhance nutrient acquisition in the rhizosphere. Characterizing root architecture, in situ, still remains one of the greatest research challenges in perennial fruit research. However, the last decade has advanced the characterization of root nutrient uptake and transport in plants but studies in tree fruit crops have been limited. Calcium, and its balance relative to other macronutrients, has been a primary focus for mineral nutrient research because of its important contributions to the development of physiological disorders. However, annual elemental redistribution makes these interactions complex. The development of new approaches for measuring nutrient movement in soil and plant systems will be critical for achieving sustainable production of high-quality fruit in the future. Full article

The segmentation and classification of leaves in plant images are a great challenge, especially when several leaves are overlapping in images with a complicated background. In this paper, the segmentation and classification of leaf images with a complicated background using deep learning are studied. First, more than 2500 leaf images with a complicated background are collected and artificially labeled with target pixels and background pixels. Two-thousand of them are fed into a Mask Region-based Convolutional Neural Network (Mask R-CNN) to train a model for leaf segmentation. Then, a training set that contains more than 1500 training images of 15 species is fed into a very deep convolutional network with 16 layers (VGG16) to train a model for leaf classification. The best hyperparameters for these methods are found by comparing a variety of parameter combinations. The results show that the average Misclassification Error ($ME$) of 80 test images using Mask R-CNN is 1.15%. The average accuracy value for the leaf classification of 150 test images using VGG16 is up to 91.5%. This indicates that these methods can be used to segment and classify the leaf image with a complicated background effectively. It could provide a reference for the phenotype analysis and automatic classification of plants. Full article

Drylands are stressful environment for plants growth and production. Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) acts as a rampart against the adverse impacts of drought stress in drylands and enhances plant growth and is helpful in agricultural sustainability. PGPR improves drought tolerance by implicating physio-chemical modifications called rhizobacterial-induced drought endurance and resilience (RIDER). The RIDER response includes; alterations of phytohormonal levels, metabolic adjustments, production of bacterial exopolysaccharides (EPS), biofilm formation, and antioxidant resistance, including the accumulation of many suitable organic solutes such as carbohydrates, amino acids, and polyamines. Modulation of moisture status by these PGPRs is one of the primary mechanisms regulating plant growth, but studies on their effect on plant survival are scarce in sandy/desert soil. It was found that inoculated plants showed high tolerance to water-deficient conditions by delaying dehydration and maintaining the plant’s water status at an optimal level. PGPR inoculated plants had a high recovery rate after rewatering interms of similar biomass at flowering compared to non-stressed plants. These rhizobacteria enhance plant tolerance and also elicit induced systemic resistance of plants to water scarcity. PGPR also improves the root growth and root architecture, thereby improving nutrient and water uptake. PGPR promoted accumulation of stress-responsive plant metabolites such as amino acids, sugars, and sugar alcohols. These metabolites play a substantial role in regulating plant growth and development and strengthen the plant’s defensive system against various biotic and abiotic stresses, in particular drought stress. Full article

There is growing consideration among farmers and researchers regarding the development of natural herbicides providing sufficient levels of weed control. The aim of the present study was to compare the efficacy of four different pelargonic acid products, three essential oils and two natural products’ mixtures against L. rigidum Gaud., A. sterilis L. and G. aparine L. Regarding grass weeds, it was noticed at 7 days after treatment that PA3 treatment (pelargonic acid 3.102% w/v + maleic hydrazide 0.459% w/v) was the least efficient treatment against L. rigidum and A. sterilis. The mixture of lemongrass oil and pelargonic acid resulted in 77% lower dry weight for L. rigidum in comparison to the control. Biomass reduction reached the level of 90% as compared to the control in the case of manuka oil and the efficacy of manuka oil and pelargonic acid mixture was similar. For sterile oat, weed biomass was recorded between 31% and 33% of the control for lemongrass oil, pine oil, PA1 (pelargonic acid 18.67% + maleic hydrazide 3%) and PA4 (pelargonic acid 18.67%) treatments. In addition, the mixture of manuka oil and pelargonic acid reduced weed biomass by 96% as compared to the control. Regarding the broadleaf species G. aparine, PA4 and PA1 treatments provided a 96–97% dry weight reduction compared to the corresponding value recorded for the untreated plants. PA2 (pelargonic acid 50% w/v) treatment and the mixture of manuka oil and pelargonic acid completely eliminated cleaver plants. The observations made for weed dry weight on the species level were similar to those made regarding plant height values recorded for each species. Further research is needed to study more natural substances and optimize the use of natural herbicides as well as natural herbicides’ mixtures in weed management strategies under different soil and climatic conditions. Full article

