Next Article in Journal
Study of the Photo-Response of Doped GaAs with Aging
Next Article in Special Issue
Effect of a Short-Term Combined Balance and Multidirectional Plyometric Training on Postural Balance and Explosive Performance in U-13 Male and Female Soccer Athletes
Previous Article in Journal
Concrete Structures: Latest Advances and Prospects for a Sustainable Future
Previous Article in Special Issue
The Effects of Concussions on Static Postural Stability
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Applied Sciences
Volume 14
Issue 9
10.3390/app14093805
applsci-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Injury Incidence in Traineras: Analysis of Traditional Rowing by Competitive Level and Gender

by
Patxi León-Guereño
1,
Alfonso Penichet-Tomas
2,*,
Arkaitz Castañeda-Babarro
1 and
Jose M. Jimenez-Olmedo
2
1
Health, Physical Activity and Sports Science Laboratory (HealthPASS), Department of Physical Activity and Sport Science, Faculty of Education and Sport, University of Deusto, 48007 Bilbao, Spain
2
Research Group in Health, Physical Activity, and Sports Technology (Health-Tech), Faculty of Education, University of Alicante, 03690 San Vicente del Raspeig, Spain
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(9), 3805; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14093805
Submission received: 29 March 2024 / Revised: 23 April 2024 / Accepted: 28 April 2024 / Published: 29 April 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applied Biomechanics in Sports Performance, Injury Prevention and Rehabilitation)
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The growing interest in “Traineras”, a traditional competitive rowing modality prevalent in Northern Spain, underscores the need for a comprehensive analysis of the injury incidence associated with this sporting practice. Despite rowing’s significance in the international sports arena and its inclusion since the beginnings of the modern Olympic Games, research into injuries in this sport, especially in traditional modalities such as Traineras, has been limited. This study aimed to identify and describe the predominant injuries among Traineras rowers, analyzing their epidemiology, characteristics, affected body regions, and diagnoses, further differentiated by competitive level and gender. A retrospective survey completed by 773 rowers (24% women, 76% men) participating in various leagues (ACT, ARC1, ARC2, LGT1, LGT2, ETE, and LGT-F) during the season revealed that 68.2% suffered from at least one injury, predominantly due to overuse (91.1% in men, 83.1% in women). The most affected regions were the lower back and shoulders, with the main diagnoses being muscle cramps and tendinitis, showing statistically significant differences between sexes. The findings of this study not only provide a deeper understanding of the etiology and origin of injuries in this sport but also lay the groundwork for developing specific injury prevention plans, thereby contributing to the safety and optimal performance of athletes.

1. Introduction

Rowing sports are categorized into three main disciplines: outdoor flat-water rowing, open water disciplines [1], and indoor variants. Traditional rowing can be considered an open water discipline and often employs a fixed seat, in contrast to the more widespread Olympic sliding-seat rowing, which consequently has been subject to more extensive research [2,3,4]. Given their similarities as sports in relation to the phases and paddling cycle, comparisons between traditional and Olympic rowing have been common in the literature [1,2,5].
Traditional rowing typically involves athletes using a single oar gripped with both hands and oriented either to the port (right) or starboard (left) side. The Olympic category includes events such as the eight (a boat for eight sweep rowers with a coxswain for direction), the four (for four sweep rowers), and the pair (for two sweep rowers), with options for coxed or coxless boats [6]. Despite the diversity of disciplines, all rowing forms require a cyclical movement pattern where the synchronization of leg and arm work is essential for maximizing stroke efficiency and achieving peak performance [7]. Although fixed-seat rowing modalities are widespread throughout the Spanish peninsula [8], Traineras rowing can be considered the modality that has acquired most importance in recent years [9].
In Olympic rowing, all athletes need to perform over 2000 m, women and men, while in Traineras rowing, 5556 m, or three sea miles, must be completed in the shortest possible time during a regatta for males [1,2,3,4,10], and half of this distance, or 2778 m, needs to be completed by women [11]. Moreover, approximately between 5′30″–7′ effort time (200–240 strokes) is required in Olympic rowing depending on the boat type and weather conditions, while 19′–20′ (700–800 strokes) are needed in a Traineras male rowing competition [1,2,10], and 11′–12′ (350–450 strokes) in women regattas, time that can be extended when the sea conditions become rough. Another characteristic that makes traditional rowing different from Olympic rowing is the ciaboga maneuver, in which male Traineras turn around three times and women once in each regatta, which means that the boat loses speed that need to be recovered after each ciaboga [2], instead, in Olympic rowing boats go straight from the beginning to the finish line. Strength-endurance capacity becomes crucial for performance in both, Olympic rowing [12] and traditional rowing [1]. Among the differences while Olympic rowing takes place in calm waters such as rivers or lakes, traditional rowing modalities such as Traineras are mostly played on the sea [1,2,10], and their main characteristic is that the seat is fixed, so rowers do not use a sliding seat to propel on the sea, and instead a more pronounced flex-extension of the trunk is required [1,10].
Among all rowing modalities, Olympic rowing is the most researched worldwide [13], and it can be considered the main reference for many fixed-sit rowing modalities. In Olympic rowing research, different aspects have been analyzed e.g., physiological variables [6,7,14], physical training [6,15,16,17,18], nutrition [17,19,20], anthropometry [21,22,23], psychology [24,25], coaching [24,26], or technical and biomechanical aspects [27,28], seeking to improve athletes’ performance. Likewise, we find how fixed-sit rowing has also been analyzed from different perspectives to seek athletes’ performance [1,8,29]. e.g., form perspectives such as physiology [1,2,5,30,31,32], physical training [33,34,35], nutrition [2,36,37,38], anthropometry [2,3,39,40], leadership and behavioral based investigations [41], psychology [42,43] or biomechanical aspects [2,4].
Despite the investigations carried out to improve athletes’ performance, everything changes when a sports injury occurs, and injuries across sports have been consistently reported [44]. For this reason, sports injuries and their prevention have become a crucial subject of study [45]. The early specialization and the high demand to improve athletes’ performance have contributed to a significant increase in chronic and overuse injuries suffered by different level athletes [46].
Even though a recent investigation shows that team sports have a higher injury rate in Olympic sports than individual sports [47], for example, Olympic rowing is not considered a very harmful sport since it belongs to the group with the lowest incidence of injuries [48,49,50,51,52,53]. Moreover, due to their importance to athletes’ performance and health, the epidemiology of injuries in rowing has been widely analyzed [52], and several investigations have described the incidence of injuries in Olympic rowing [49,54,55,56]. These main injuries are shown in an updated systematic review of injury epidemiology in Olympic rowing [57]. Within the scientific literature related to injuries in rowing, many articles have focused on athletes’ injuries according to rowers’ competitive level or age, with several investigations gathering the main injuries in elite rowing [51,55,58,59,60,61] and many others describing the main injuries age-wise [62], junior [63], collegiate rowers [64,65], or amateur rowers [66]. Likewise, high school rowers [65] and master rowers’ injuries [50] also haven been analyzed. Several investigations show female rowers’ injuries [57,67], while some compared these sport injuries between men and women rowers [59,68], showing a wide map of the main injuries in Olympic rowing.
Among the characteristics or types of injuries of Olympic rowers, mainly overuse, acute (traumatic), and chronic (overuse) injuries have been described [50,51,56,57,62]. Apart from the type, the injury region in the body has also been studied, showing that the highest injury incidence described are low back [56,68,69,70,71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80] and rib stress [67,81,82]. However, other injuries, such as wrist and forearm, knee, iliotibial band, shoulder, hip, and skin conditions [54,56,60] are common in rowing. Among the main injury diagnoses, tenosynovitis, spondylolysis, disk injuries, or stress fractures have been described [49,56,60,62], thus completing the specific injury pattern in this sport. Beyond the characteristics of the cyclic movement in rowing, biomechanics and rowers’ injuries have also been associated in different publications, since the biomechanical analysis of the technique of each sport is connected to the aetiology of the injuries and therefore crucial to be able to subsequently prevent or reduce the effects of these injuries [56,60,69,83]. Moreover, due to the importance of not being injured during an athletic season, injury prevention plans have been released for team sports [45] and in rowing [60,83] to try to reduce the injury rate.
Despite the number of studies that analyze the etiology and injury incidence in Olympic rowing, fixed-sit rowing injuries have been scarcely analyzed [84,85]. A recent investigation in Maltese fixed-sit rowing, compared the musculoskeletal injuries in this rowing modality with a group of Olympic rowers, and results showed that for both, the low back and shoulder were the body regions with the highest injury incidence [84]. In the Spanish context, Mediterranean fixed-sit rowers’ incidence of injury was described, and ankle, low back, and shoulder were the main injured body regions, while sprains and tendinitis were the highest described diagnoses, and overuse injuries occurred the most during, especially during the training period [85]. However, there is currently no research that analyzes the injuries in Traineras rowing. Therefore, due to its importance to athletes’ performance and health, the main objectives of this research will be to describe the characteristics, body region, and incidence of injuries in traditional rowing, creating thus specific injury incidence patterns in Traineras rowing related to gender and competitive level of rowers.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Participants

A retrospective cohort study was carried out with Traineras rowers competing in different competitive leagues: elite (ACT-Eusko Label in men and Euskotren in women) and non-elite (ARC1, ARC2, LGT1, LGT2 in men and ETE, LGT-F in women). The survey was completed by 714 athletes, 389 men and 107 women suffered one or more injuries, while 166 men and 51 women suffered no injuries. The 389 men had a total of 597 injuries, 122 were from elite rowers and 475 were from non-elite rowers. The 107 women had a total of 178 injuries, 49 were from elite rowers and 129 from non-elite rowers. The participants were selected by convenience, and the only inclusion criteria was that they needed to be competing in any of the Traineras leagues during that season. Approval was obtained from the University of Alicante’s Ethics Committee (protocol code UA-2023-06-14_1), and the study was conducted following the ethical principles of the Declaration of Helsinki.

2.2. Questionnaire

The online survey was adapted from a previously validated questionnaire [85], and the tool was readapted with some general and specific questions related to Traineras discipline and divided into different sections. In the first section there is an introduction to the study and informed consent. The second section details demographics and questions in relation to the trajectory of the sportsmen and sportswomen, such as years of experience, competitive level, or Traineras league in which they were competing at that season. In the third section, questions regarding rowers’ injuries, answering first whether they had suffered or not from an injury, are discussed with the option to describe and specify in detail the suffered injuries.

2.3. Procedure

Different rowing clubs and coaches were contacted via email and phone during the competitive season and were provided with detailed information about the study, the objective, and the justification of the investigation. Through direct contact with the coaches, they explained and administered the questionnaire to their rowers. The survey was created using Google Docs technology [86], and it was tested before being released. Athletes received the necessary information about the study before completing the survey and provided written informed consent at the beginning of it. The participating rowers were provided with an email address to be able to ask any questions that they might have while filling out the questionnaire.

2.4. Statistical Analysis

In the current study, the Z-test for the comparison of proportions was employed to analyze the difference between two proportions or percentages in a sample. It will calculate the test statistic for the difference in proportions by approximating the normal distribution. The Z-test is a robust statistical tool that allows us to determine whether the observed differences between proportions are statistically significant or merely a result of chance. The null hypothesis is that the two proportions are equal, while the alternative hypothesis can be two-tailed, left-tailed, or right-tailed. The formula to calculate the Z-test statistic is:
Z = p 1 − p 2 S E D P = p 1 − p 2 p 1 1 − p 1 n 1 + p 2 1 − p 2 n 2
This test is based on the normal approximation of the binomial distribution. We aim to compare two proportions, p1 and p2, observed in two different groups of sizes, n1 and n2, respectively. The Z-statistic follows a normal distribution. The confidence interval is obtained using the formula, where SEDP corresponds to the standard error of the difference in proportions as calculated in the previous formula. If the p-value corresponding to the Z-test statistic is less than the chosen significance level (0.05 for a 95% confidence level), then the null hypothesis can be rejected.

3. Results

A total of 775 injuries were described, 597 by men and 178 by women rowers. Within men rowers, 122 injuries were described by elite athletes, while 475 injuries were reported by non-elite athletes. Among women athletes, 49 injuries were reported by elite athletes, while 129 were reported by non-elite athletes (Table 1).