The physiology of fruit ripening is defined as either ‘climacteric’ or ‘non-climacteric’. In climacteric fruit respiration during ripening increases until it reaches a peak, which is accompanied by an increase in autocatalytic ethylene production, whereas the respiration of non-climacteric fruit does not increase and they have no requirement for ethylene to complete their ripening. In an attempt to gain further insight into the involvement of autocatalytic ethylene production with the climacteric rise in respiration, tomato fruit were harvested at three defined stages of maturity prior to the climacteric peak (mature green, breaker, and early orange) and immediately exposed to the gaseous molecule 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP). The gene expression profile at each of these stages was monitored after 24 h, using an Affymetrix tomato microarray chip. This approach enabled us to identify ethylene responsive genes that are commonly regulated at early stages of ripening, as well as new candidate genes. In addition, 1-MCP treatment affected the levels of metabolites related to methionine biosynthesis. Methionine feeds climacteric ethylene production and we found that promotors of the genes of enzymes that catalyze the production of homoserine and homocysteine (aspartokinase/homoserine dehydrogenases and cystathionine beta lyase, respectively), precursors in the methionine pathway, contain the AtSR1 binding motif. This binding motif is recognized by ethylene activated transcription factors, hence indicating a role for ethylene in methionine synthesis during early ripening, explaining the autocatalytic ethylene production during subsequent ripening stages. Full article

Estimations of world population growth urgently require improving the efficiency of agricultural processes, as well as improving safety for people and environmental sustainability, which can be opposing characteristics. Industry is pursuing these objectives by developing the concept of the “intelligent factory” (also referred to as the “smart factory”) and, by studying the similarities between industry and agriculture, we can exploit the achievements attained in industry for agriculture. This article focuses on studying those similarities regarding robotics to advance agriculture toward the concept of “intelligent farms” (smart farms). Thus, this article presents some characteristics that agricultural robots should gain from industrial robots to attain the intelligent farm concept regarding robot morphologies and features as well as communication, computing, and data management techniques. The study, restricted to robotics for outdoor farms due to the fact that robotics for greenhouse farms deserves a specific study, reviews different structures for robot manipulators and mobile robots along with the latest techniques used in intelligent factories to advance the characteristics of robotics for future intelligent farms. This article determines similarities, contrasts, and differences between industrial and field robots and identifies some techniques proven in the industry with an extraordinary potential to be used in outdoor farms such as those derived from methods based on artificial intelligence, cyber-physical systems, Internet of Things, Big Data techniques, and cloud computing procedures. Moreover, different types of robots already in use in industry and services are analyzed and their advantages in agriculture reported (parallel, soft, redundant, and dual manipulators) as well as ground and aerial unmanned robots and multi-robot systems. Full article

The overexploitation of groundwater and the excessive application of nitrogen (N) fertilizer under the intensive double cropping system are responsible for the groundwater level decline and potential contamination in the North China Plain (NCP). Alternative cropping systems have the potential to alleviate current groundwater and N problems in the region, while there are limited studies simultaneously focusing on the impact of a change of cropping systems on crop yields, groundwater consumption, and N leaching. In this study, Field observed experiments of double-cropping system (i.e., winter wheat–summer maize) and mono-cropping system (early sowing maize) were used to calibrate and validate the Root Zone Water Quality Model (RZWQM2). Then, the validated RZWQM2 model was used to evaluate the long-term crop growth and environmental impact under the local winter wheat–summer maize rotation system with practical irrigation (WW-SM_pi) and auto-irrigation (WW-SM_ai), and three alternative cropping systems (single early maize, SEM; winter wheat–summer maize and single early maize, WW-SM-SEM; winter wheat-summer maize and double single early maize, WW-SM-2SEM). The net consumption of groundwater and N leaching under WW-SM_pi were 226.9 mm yr⁻¹ and 79.7 kg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹, respectively. Under the local rotation system, auto-irrigation could increase crop yields and N leaching. Compared with the WW-SM_ai, the alternative cropping systems, WW-SM-SEM, WW-SM-2SEM, and SEM, significantly decreased the net consumption of groundwater by 49.3%, 63.0%, and 97.8%, respectively (147.5–292.9 mm), and N leaching by 53.5%, 67.5%, and 89.6%, respectively (50.0–83.7 kg ha⁻¹). However, the yields of the three alternative cropping systems were reduced by less than 30% (12.2%, 20.1%, and 29.7%, respectively). The simulated results indicated that appropriately decreasing the planting frequency of winter wheat is an effective approach to reduce groundwater overexploitation and N contamination with a relatively limited reduction in grain yields. The results could provide a scientific basis for cropping system adjustment in guaranteeing sustainable regional water and grain policy. Full article