3.1. Characteristics of Injuries According to Competitive Level and Sex

Table 1 shows a list with characteristics of injuries and different comparisons: the differences for the total sample of injuries between men and women, the differences according to the competitive level, among elite and non-elite rowers, and the differences within each group in injury characteristics. Within the first comparison group among men and women injuries, statistically significant differences were found in high volume and competitive periods (p < 0.01), in the mode, with traumatism and overuse injuries (p < 0.01), at the severity, in 4–7 days and < 21 days (p < 0.05), and for starboard rowers (p < 0.05).
According to competitive level, men showed statistical differences (p < 0.05) in eight characteristics (high volume and competitive period, new injury or recurrent, in the injury severity 8–21 days, in athletes that row at bow and with those rowing in starboard and both sides), while elite and non-elite women’s injuries showed statistical differences (p < 0.05) in the injury mode, traumatism, and overuse (p < 0.05).
Within each analyzed group (period, moment, type, mode, severity, rower position, and boat side), Table 1 shows how there are statistically significant differences within period, timing, type, and mode of injury in the overall male and female samples and at the elite and sub-elite levels for both men and women. However, injury severity does not show any significance for any of the groups, and rowing position only shows significant differences for men, showing a higher number of injuries for rowers rowing in the middle of the boat, in the total men’s sample, and in the men’s non-elite group. Finally, in relation to the side of the boat on which they row, a higher number of injuries is shown for rowers rowing on the port side in non-elite male rowers and elite female rowers, compared to starboard and those rowers that row on both sides.
Table 1. Characteristics of injuries in elite and non-elite male and female rowers.
Table 1. Characteristics of injuries in elite and non-elite male and female rowers.
Male RowersFemale Rowersp
All
(n = 597)		Elite
(n = 122)		Non-Elite
(n = 475)		pAll
(n = 178)		Elite
(n = 49)		Non-Elite
(n = 129)		p
% (n)% (n)% (n)% (n)% (n)% (n)
Period
 High volumes78.9 (471) †88.5 (108) †76.4 (363) †0.003 #68.0 (121) †63.3 (31) †69.8 (90) †0.4060.003 *
 Competitive period21.1 (126)11.5 (14)23.6 (112)0.003 #32.0 (57)36.7 (18)30.2 (39)0.4060.003 *
Moment
 Training90.5 (540) †91.0 (111) †90.3 (429) †0.82387.1 (155) †81.6 (40) †89.1 (115) †0.1820.194
 Competition9.5 (57)9.0 (11)9.7 (46)0.82312.9 (23)18.4 (9)10.9 (14)0.1820.194
Type
 New injury73.9 (441) †82.0 (100) †71.8 (341) †0.022 #67.4 (120) †61.2 (30) †69.8 (90) †0.2770.091
 Recurrent26.1 (156)18.0 (22)28.2 (134)0.022 #32.6 (58)38.8 (19)30.2 (39)0.2770.091
Mode
 Traumatism8.9 (53)9.8 (12)8.6 (41)0.67716.9 (30)6.1 (3)20.9 (27)0.018 #0.003 *
 Overuse91.1 (544) †90.2 (110) †91.4 (434) †0.67783.1 (148) †93.9 (46) †79.1 (102) †0.018 #0.003 *
Severity
 1–3 days48.6 (290)41.0 (50)50.5 (240)0.06047.8 (85)51.0 (25)46.5 (60)0.5910.847
 4–7 days21.9 (131)18.9 (23)22.7 (108)0.35514.0 (25)14.3 (7)14.0 (18)0.9550.021 *
 8–21 days17.3 (103)24.6 (30)15.4 (73)0.016 #18.5 (33)18.4 (9)18.6 (24)0.9710.692
 >21 days12.2 (73)15.6 (19)11.4 (54)0.20619.7 (35)16.3 (8)20.9 (27)0.4900.012 *
Rower position
 Stern20.9 (125)23.0 (28)20.4 (97)0.54021.3 (38)16.3 (8)23.3 (30)0.3140.906
 Middle33.7 (201) †35.2 (43)33.3 (158) †0.67934.3 (61)40.8 (20)31.8 (41)0.2570.882
 Bow20.3 (121)13.1 (16)22.1 (105)0.028 #17.4 (31)18.4 (9)17.1 (22)0.8370.400
 Versatile25.1 (150)28.7 (35)24.2 (115)0.30927.0 (48)24.5 (12)27.9 (36)0.6460.621
Boat side
 Port39.4 (235)41.0 (50)38.9 (185) †0.68143.8 (78) †53.1 (26) †40.3 (52)0.1260.288
 Starboard35.7 (213)43.4 (53)33.7 (160)0.045 #27.5 (49)26.5 (13)27.9 (36)0.8540.044 *
 Both25.0 (149) †15.6 (19) †27.4 (130)0.007 #28.7 (51)20.4 (10)31.8 (41)0.1340.323
Note: * Significant differences between male and female rowers (p < 0.050); # significant difference between elite and non-elite rowers (p < 0.050); † significant differences in each group (p < 0.050).

3.2. Body Region of Injuries

Table 2 shows the different body regions of injuries for men and women rowers at elite and non-elite competitive levels. Among all the body regions, lower back (p < 0.01), shoulder (p < 0.05), and ankle (p < 0.01) injuries showed statistical differences between the total sample of men and women rowers, while the rest of the body regions showed no such significance. When it comes to the differences between elite and non-elite rowers, back (p < 0.05), ribs (p < 0.01), and leg (p < 0.05) injuries were statistically different for men, and pyramidal injuries (p < 0.05) resulted in being higher for elite women rowers. Finally, the lower back was found to be the most significantly recurrent injury in male rowers for their total sample, as well as for the elite and non-elite groups.

3.3. Diagnosis of Injuries

Table 3 shows the diagnosis of the suffered injuries, with muscular cramps (p < 0.01) and tendinitis (p < 0.01) being the highest diagnosed injuries for the total sample of men and women and being higher in female rowers, while sciatica (p < 0.05) was higher diagnosed for male rowers. In relation to the competitive level, significant differences were found in muscular cramps, Tendinitis, Sprain, fissure, and vertebral displacement for male’s rowers. Muscle micro-tears were significantly higher in elite women than in non-elite women (p < 0.05). Finally, in the comparison of different diagnoses, muscle cramps and tendinitis were statistically significant and higher than the rest of the diagnoses for the total sample of men and women rowers (p < 0.05). Likewise, when it comes to the different groups, women and men who are non-elite rowers showed that muscle cramps and tendinitis were higher statistically (p < 0.05). On the other hand, in elite rowers, even though the number of diagnoses was also higher, only muscle cramps were found to show significant differences (p < 0.05). While this significance was not found for elite male rowers, a diagnosis of tendinitis was not significantly higher for both elite men and women.

4. Discussion

The main objective of this study was to analyze and describe the incidence of injury patterns in Traineras rowing. The main finding of this research was that the majority of injuries occurred during high-volume training periods. Most of them are new injuries for men and women. The most injured body regions in this rowing modality were the low back and shoulders, while the main diagnoses were muscle cramps and tendinitis for most of the rowers.
To our knowledge, investigations carried out on fixed-seat rowing injuries are practically non-existent in the scientific literature about Traineras. However, due to their similarity, research about Traineras has been compared to the Olympic rowing modality [1,2,3,5]. Therefore, despite the substantial heterogeneity of injury-reported methodologies in Olympic rowing research [57], our results will be compared to the existing literature related to injuries in Olympic rowing and also to the existing literature about injuries in other fixed-seat rowing modalities.
The results obtained showed that, irrespective of competitive level and gender, overuse injuries were much higher than those caused by trauma (p < 0.01) in Traineras rowing, results that are in line with previous research that described injuries in Olympic rowing in general [56]. In elite rowers [50,63] junior, senior, and master rowers [62], and female rowers [57]. Likewise, the result of this study fits well with Mediterranean fixed-sit rowing injuries [85]. These results make sense since, given the cyclic character of these rowing modalities and not physical contact, most injuries are the result of chronic overuse [56]. Within injury characteristics, our results showed that training periods and high-volume periods were statistically associated with a higher incidence of injury, in accordance with a previous investigation [85], and in the same line, new injuries were significantly higher than recurrent injuries.
The body region has been the most analyzed variable when trying to understand the prevalence of injuries in sports in general and also in rowing. The results described that the main injured body region was the low back, a similar result with previous investigations in Olympic rowing [64,66,69,71] and with an investigation carried out in Maltese traditional fixed-sit rowing [84]. However, the results were only partially in line with previous research carried out in Spanish Mediterranean rowers since the main injured body region was the ankle due to sprains over low back pain injuries, which were in second position [85]. The results showed that the second injured body region in Traineras rowing were the shoulders, only partially in line with results in previous investigations in Olympic rowing, since the following injured regions after the low back were the knee [51] and chest [49,60]. Related to rib stress fractures [55,58,67,82], and then shoulders were described in less number. In fact, the shoulder is considered a less common injury in Olympic rowing [60]. However, the results are in line with previous investigations in other fixed-seat rowing modalities, such as Mediterranean rowing [85] and Maltese traditional rowing [84], since shoulders were described as the most injured body regions. From these results, it could be interpreted that the fact that the flexion-extension of the trunk is more pronounced than in Olympic rowing and trunk rotation is needed significantly in the last part of the stroke influences the injury to the shoulders.
Within injuries per body region, the results showed that there were statistical differences between men and women in low back (p < 0.01). showing a higher incidence for male rowers. in the total sample and in both. elite and non-elite rowers. Our results showed that injuries in the low back were about 35% of the total for men, while in women, being the highest injured body region as well, they did not reach 20%. These results are in line with previous investigations in Olympic rowing, since the low back was the body region that showed the most injuries in elite [50,63], subelite [51,70], and international master rowers [51]. On the other hand, our results showed that the second body region with the most injuries was the shoulder, being statistically higher for women than men (p < 0.05). While almost 17% of the injuries were in the shoulders for women, in men, this body region collected 11.2% of the total injuries. Previous literature showed differences among men and women in Olympic rowing., e.g., comparing lightweight and open-weight rowers, and have demonstrated conflicting results [59] but no investigation in fixed-seat rowing have shown such a comparation.
Lastly, when it comes to the diagnosis of injuries, it should be noted the importance of the right diagnosis since it helps with better treatment and prevention [87]. Our results showed that muscle cramps were the most commonly diagnosed in Traineras rowing, showing statistical differences between men and women (p < 0.01), which was not in line with previous investigations in Olympic rowing [54]. On the other hand, our results showed that the second-ranked diagnosis for men and women rowers was tendinitis, being statistically higher in women and according to competitive level in men (p < 0.05). These results partially coincide with previous research in senior international Olympic rowers [50], since tendinitis was one of the main diagnoses of injury [62]. Other than that, our results are partially in line with the previous research about Mediterranean traditional rowing injuries, since tendinitis was one of the main diagnoses, after sprains and fractures [85]. Our results showed that sciatica diagnosis was statistically higher for men Traineras rowers than for women (p < 0.05), despite the low number of this type of diagnosis that were found. However, these results should be treated with caution since the heterogeneity of injury reported methodologies in rowing sport research is a fact [57], and further investigation would be needed taking into account the previously used methodologies.
Based on this first approach, the main injuries, their characteristics, and affected body regions are described, making this useful information for athletes, coaches, and physiotherapists. In addition, different professionals are involved in the performance of this sport. Future studies are needed to better understand the incidence of injuries in Traineras rowing, e.g., the training and biomechanical aspects that influence those injuries.

5. Conclusions

In conclusion, this study shows that the low back is the main body region affected by an injury in this sport, and shoulders are highly injured, finding differences between men and women. Moreover, most of the injuries are due to overuse and related to muscle cramps and tendinitis, partially in line with previous investigations carried out in different rowing modalities. This information will be helpful in creating a specific injury prevention plan to help athletes and coaches decrease the incidence of injuries, therefore helping them to improve continuity and reach their highest performance.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.P.-T. and P.L.-G.; methodology, A.P.-T. and A.C.-B.; software, J.M.J.-O. and A.P.-T.; formal analysis, A.P.-T.; investigation. P.L.-G. and A.P.-T.; resources, A.C.-B. and J.M.J.-O.; data curation, A.P.-T.; writing—original draft preparation. P.L.-G. and A.P.-T.; writing—review and editing, A.P.-T., P.L.-G., A.C.-B. and J.M.J.-O.; supervision, A.C.-B. and J.M.J.-O. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by Generalitat Valenciana (grant number CIGE/2022/15).

Institutional Review Board Statement

This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Alicante (protocol code UA-2023-06-14_1).

Informed Consent Statement

Written informed consent has been obtained from the patients to publish this paper.

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors on request.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the various federations, clubs, and rowers who participated in this study.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

  1. Izquierdo-Gabarren, M.; de Txabarri Expósito, R.G.; de Villarreal, E.S.S.; Izquierdo, M. Physiological Factors to Predict on Traditional Rowing Performance. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 2010, 108, 83–92. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  2. González Aramendi, J.M. Remo Olímpico y Remo Tradicional: Aspectos Biomecánicos, Fi Siológicos y Nutricionales. Arch. Med. Deporte 2014, 31, 51–59. [Google Scholar]
  3. León-Guereño, P.; Urdampilleta, A.; Zourdos, M.C.; Mielgo-Ayuso, J. Anthropometric Profile, Body Composition and Somatotype in Elite Traditional Rowers: A Cross-Sectional Study. Rev. Esp. De Nutr. Humana Y Diet. 2018, 22, 279–286. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Lorenzo Buceta, H.; Pérez Treus, S.; García Soidán, J.L.; Arufe Giraldez, V.; Alfonso Cornes, X.; Alfonso Cornes, A. Análisis Dinámico En El Remo de Banco Fijo: La Trainera (Dynamic Analysis on the Fixed Seat Rowing: Trainera). Retos 2015, 25, 120–123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Lizarraga Sainz, P.M.; Serra Ispizúa, J.; Martínez López, F. Modificación de Los Parámetros de Esfuerzo a Lo Largo de La Temporada En Un Equipo de Remeros de Alto Nivel En Banco Fijo y Móvil. Arch. De Med. Del Deporte 1988, 5, 237–241. [Google Scholar]
  6. Volianitis, S.; Yoshiga, C.C.; Secher, N.H. The Physiology of Rowing with Perspective on Training and Health. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 2020, 120, 1943–1963. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Hagerman, F.C. Applied Physiology of Rowing. Sports Med. 1984, 1, 303–326. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Penichet-Tomás, A. Análisis de Los Factores de Rendimiento En Remeros de Modalidades No Olímpicas: Yola y Llaüt. Ph.D. Thesis, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain, 2016. [Google Scholar]
  9. Obregón Sierra, Á. Evolución Del Número de Regatas de Traineras (1939–2019) = Evolution of the Number of Traineras Races (1939–2019). Mater. Hist. Deporte 2020, 20, 84–93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Urdampilleta, A.; León-Guereño, P. Análisis de Las Capacidades Condicionales y Niveles de Entrenamiento Para El Rendimiento En El Remo de Banco Fijo. Lect. EF Y Deportes. Rev. Digit. 2012, 17, 169. [Google Scholar]
  11. Larrinaga Garcia, B.; León Guereño, P.; Coca Nuñez, A.; Arbillaga Etxarri, A. Análisis de Los Parámetros de Rendimiento Del Remo de Traineras: Una Revisión Sistemática (Analysis of Performance Parameters of Traineras: A Systematic Review). Retos 2023, 49, 322–332. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Majumdar, P.A.D. and M.M. Physical and Strength Variables as a Predictor of 2000m Rowing Ergometer Performance in Elite Rowers. J. Phys. Educ. Sport 2017, 17, 2502–2507. [Google Scholar]
  13. Agius, T.P.; Cerasola, D.; Gauci, M.; Sciriha, A.; Sillato, D.; Formosa, C.; Gatt, A.; Xerri de Caro, J.; Needham, R.; Chockalingam, N.; et al. The Kinematics of Fixed-Seat Rowing: A Structured Synthesis. Bioengineering 2023, 10, 774. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  14. Cosgrove, M.J.; Wilson, J.; Watt, D.; Grant, S.F. The Relationship between Selected Physiological Variables of Rowers and Rowing Performance as Determined by a 2000 m Ergometer Test. J. Sports Sci. 1999, 17, 845–852. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  15. Thiele, D.; Prieske, O.; Chaabene, H.; Granacher, U. Effects of Strength Training on Physical Fitness and Sport-Specific Performance in Recreational, Sub-Elite, and Elite Rowers: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis. J. Sports Sci. 2020, 38, 1186–1195. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Messonnier, L.; Aranda-Berthouze, S.E.; Bourdin, M.; Bredel, Y.; Lacour, J.-R. Rowing Performance and Estimated Training Load. Int. J. Sports Med. 2005, 26, 376–382. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  17. Held, S.; Rappelt, L.; Donath, L. Acute and Chronic Performance Enhancement in Rowing: A Network Meta-Analytical Approach on the Effects of Nutrition and Training. Sports Med. 2023, 53, 1137–1159. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Ives, S.J.; DeBlauw, J.A.; Edmonds, R. Editorial: Rowing: Advances in Training and Performance—An Editorial. Front. Sports Act. Living 2023, 5, 1248798. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Boegman, S.; Dziedzic, C.E. Nutrition and Supplements for Elite Open-Weight Rowing. Curr. Sports Med. Rep. 2016, 15, 252–261. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Kim, J.; Kim, E.-K. Nutritional Strategies to Optimize Performance and Recovery in Rowing Athletes. Nutrients 2020, 12, 1685. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Penichet-Tomás, A.; Pueo, B. Performance Conditional Factors in Rowing. RETOS. Nuevas Tend. Educ. Física Deporte Recreación 2017, 32, 238–240. [Google Scholar]