Chlorophyll fluorescence (CF), growth parameters, phytochemical contents [proline, chlorophyll, ascorbic acid, total phenol content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC)], and antioxidant activities were investigated in lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) seedlings grown under different sodium chloride (NaCl) concentrations (0, 50, 100, 200, 300, and 400 mM) in a controlled environment for eight days. The parameters were evaluated at two days intervals. Almost of the CF and growth parameters as well as phytochemicals were significantly affected by both NaCl concentrations and progressive treatment schedule. The maximum quantum yield (Fv/Fm), effective quantum yield of photochemical energy conversion in PSII [Y(PSII)], coefficient of photochemical quenching (qP), coefficient of non-photochemical quenching (qN), and ratio of fluorescence decline (Rfd) showed decrements only at the highest saline concentration (400 mM), whereas the quantum yield of non-regulated energy dissipation in PSII [Y(NO)] exhibited a dissipation trend. All the growth parameters decreased with increasing NaCl concentrations, showing the highest decrease (~8 fold) in shoot fresh weight, compared to control seedlings. Proline significantly increased with increasing NaCl concentration and treatment time. Other phytochemicals decreased with the increase in NaCl concentration and reached their lowest at 400 mM. Overall, the results showed major changes in all parameters when the seedlings were grown at a NaCl concentration of 400 mM. The present findings will be useful for understanding the differential effect of NaCl concentrations in lettuce seedlings, and also might be useful to optimize the NaCl concentrations in other crops grown in controlled environmental conditions. Full article

Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) is a serious problem in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and other parts of the world. Understanding the effect of marker-based improvement (MARS) of two maize synthetics (HGA and HGB) representing different heterotic groups on their agronomic performance, carotenoid content, and combining abilities could help identify suitable sources to develop divergent inbred lines for optimizing heterosis. This study involved three selection cycles each of the two synthetics and their nine varietal-cross hybrids together with a released check variety was conducted across four diverse locations in Nigeria in 2018 and 2019. Environment and hybrid effects were significant on grain yield and other agronomic traits as well as provitamin A content and other carotenoids. Genetic improvement per cycle of MARS in the parental synthetics was 15% for provitamin A, 25% for β-carotene and 26% for lutein in HGA and 4% for grain yield, 3% for zeaxanthin and 5% for α-carotene in HGB. Grain yield and agronomic traits of the two maize synthetics were controlled by additive and non-additive gene effects, while provitamin A content and other carotenoids were mainly controlled by additive gene effects. Some selection cycles which were high in grain yield and provitamin A content were identified as potential sources of new and divergent maize inbred lines in maize breeding programs. Some varietal-cross hybrids expressed significant mid-parent heterosis for grain yield and moderate mid-parent heterosis for provitamin A, β-carotene and xanthophylls. These hybrids could be commercialized at reasonable prices to small-scale farmers in rural areas that are most affected by vitamin A deficiency. Full article