  22. Alfőldi, Z.; Borysławski, K.; Ihasz, F.; Soós, I.; Podstawski, R. Differences in the Anthropometric and Physiological Profiles of Hungarian Male Rowers of Various Age Categories, Rankings and Career Lengths: Selection Problems. Front. Physiol. 2021, 12, 747781. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  23. Winkert, K.; Steinacker, J.M.; Machus, K.; Dreyhaupt, J.; Treff, G. Anthropometric Profiles Are Associated with Long-Term Career Attainment in Elite Junior Rowers: A Retrospective Analysis Covering 23 Years. Eur. J. Sport. Sci. 2019, 19, 208–216. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  24. Kellmann, M.; BuBmann, G.; Anders, D.; Schulte, S. Psychological Aspects of Rowing. In The Sport Psychologist’s Handbook: A Guide for Sport-Specific Performance Enhancement; Joaquín, D., Ed.; John Wiley & Sons Ltd.: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2006; pp. 478–501. [Google Scholar]
  25. Cheban, Y.; Chebykin, O.; Plokhikh, V.; Massanov, A. Mental Resources for the Self-Mobilization of Rowing Athletes. J. Phys. Educ. Sport 2020, 20, 1580–1589. [Google Scholar]
  26. Côté, J.; Sedgwick, W.A. Effective Behaviors of Expert Rowing Coaches: A Qualitative Investigation of Canadian Athletes and Coaches. Int. Sports J. 2003, 7, 62–77. [Google Scholar]
  27. Hume, P.A. Movement Analysis of Scull and Oar Rowing. In Handbook of Human Motion; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2017; pp. 1–21. [Google Scholar]
  28. Kleshnev, V. Biomechanics of Rowing: A Unique Insight into the Technical and Tactical Aspects of Elite Rowing; The Crowood Press Ltd.: Marlborough, MA, USA, 2020. [Google Scholar]
  29. Penichet-Tomás, A.; Pueo, B.; Jiménez-Olmedo, J.M. Physical Performance Indicators in Traditional Rowing Championships. J. Sports Med. Phys. Fit. 2019, 59, 767–773. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  30. González-Aramendi, J.M.; Santisteban, J.; Ainz, F. Valoración Funcional En Laboratorio Del Remero de Banco Fijo. Arch. Med. Deporte 1996, 13, 99–105. [Google Scholar]
  31. Gonzalez-Aramendi, J.M.; Ainz, F. Relación Lactato-Velocidad-Frecuencia Cardiaca En Pruebas de 1000 Metros de Remo de Banco Fijo. Arch. Med. Deporte 1996, 13, 253–258. [Google Scholar]
  32. González-Aramendi, J.M.; Ainz, F. Cinética Del Lactato En Remeros de Banco Fijo Durante Pruebas de Laboratorio y de Remo Real. Arch. Med. Deporte Rev. Fed. Española Med. Deporte Confed. Iberoam. Med. Deporte 1996, 13, 339–347. [Google Scholar]
  33. Mejuto, G.; Arratibel, I.; Cámara, J.; Puente, A.; Iturriaga, G.; Calleja-González, J. The effect of a 6-week individual anaerobic threshold based programme in a traditional rowing crew. Biol. Sport 2012, 29, 51–55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Badiola, J.J.; Francisco Javier, M.A.; Juan José, D.C.; Natalia, S.S. El Entrenamiento En Banco Fijo: Utilidad Del Remoergómetro. Deporte Act. Física Para Todos 2008, 4, 121–130. [Google Scholar]
  35. Badiola, J.J. La Planificación En El Remo: Trainera. Deporte Act. Física Para Todos 2001, 2, 103–110. [Google Scholar]
  36. Fernández-Landa, J.; Fernández-Lázaro, D.; Calleja-González, J.; Caballero-García, A.; Martínez, A.C.; León-Guereño, P.; Mielgo-Ayuso, J. Effect of Ten Weeks of Creatine Monohydrate plus HMB Supplementation on Athletic Performance Tests in Elite Male Endurance Athletes. Nutrients 2020, 12, 193. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  37. Fernández-Landa, J.; Fernández-Lázaro, D.; Calleja-González, J.; Caballero-García, A.; Córdova, A.; León-Guereño, P.; Mielgo-Ayuso, J. Long-Term Effect of Combination of Creatine Monohydrate plus β-Hydroxy β-Methylbutyrate (HMB) on Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage and Anabolic/Catabolic Hormones in Elite Male Endurance Athletes. Biomolecules 2020, 10, 140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  38. Mielgo-Ayuso, J.; Calleja-González, J.; Urdampilleta, A.; León-Guereño, P.; Córdova, A.; Caballero-García, A.; Fernandez-Lázaro, D. Effects of Vitamin D Supplementation on Haematological Values and Muscle Recovery in Elite Male Traditional Rowers. Nutrients 2018, 10, 1968. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  39. Bermúdez Herbello, M.J. Remo Femenino En Galicia: Datos Físicos, Antropométricos, Perspectivas Actuales y Futuras. Ph.D. Thesis, Universidade de Vigo, Vigo, Spain, 2006. [Google Scholar]
  40. Larrinaga, B.; Río, X.; Coca, A.; Rodriguez-Alonso, M.; Arbillaga-Etxarri, A. Diferencias Antropométricas y Potencia Aeróbica Máxima Entre Hombres y Mujeres En El Remo de Traineras. Arch. Med. Deporte 2023, 40, 293–297. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. León-Guereño, P.; González Rodríguez, Ó.; Aguayo Benito, Y.; Arruza Gabilondo, J.A. The Relationship between Coaches’ Leadership Type in Fixed Seat Rowing, the Number of regattas Rowed and Athletes’ Satisfaction. Sportis. Sci. J. Sch. Sport Phys. Educ. Psychomot. 2018, 4, 462–479. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Francisco García, J.M.; García Soidán, J.L. El Aspecto Psicológico En La Adecuada Preparación de Un Remero. Entrenamiento Psicológico. Timonel 1991, 11, 53–54. [Google Scholar]