Viral plant diseases represent a serious problem in agricultural production, causing large shortages in the production of food crops. Eco-friendly approaches are used in controlling viral plant infections, such as biocontrol agents. In the current study, Streptomyces cellulosae isolate Actino 48 is tested as a biocontrol agent for the management of tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) and inducing tomato plant systemic resistance under greenhouse conditions. Foliar application of a cell pellet suspension of Actino 48 (2 × 10⁷ cfu. mL⁻¹) is performed at 48 h before inoculation with TMV. Peroxidase activity, chitinase activity, protein content, and the total phenolic compounds are measured in tomato leaves at 21 dpi. On the other hand, the TMV accumulation level and the transcriptional changes of five tomato defense-related genes (PAL, PR-1, CHS, PR-3, and PR-2) are studied. Treatment with Actino 48 before TMV inoculation (48 h) induced tomato plants to increase their levels of peroxidase and chitinase enzymes. Furthermore, a significant increase in the concentration of total phenolic compounds was observed in Actino 48 and TMV-treated tomato plants compared to TMV-treated tomato plants alone. Treatment with Actino 48 reduced the TMV accumulation level (53.8%) compared to treatment with the virus alone. Actino 48 induced plant growth, where the fresh and dry weights of tomato plants increased. Additionally, significant increases of the PAL, PR-1, CHS, and PR-3 transcripts were observed. On the other hand, a higher induction of PR-2 was only observed in TMV-treated tomato plants. In conclusion, S. cellulosae isolate Actino 48 can be used as a biocontrol agent for the reduction of symptoms and severity of TMV. Full article

Organic carbon (OC) accumulation in soil mitigates greenhouse gases emission and improves soil health. We aimed to quantify the dynamics of OC stock in soils and to justify technologies that allow annual increasing OC stock in the arable soil layer by 4‰. We based the study on a field experiment established in 1936 in the 9-field crop rotation with a fallow on Chernozem in European Russia. The RothC version 26.3 was used for the reproducing and forecasting OC dynamics. In all fertilizer applications at FYM background, there was a decrease in the OC stock with preferable loss of active OC, except the period 1964–1971 with 2–5‰ annual OC increase. The model estimated the annual C input necessary to maintain OC stock as 1900 kg·ha⁻¹. For increasing OC stocks by 4‰ per year, one should raise input to 2400 kg·ha⁻¹. The simulation was made for 2016–2090 using climate scenarios RCP4.5 and RCP8.5. Crop rotation without fallowing provided an initial increase of 3‰ and 6‰ of stocks in the RCP8.5 and RCP4.5 scenarios accordingly, followed by a loss in accumulated OC. Simulation demonstrates difficulties to increase OC concentration in Chernozems under intensive farming and potential capacity to rise OC stock through yield management. Full article

In this work, we studied the effect of three glyphosate formulations (isopropylamine, ammonium and potassium salts) and two non-ionic adjuvants on the resistance response of two resistant (R1, R2) and one susceptible population of the highly invasive Asteraceae, Conyza sumatrensis, from Southern France vineyards. Only in R1, an amino acid substitution (Pro106Thr) was found in the enzyme 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS). The two adjuvants, in a similar fashion, significantly reduced GR₅₀ values for every population and glyphosate formulation. Without adjuvants, glyphosate as potassium salt was the only formulation able to significantly reduce the GR₅₀ values of every population. For every population, the two adjuvants improved, indistinguishably, leaf retention of the herbicidal solution and the potassium salt formulation led to the highest retention, both with and without the adjuvant added. Uptake responses paralleled those of retention and adjuvant addition was more effective in increasing foliar uptake of the lower performing formulations (isopropylamine and ammonium salts). The allocation pattern of glyphosate among plant compartments was only dependent on population, with R2 retaining most glyphosate in the treated leaf, clearly suggesting the occurrence of a Non-Target Site Resistance (NTSR) mechanism. Results indicate that control of weed populations possessing NTSR mechanisms of resistance to glyphosate may be improved through adequate selection of formulation and adjuvant use. Full article

Background: In a Mediterranean agrosystem of low productivity, a study was carried out on the effects of municipal solid waste compost (MSWC) compared to other organic and inorganic amendments on the production, quality and yield of three potato varieties (Solanum tuberosum L.) and an advanced clone. Method: Simultaneously, the agronomic and nutritional parameters of the potato crop, the degree of bioavailability and the possible risks of heavy metal contamination were studied. Results: Two stages are observed in the yield and content of macro, micronutrients and heavy metals. The addition of all amendments and especially that of urban waste compost increased potato production and the content of macronutrients, micronutrients and heavy metals in the soils of all varieties, showing a progressive accumulation in tubers. Nevertheless, the performance is not maintained over time with a notable decrease during the second stage of its application. Conclusion: Highlighting the potato clone A7677 not only in its performance but also in the concentration of iron, zinc, copper, essential micronutrients for human consumption and especially for populations deficient in these trace elements. Full article