  43. Francisco García, J.M. Remo de Banco Fixo; Lea: Santiago de Compostela, Spain, 1996. [Google Scholar]
  44. Swenson, D.M.; Collins, C.L.; Fields, S.K.; Comstock, R.D. Epidemiology of US High School Sports-Related Ligamentous Ankle Injuries, 2005/06–2010/11. Clin. J. Sport Med. 2013, 23, 190–196. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  45. O’Brien, J.; Finch, C.F.; Pruna, R.; McCall, A. A New Model for Injury Prevention in Team Sports: The Team-Sport Injury Prevention (TIP) Cycle. Sci. Med. Footb. 2019, 3, 77–80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Post, E.G.; Bell, D.R.; Trigsted, S.M.; Pfaller, A.Y.; Hetzel, S.J.; Brooks, M.A.; McGuine, T.A. Association of Competition Volume, Club Sports, and Sport Specialization with Sex and Lower Extremity Injury History in High School Athletes. Sports Health A Multidiscip. Approach 2017, 9, 518–523. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Lambert, C.; Ritzmann, R.; Akoto, R.; Lambert, M.; Pfeiffer, T.; Wolfarth, B.; Lachmann, D.; Shafizadeh, S. Epidemiology of Injuries in Olympic Sports. Int. J. Sports Med. 2022, 43, 473–481. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Soligard, T.; Steffen, K.; Palmer, D.; Alonso, J.M.; Bahr, R.; Lopes, A.D.; Dvorak, J.; Grant, M.-E.; Meeuwisse, W.; Mountjoy, M.; et al. Sports Injury and Illness Incidence in the Rio de Janeiro 2016 Olympic Summer Games: A Prospective Study of 11274 Athletes from 207 Countries. Br. J. Sports Med. 2017, 51, 1265–1271. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Hosea, T.M.; Hannafin, J.A. Rowing Injuries. Sports Health A Multidiscip. Approach 2012, 4, 236–245. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Smoljanovic, T.; Bohacek, I.; Hannafin, J.A.; Terborg, O.; Hren, D.; Pecina, M.; Bojanic, I. Acute and Chronic Injuries among Senior International Rowers: A Cross-Sectional Study. Int. Orthop. 2015, 39, 1623–1630. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Smoljanović, T.; Bohaček, I.; Hannafin, J.; Nielsen, H.B.; Hren, D.; Bojanić, I. Sport Injuries in International Masters Rowers: A Cross-Sectional Study. Croat. Med. J. 2018, 59, 258–266. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Steinacker, J.M.; Kirsten, J.; Winkert, K.; Washington, M.; Treff, G. Rowing. In Injury and Health Risk Management in Sports; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2020; pp. 699–704. [Google Scholar]
  53. Nolte, V. Rowing Science, 1st ed.; Human Kinetics: Champaign, IL, USA, 2023; Volume 1. [Google Scholar]
  54. Thornton, J.S.; Vinther, A.; Wilson, F.; Lebrun, C.M.; Wilkinson, M.; Di Ciacca, S.R.; Orlando, K.; Smoljanovic, T. Rowing Injuries: An Updated Review. Sports Med. 2017, 47, 641–661. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Wilson, F.; Gissane, C.; Gormley, J.; Simms, C. A 12-Month Prospective Cohort Study of Injury in International Rowers. Br. J. Sports Med. 2010, 44, 207–214. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Hartz, C.; Lang, A. Common Injuries and Conditions in Rowers. In Endurance Sports Medicine; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2016; pp. 139–146. [Google Scholar]
  57. Treloar, J.; Bolia, I.K.; Anvari, A.; Collon, K.; Lan, R.; Bell, J.A.; Romano, R.; Petrigliano, F.A.; Gamradt, S.C.; Weber, A.E. Update on Injury Epidemiology in Rowing: Our Experience with Female NCAA Division I Athletes and a Systematic Review of the Literature. Phys. Sportsmed. 2022, 50, 189–196. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Trease, L.; Wilkie, K.; Lovell, G.; Drew, M.; Hooper, I. Epidemiology of Injury and Illness in 153 Australian International-Level Rowers over Eight International Seasons. Br. J. Sports Med. 2020, 54, 1288–1293. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Kim, H.C.; Park, K.J. Injuries in Female and Male Elite Korean Rowing Athletes: An Epidemiological Study. Sportverletz. Sportschaden 2020, 34, 217–226. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Arumugam, S.; Ayyadurai, P.; Perumal, S.; Janani, G.; Dhillon, S.; Thiagarajan, K.A. Rowing Injuries in Elite Athletes: A Review of Incidence with Risk Factors and the Role of Biomechanics in Its Management. Indian J. Orthop. 2020, 54, 246–255. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  61. Bernardes, F.; Mendes-Castro, A.; Ramos, J.; Costa, O. Musculoskeletal Injuries in Competitive Rowers. Acta Med. Port. 2015, 28, 427–434. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Smoljanovic, T.; Bojanic, I.; Hannafin, J.A.; Hren, D.; Terborg, O.; Bohacek, I.; Nielsen, H.B. Characteristic of Acute and Overuse Injuries among Junior, Senior and Master Rowers. BMC Sports Sci. Med. Rehabil. 2015, 7, O14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Smoljanovic, T.; Bojanic, I.; Hannafin, J.A.; Hren, D.; Delimar, D.; Pecina, M. Traumatic and Overuse Injuries among International Elite Junior Rowers. Am. J. Sports Med. 2009, 37, 1193–1199. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Magrini, D.; Striano, B. Injury Surveillance in Collegiate Rowers. Pediatrics 2018, 142, 308. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Baugh, C.M.; Kerr, Z.Y. High School Rowing Injuries: National Athletic Treatment, Injury and Outcomes Network (NATION). J. Athl. Train. 2016, 51, 317–320. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Finlay, C.; Dobbin, N.; Jones, G. The Epidemiology of Injuries in Adult Amateur Rowers: A Cross-Sectional Study. Phys. Ther. Sport 2020, 41, 29–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  67. Madison, C.A.; Harter, R.A.; Pickerill, M.L.; Housman, J.M. Rib Stress Injuries among Female National Collegiate Athletic Association Rowers: A Prospective Epidemiological Study. Int. J. Athl. Ther. Train. 2022, 27, 78–84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Demorest, R.A. Rowing/Crew. In The Youth Athlete; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2023; pp. 715–726. [Google Scholar]
  69. Nugent, F.J.; Vinther, A.; McGregor, A.; Thornton, J.S.; Wilkie, K.; Wilson, F. The Relationship between Rowing-Related Low Back Pain and Rowing Biomechanics: A Systematic Review. Br. J. Sports Med. 2021, 55, 616–628. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Wilson, F.; Thornton, J.S.; Wilkie, K.; Hartvigsen, J.; Vinther, A.; Ackerman, K.E.; Caneiro, J.P.; Trease, L.; Nugent, F.; Gissane, C.; et al. 2021 Consensus Statement for Preventing and Managing Low Back Pain in Elite and Subelite Adult Rowers. Br. J. Sports Med. 2021, 55, 893–899. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Wilson, F.; Ng, L.; O’Sullivan, K.; Caneiro, J.P.; O’Sullivan, P.P.; Horgan, A.; Thornton, J.S.; Wilkie, K.; Timonen, V. ‘You’re the Best Liar in the World’: A Grounded Theory Study of Rowing Athletes’ Experience of Low Back Pain. Br. J. Sports Med. 2021, 55, 327–335. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  72. Verrall, G.; Darcey, A. Lower Back Injuries in Rowing National Level Compared to International Level Rowers. Asian J. Sports Med. 2014, 5, e24293. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  73. Teitz, C.C.; O’Kane, J.W.; Lind, B.K. Back Pain in Former Intercollegiate Rowers. Am. J. Sports Med. 2003, 31, 590–595. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  74. Teitz, C.C.; O’Kane, J.; Lind, B.K.; Hannafin, J.A. Back Pain in Intercollegiate Rowers. Am. J. Sports Med. 2002, 30, 674–679. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  75. O’Kane, J.W.; Teitz, C.C.; Lind, B.K. Effect of Preexisting Back Pain on the Incidence and Severity of Back Pain in Intercollegiate Rowers. Am. J. Sports Med. 2003, 31, 80–82. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  76. Newlands, C.; Reid, D.; Parmar, P. The Prevalence, Incidence and Severity of Low Back Pain among International-Level Rowers. Br. J. Sports Med. 2015, 49, 951–956. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  77. Maselli, F.; Ciuro, A.; Mastrosimone, R.; Cannone, M.; Nicoli, P.; Signori, A.; Testa, M. Low Back Pain among Italian Rowers: A Cross-Sectional Survey. J. Back Musculoskelet. Rehabil. 2015, 28, 365–376. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  78. Arend, M.; Akel, J.; Haabpiht, L.; Jürgenson, J. Self-Reported Prevalence of Low Back Pain in Estonian Rowers. Acta Kinesiol. Univ. Tartu. 2016, 22, 82. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  79. Heyneke, L.; Green, A. The Prevalence and Severity of Lower Back Pain in South African University Rowers. S. Afr. J. Sports Med. 2021, 33, 1–4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  80. Casey, M.-B.; Wilson, F.; Ng, L.; O’Sullivan, K.; Caneiro, J.P.; O’Sullivan, P.B.; Horgan, A.; Thornton, J.S.; Wilkie, K.; Timonen, V.; et al. “There’s Definitely Something Wrong but We Just Don’t Know What It Is”: A Qualitative Study Exploring Rowers’ Understanding of Low Back Pain. J. Sci. Med. Sport 2022, 25, 557–563. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  81. McDonnell, L.K.; Hume, P.A.; Nolte, V. Rib Stress Fractures among Rowers. Sports Med. 2011, 41, 883–901. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  82. Harris, R.; Trease, L.; Wilkie, K.; Drew, M. Rib Stress Injuries in the 2012–2016 (Rio) Olympiad: A Cohort Study of 151 Australian Rowing Team Athletes for 88 773 Athlete Days. Br. J. Sports Med. 2020, 54, 991–996. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  83. Rachnavy, P. Rowing Biomechanics and Injury Prevention. J. Sci. Med. Sport 2012, 15, S132. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  84. Grima, J.N.; Agius, T.P.; Camilleri, K.; Bernardes, F.; Casha, A.R.; Xerri de Caro, J.; Camilleri, L. Musculoskeletal Injuries in Fixed-Seat Rowing. Sci. Sports 2023, 38, 89–95. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  85. Penichet Tomás, A.; Jiménez-Olmedo, J.M.; Saiz-Colomina, S.; Jove-Tossi, M.A.; Martínez-Carbonell, J.A.; Silvestre-García, M. Incidence Injury Analysis on Rowers in the Spanish Mediterranean Fixed Bench Championship 2012. J. Hum. Sport Exerc. 2012, 7, 648–657. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  86. Šmigelskas, K.; Lukoševičiūtė, J.; Vaičiūnas, T.; Mozūraitytė, K.; Ivanavičiūtė, U.; Milevičiūtė, I.; Žemaitaitytė, M. Measurement of Health and Social Behaviors in Schoolchildren: Randomized Study Comparing Paper versus Electronic Mode. Slov. J. Public Health 2019, 58, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  87. Ishøi, L.; Krommes, K.; Husted, R.S.; Juhl, C.B.; Thorborg, K. Diagnosis, Prevention and Treatment of Common Lower Extremity Muscle Injuries in Sport—Grading the Evidence: A Statement Paper Commissioned by the Danish Society of Sports Physical Therapy (DSSF). Br. J. Sports Med. 2020, 54, 528–537. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Table 2. Body region of injuries in elite and non-elite male and female rowers.
Table 2. Body region of injuries in elite and non-elite male and female rowers.
Male RowersFemale Rowersp
All
(n = 597)		Elite
(n = 122)		Non-Elite
(n = 475)		pAll
(n = 178)		Elite
(n = 49)		Non-Elite
(n = 129)		p
% (n)% (n)% (n)% (n)% (n)% (n)
Lower back35.2 (210) †36.1 (440) †34.9 (166) †0.81819.1 (340) 20.4 (100)18.6 (240)0.785<0.001 *
Shoulder11.2 (67)10.7 (13)11.4 (54)0.82416.9 (30)22.4 (11)14.7 (19)0.2190.046 *
Back8.7 (52)4.1 (5)9.9 (47)0.043 #7.3 (13)10.2 (5)6.2 (8)0.3590.552
Knee5.7 (34)6.6 (8)5.5 (26)0.6459.6 (17)4.1 (2)11.6 (15)0.1260.069
Ribs5.4 (32)12.3 (15)3.6 (17)<0.001 #6.2 (11)6.1 (3)6.2 (8)0.9840.675
Pelvis3.7 (22)0.8 (1)4.4 (21)0.0603.4 (6)0.0 (0)4.7 (6)0.1250.844
Forearm3.5 (21)4.1 (5)3.4 (16)0.6963.9 (7)6.1 (3)3.1 (4)0.3540.795
Wrist3.5 (21)5.7 (7)2.9 (14)0.1361.1 (2)2.0 (1)0.8 (1)0.4740.099
Neck2.8 (17)0.8 (1)3.4 (16)0.1311.7 (3)0.0 (0)2.3 (3)0.2820.391
Leg2.8 (17)0.0 (0)3.6 (17)0.034 #0.6 (1)0.0 (0)0.8 (1)0.5370.076
Elbow2.3 (14)3.3 (4)2.1 (10)0.4452.2 (4)2.0 (1)2.3 (3)0.9090.939
Arm2.2 (13)4.1 (5)1.7 (8)0.1034.5 (8)6.1 (3)3.9 (5)0.5180.095
Hip2.2 (13)1.6 (2)2.3 (11)0.6482.8 (5)2.0 (1)3.1 (4)0.7020.623
Hand2.0 (12)3.3 (4)1.7 (8)0.2631.7 (3)0.0 (0)2.3 (3)0.2820.783
Psoas2.0 (12)0.8 (1)2.3 (11)0.2943.9 (7)4.1 (2)3.9 (5)0.9500.145
Thigh1.7 (10)0.0 (0)2.1 (10)0.1061.7 (3)2.0 (1)1.6 (2)0.8200.992
Abdomen1.2 (7)0.8 (1)1.3 (6)0.6852.8 (5)2.0 (1)3.1 (4)0.7020.121
Ankle1.0 (6)2.5 (3)0.6 (3)0.0713.9 (7)2.0 (1)4.7 (6)0.4240.008 *
Foot0.8 (5)0.8 (1)0.8 (4)0.9811.1 (2)2.0 (1)0.8 (1)0.4740.723
Abductor0.7 (4)0.8 (1)0.6 (3)0.8200.6 (1)0.0 (0)0.8 (1)0.5370.874
Clavicle0.5 (3)0.8 (1)0.4 (2)0.5790.6 (1)0.0 (0)0.0 (0)-0.923
Pyramidal0.3 (2)0.0 (0)0.4 (2)0.4731.1 (2)4.1 (2)0.0 (0)0.021 #0.198
Fingers0.2 (1)0.0 (0)0.2 (1)0.6122.2 (4)0.0 (0)3.1 (4)0.2130.002
Twin0.2 (1)0.0 (0)0.2 (1)0.6120.6 (1)0.0 (0)0.8 (1)0.5370.363
Chest0.2 (1)0.0 (0)0.2 (1)0.6120.6 (1)2.0 (1)0.8 (1)0.4740.363
Note: * Significant differences between male and female rowers (p < 0.050); # significant difference between elite and non-elite rowers (p < 0.050); † significant differences in each group (p < 0.050).
Table 3. Diagnosis of injuries in elite and non-elite male and female rowers.
Table 3. Diagnosis of injuries in elite and non-elite male and female rowers.
Male RowersFemale Rowersp
All
(n = 597)		Elite
(n = 122)		Non-Elite
(n = 475)		pAll
(n = 178)		Elite
(n = 49)		Non-Elite
(n = 129)		p
% (n)% (n)% (n)% (n)% (n)% (n)
Muscle Cramp48.2 (288) †32.8 (40)52.2 (248) †<0.001 #73.0 (41) †51.0 (25) †37.2 (48) †0.094<0.001 *
Tendinitis19.1 (114) †27.9 (34)16.8 (80) †0.006 #30.0 (17) †14.3 (7)17.8 (23) †0.5730.003 *
Muscle Tear5.5 (33)4.9 (6)5.7 (27)0.74110.0 (6)4.1 (2)6.2 (8)0.5830.202
Muscle micro-tears3.7 (22)5.7 (7)3.2 (15)0.1774.0 (2)6.1 (3)0.8 (1)0.032 #0.103
Overload3.2 (19)3.3 (4)3.2 (15)0.94611.0 (6)2.0 (1)7.8 (10)0.1580.849
Sprain3.0 (18)5.7 (7)2.3 (11)0.049 #5.0 (3)0.0 (0)3.9 (5)0.1620.298
Sciatica2.5 (15)2.5 (3)2.5 (12)0.9660.0 (0)0.0 (0)0.0 (0)-0.033 *
Fracture1.8 (11)0.8 (1)2.1 (10)0.3464.0 (2)0.0 (0)3.1 (4)0.2130.600
Contusion1.3 (8)1.6 (2)1.3 (6)0.7473.0 (2)4.1 (2)0.8 (1)0.1260.679
Fissure1.3 (8)4.1 (5)0.6 (3)0.003 #5.0 (3)2.0 (1)3.1 (4)0.7020.812
Herniated disc1.3 (8)1.6 (2)1.3 (6)0.7471.0 (1)0.0 (0)0.8 (1)0.5370.251
Displacement1.2 (7)0.0 (0)1.5 (7)0.1777.0 (4)2.0 (1)4.7 (6)0.4240.303
Dislocation1.2 (7)1.6 (2)1.1 (5)0.5917.0 (4)6.1 (3)3.1 (4)0.3540.303
Vertebral
displacement		1.0 (6)3.3 (4)0.4 (2)0.005 #0.0 (0)0.0 (0)0.0 (0)-0.179
Inflammation0.7 (4)0.8 (1)0.6 (3)0.8201.0 (1)0.0 (0)0.8 (1)0.5370.587
Meniscus wear0.5 (3)0.0 (0)0.6 (3)0.3792.0 (1)2.0 (1)0.8 (1)0.4740.836
Superficial injury0.5 (3)0.8 (1)0.4 (2)0.5793.0 (2)0.0 (0)2.3 (3)0.2820.502
Protrusion0.5 (3)0.8 (1)0.4 (2)0.5790.0 (0)0.0 (0)0.0 (0)-0.343
Joint impingement0.3 (2)0.0 (0)0.4 (2)0.4733.0 (2)0.0 (0)2.3 (3)0.2820.298
Bursitis0.3 (2)0.8 (1)0.2 (1)0.2991.0 (1)0.0 (0)0.8 (1)0.5370.968
Irritation0.3 (2)0.0 (0)0.4 (2)0.4732.0 (1)0.0 (0)1.6 (2)0.3810.584
Low back pain0.3 (2)0.0 (0)0.4 (2)0.4730.0 (0)0.0 (0)0.0 (0)-0.439
Meniscus tear0.0 (0)0.0 (0)0.0 (0)-2.0 (1)2.0 (1)0.8 (1)0.4740.052
Femoroacetabular
impingement		0.2 (1)0.0 (0)0.2 (1)0.6120.0 (0)0.0 (0)0.0 (0)-0.585
Muscle strain0.2 (1)0.0 (0)0.2 (1)0.6120.0 (0)0.0 (0) 0.0 (0)-0.585
Spondylitis0.2 (1)0.0 (0)0.2 (1)0.6121.0 (1)0.0 (0)0.8 (1)0.5370.699
Plantar fasciitis0.2 (1)0.0 (0)0.2 (1)0.6120.0 (0)0.0 (0)0.0 (0)-0.585
Pilonidal fistula0.2 (1)0.0 (0)0.2 (1)0.6120.0 (0)0.0 (0)0.0 (0)-0.585
Tendon impingement0.2 (1)0.0 (0)0.2 (1)0.6120.0 (0)0.0 (0)0.0 (0)-0.585
Burns0.2 (1)0.0 (0)0.2 (1)0.6120.0 (0)0.0 (0)0.0 (0)-0.585
Rheumatism0.2 (1)0.0 (0)0.2 (1)0.6120.0 (0)0.0 (0)0.0 (0)-0.585
Sacralgia0.2 (1)0.8 (1)0.0 (0)0.0480.0 (0)0.0 (0)0.0 (0)-0.585
Calcifying myositis0.0 (0)0.0 (0)0.0 (0)-1.0 (1)2.0 (1)0.0 (0)0.1040.170
Other0.5 (3)0.0 (0)0.6 (3)0.3792.0 (1)2.0 (1)0.8 (1)0.4740.836
Note: * Significant differences between male and female rowers (p < 0.050); # significant difference between elite and non-elite rowers (p < 0.050); † significant differences in each group (p < 0.050).
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

León-Guereño, P.; Penichet-Tomas, A.; Castañeda-Babarro, A.; Jimenez-Olmedo, J.M. Injury Incidence in Traineras: Analysis of Traditional Rowing by Competitive Level and Gender. Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3805. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14093805

AMA Style

León-Guereño P, Penichet-Tomas A, Castañeda-Babarro A, Jimenez-Olmedo JM. Injury Incidence in Traineras: Analysis of Traditional Rowing by Competitive Level and Gender. Applied Sciences. 2024; 14(9):3805. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14093805

Chicago/Turabian Style

León-Guereño, Patxi, Alfonso Penichet-Tomas, Arkaitz Castañeda-Babarro, and Jose M. Jimenez-Olmedo. 2024. "Injury Incidence in Traineras: Analysis of Traditional Rowing by Competitive Level and Gender" Applied Sciences 14, no. 9: 3805. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14093805

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop