We now present a complete analytical evaluation as an example. Subsequently, the findings for all nine case studies analysed are outlined and discussed in aggregated form.
4.1. Results of the Pedagogical Analysis of One Case Study
The case study consists of a case study situation and related supporting information for the lecturer. It was published in 2005 and was The Case Centre Award overall winner in 2010 [
61]. It is embedded in the situational context of marketing in a large company known for non-traditional marketing techniques that have enabled it to secure market share in the beverage and sports industries. Competing product brands on the market are strong, so the focus of the case study is whether the anti-establishment marketing strategy looks like an expedient approach for the company or whether it should switch to a more traditional marketing approach. The target group addressed in the teaching note are Bachelor’s and Master’s students in the field of marketing with a focus on the topics of advertising, marketing communications, brand management and marketing strategy. Further, according to the information in the teaching note, the case study is suitable both for students with little prior knowledge and for those with advanced knowledge.
First, the findings regarding the
authenticity (D1) and the
real-life orientation (D2) of the case are presented. The situational context of the case study and thus the implied specialist content refer to the business-related syllabus the target group is studying and can be seen as typical for the students’ future job profile. The case study challenges learners to tackle the situation by analysing it in the context of the company presented in the case.
Access to the case study situation enables the learners to transfer the knowledge and skills acquired in the case study to everyday personal and work life (see also [
62]). However, for a case study to meet the pedagogic requirements of
authenticity, it is also important that the learner is able to identify with the roles that arise in the situation described (role identification). In terms of situational representation, it is important that actions and dialogues used lead the learner into the situation. Here, in particular, the educational challenge in the design is to ensure that the written cases are made as real as possible by the students through realistic language in the dialogues and a pictorial description of the problem situations. In this way, the case becomes as real as possible in the learner’s imagination. Moreover, the analysis often shows that the case study does not include the assignment of roles but is instead a presentation of the historical as well as current brand positioning of the company. The underlying interdependence means that this has a negative influence on the pedagogic dimensions of
complexity (D7) and the adoption of
multiple contexts and perspectives (D5). As a result of the predominantly linear storyline of the case study, it contains very few actions and dialogues that would allow the learners to immerse themselves as actors in individual situational aspects within a corporate process and to analyse the case study from the resulting perspective. However,
role identification as part of case study work encourages role-based thinking by students that allows for the analysis and solving of problems or complex situations from the perspective of an employee or company (see, for example [
46] (p. 6)). Nevertheless, the role of the CEO of the company is often mentioned within the case study and is integrated via direct quotations, as well as personal attitudes and opinions on a range of branding topics, such as, for example: ‘Mateschitz believed in the importance of context for consumption of Red Bull. Therefore, the marketing focused on sampling and event sponsorship that embodies the spirit of Red Bull. Mateschitz invested 35% of turnover in marketing and sponsorship in events. In his words, “we don’t bring the product to the people, we bring people to the product. We make it available and those who love our style come to us’. He added, ‘Red Bull isn’t a drink, it’s a way of life.” [...]’ [
61] (p. 5). Despite the narrative form of the case study, this offers students the opportunity to view the decision making and problem analysis from the perspective of or in the role of the managing director without, however, being able to immerse themselves further in the company process as a stakeholder. In the context of an authentic learning environment, however, a holistic approach with reference to complex actions and processes is essential to providing the most realistic image of corporate reality (see, for example [
32,
48]). Furthermore, in the sense of situational representation, it can be deduced that the case study is exemplary for an entire section of reality, but a sequence of actions by persons acting in the case study situation cannot be established in terms of a realistic representation of the business process. Consequently, with regard to authenticity, there is a high deviation from the pedagogic optimum. In addition to
authenticity of the case study (D1), the
real-life orientation (D2) rates highly in terms of the nature of the material, the transferability of the situation and the problem. The materials (text, graphics, tables, etc.) reflect the corporate reality of the company, and data are backed up with sources. Moreover, the case study situation refers to content and problems that apply not only to the company described in the case study but also to other companies/industries, as is clear from the analysis regarding the decontextualization of the case study on the
multiple contexts and perspectives (D5) dimension, showing a high degree of comparability between the problems mentioned in the situation and those in professional practice. Consequently, the case study accords substantially with the pedagogic optimum.
As discussed above, one of the central features of a case study is the problem orientation (D3), which enhances learners’ ability to analyse, evaluate and act within a learning situation. The initial nature of the case study is problem oriented, as the situation presents dangers that have an impact on the marketing concept or the brand positioning of the company and that it wishes to analyse. Thus, the case study allows problems to be identified independently: it neither mentions work assignments nor provides assistance with problem identification. Further, the teaching note does not indicate whether the problems should be listed in advance. However, the case study then appears less problem oriented since the situation itself is not genuinely characterised by a problematic or undesirable initial state: the existing marketing concept is primarily reproduced in narrative form (see also authenticity (D1)). In addition, problems that arise in the case study are revisited (for example, through statistics or by identifying ways of solving decision-making processes that have already been carried out), which is why they are no longer the focus of the problem analysis. In line with the primacy of pedagogic goals in which different types of problems create intrinsic motivation in students and encourage their problem-solving ability through discovery learning, the case study does not contain different types of problems. This can be explained by the fact that there are few, if any, gaps regarding intentions to act or contradictions, since the situation makes it very clear why the company has implemented the marketing measures set out. There is, therefore, no substantial contradiction with traditional marketing measures. Subjective comprehensibility should also be addressed at this point, even though the case is not very problem oriented: the problem situation has few (cognitive) conflicts that would encourage discovery-based problem-oriented learning. Nevertheless, the case study situation demands problem solving during the analysis of decision making since the students must rethink an existing marketing concept, taking into account the company’s history, the competition and the future market positioning. At the same time, their imagination can be stimulated by the case study, which concerns a product they are familiar with and that can be linked to business-related content from their studies. The results of the analysis regarding the problem orientation indicate a high degree of deviation from the pedagogic optimum, despite some positive aspects.
Since the subject tackled by the case study is aimed at business studies students and should therefore include their previous study experience and appeal to their imagination, the case study also meets the dimension of
prior knowledge (D4). By establishing the link to business knowledge structures and content, the case study can activate students’ individual prior knowledge of academic topics of marketing as well as general content from the field of business studies (domain-specific knowledge): ‘Instead of traditional advertising, Red Bull relied on a strategy of word-of-mouth or “buzz” marketing. Red Bull focused on getting the word out through various stealth marketing techniques, playing on associations with energy, danger and youth culture, carefully cultivating its mystique’ [
61] (p. 4). There is therefore a high degree of accordance with the pedagogic optimum.
The case study therefore enhances processing according to different business studies-specific models and theoretical approaches to marketing both through contextualisation and through the dimension of
multiple contexts and perspectives (D5). A change of perspective is only indirectly provided by the case study situation since the focus is predominantly on management decisions and therefore represents a single economic point of view. Students are not, therefore, encouraged by the situation description to consider different stakeholders and interest groups in the analysis
(multiple perspectives), which means that the case study does not generally facilitate an action orientation. However, since the ability to take multiple perspectives is of considerable importance to students’ ability to tackle present and future professional and everyday problems and situations (see, for example [
17] (p. 33); [
44,
47]), these findings indicate an overall low deviation on this dimension from the pedagogic optimum.
As indicated, this enables an adequate evaluation of the subjective significance of the life and experience (D6) dimension. Relevance to life and experiences can be justified on the basis of the findings of the real-life orientation (D2) and prior knowledge (D4), since the case study represents a real-life issue to be solved independently by learners and also corresponds to their experiential world. This also reflects the fact that the case study is designed realistically for the target group: in its subjective significance, it allows for an active examination of the problems and learning content but also takes into account the learners’ world of experience and interest. There is, therefore, a high degree of accordance with the pedagogic optimum.
The next dimension to be considered as a reference point of a case study is
complexity (
D7). A company’s working and business processes can only be partially analysed through the case study situation. The
degree of networking is dichotomous: the internal relationship, i.e., the effects within the company, are highly undifferentiated, which facilitates only shallow analysis and reflection of the internal business processes or the marketing ideas and implementation (the impact of decisions on the company itself). However, the case study allows for the interconnected analysis of the marketing concepts and processes in the external relationship, prompting consideration of the associated impact on the brand, etc., of, for example, decisions concerning whether to drop or change a marketing concept. This, in turn, underpins an ultimate decision from the management’s point of view. This meets the pedagogic claim of
polytelics: conflicts between objectives in the external relationship may arise from the analysis and both need to be resolved by the students but also increase the complexity of the case. However, the strict structuring of the case study into individual sections also encourages an isolated view of individual marketing steps/processes and an excessive reduction of the complexity of the teaching and learning arrangement for the students. This conflicts with the aim of allowing the target group to process the overall context of the case and use this for the analysis on the basis of the independent working and learning method required in their course of study. In the further interpretation of the case in terms of underlying complexity, scaling content analysis is predominantly used: the degree of control in terms of case study design can be divided into the
support dimension, the
analytical dimension and the
conceptual dimension. A distinction is made between a narrow and an open case study design. The analysis shows that the
support dimension reflects an open case study design but with a slight tendency towards a narrow case study design, since the case study initially poses introductory questions such as: ‘Was Red Bull outgrowing its anti-establishment status? Did it need to transition to a more traditional marketing approach?’ [
61] (p. 1). These questions should be seen as reflective questions in the context of the case study situation as they do not provide any solution paths for the subsequent problem solving (see
D8), so learners need to carry out the analysis independently. With regard to the
analytical dimension, these introductory questions should be seen more critically, since they present the problem to the learners and therefore do not enable an independent development of the problem. However, no criteria regarding evaluation or alternative analysis are anticipated, so in terms of complexity, there is a tendency towards open design. Regarding the
conceptual dimension, the case study is based on complex conceptual knowledge about different marketing theories. It can therefore be assumed, in accordance with an open case study design, that the students’ procedural knowledge (practical knowledge) is challenged by the case.
The
complexity of the content of the case study can be classified as
complex with a tendency to be
less complex since the problems and aspects of analysis mentioned in the case study and the connections between the problem areas are well structured. However, the case study does not address traditional marketing concepts and measures, so students may have to rearrange their prior knowledge of marketing in order to use it in a new context to analyse the case study. In addition, the shortcomings of the above-mentioned dimensions have an influence on the degree of complexity of the case study in view of existing interdependencies; for example, there is little stimulus of a change of perspective to reflect different stakeholders and interest groups and a rather high level of deviation from the pedagogic optimum with regard to the problem orientation of the case study situation. The addressed
knowledge dimension and the
cognitive process dimensions can therefore be classified using the taxonomy matrix set out by Anderson and Krathwohl [
59]: from the interpretation of the degrees of control, the addressed
knowledge dimension of the case can be assigned to the area of
procedural knowledge. Ultimately, the
cognitive process dimension underlying the case study can also be assigned to the level of
evaluation in combination with the information from the teaching note, since the case study does not focus on the development of new concepts and strategies [
34]. This can be derived from the following questions within the teaching note: ‘In which segments are the greatest growth opportunities? Can buzz be leveraged by any company?’ [
61] (p. 4). According to the criteria of the analytical framework, this corresponds to the ideal type of case study in HE defined for this paper, but a rather low (but still existent) deviation from the pedagogic optimum is evident with regard to the overall complexity.
The findings on the dimension of
open approaches and solutions (
D8) are of interest, too. The questions set out in the case study can be seen as reflection questions on problem areas but do not provide any approaches to a solution with regard to the case processing (
solution process), so the analysis, the evaluation and the decisions can be made by the students themselves without recourse to existing
solution instruments. In addition, it is crucial in the context of problem solving that the case study allows for different results in terms of
openness of results in order to create a learning situation that is as authentic as possible in terms of (solution) openness. The analysis carried out shows that a sample solution or a guiding path that suggests only one direction of the solution is not evident in the case study situation: ‘A mass advertising approach could undermine Red Bull’s perceived authenticity. [...] Some feared that if Red Bull became a sort of Austrian Coca-Cola with mass appeal, its carefully cultivated mystique could “vanish like bubbles in the brew”. Others were less concerned and felt Red Bull was ready for prime time’ [
61] (p. 11). Instead, students have to make independent decisions on the basis of the information and materials available in the case study (unless the teacher prescribes further questions, etc.). Consequently, on this dimension, the case study is close to the pedagogical ideal.
The
structure of the process of action (
D9) dimension is set out in the case study. As far as the objective of the case study is concerned, it provides sufficient content and material as well as a
common theme throughout its structure. The case study situation begins with information on the background of the company and goes on to present various marketing processes as well as the measures carried out in connection with them. A concluding section of the case study situation focuses on the discussion of current company evaluations as well as future marketing that needs to be considered with regard to the analysis. In terms of learning objectives, the teaching note contains only indirect information, such as ‘[...] students need to consider how the strategic options would affect the brand and its core user segments’ [
61] (p. 4). However, the case study is supplemented by appropriate media (for example, as appendices) that contribute to a better understanding of the situation (
contextual coherence). Contents and materials ensure
completeness of the case study, so that the learners can deal intensively and successfully with the problem set out in the case study. There is, therefore, a high degree of accordance with the pedagogical ideal.
The analysis of the case has shown that the indirectly derivable learning objectives can be achieved independently through the case study context, enhancing self-direction in the autonomy (D10) dimension. As already mentioned, the questions integrated into the case study text do not restrict independent analysis and decision making but, rather, reduce the complexity content of the case study, also with regard to the problem orientation. As pointed out above, the independent problem identification as well as the related planning of problem solving are central characteristics of the case study method. Consequently, it is evident how important the enhancement of independence is both within research and for the future world of work. In relation to the case study method, this is, as outlined, a characteristic to be demanded and encouraged. Thus, there is a high level of accordance with the idea of the autonomy dimension.
The analysis of the accompanying materials shows that the teaching note contains sufficient information on the following aspects: target group, prior knowledge, synopsis, (subject-specific) academic background, and discussion questions and answers that can be used for teaching. However, from a pedagogical perspective, there are some deficits: the learning objectives on which the case study is based are mentioned only indirectly in the form of a list of the subject areas of marketing covered by the case study, and there are no precise statements about which learning objectives are intended or which learning processes are enhanced by the case study. The key competencies promoted by the case study must be derived by the lecturers themselves, as these are not addressed. The academic background of the case study, on the other hand, is explained in more detail. The teaching note contains three
assignment questions sections, which focus on the
success factors and
brand essence,
growth opportunities and
traditional vs.
non-traditional marketing and are prepared for lecturers by linking them to the subject-specific content of the case study situation, as well as reflection questions on the case analysis. A time frame of 30 min is allowed for each section, but there is no information on where the questions should be used. In addition, there is a lack of information about the teaching and learning process, including the aspect of the
social context. There is only information about which content areas of marketing are dealt with in the case study: ‘It could also be used in more advanced brand management courses, to help address product/brand lifecycle, brand essence, and brand extension issues, as well as inter-segment dynamics’ [
61] (p. 3). However, it is left unclear whether the questions provided should be used (or are needed) by students to work on the case study or whether they should be used at the end of the case study work in the context of the plenary discussion. Nevertheless, the preparation note at the end of the teaching note is a positive addition. This note includes a reference to the company website and a video that enables lecturers to identify the features of the company addressed. Furthermore, the appendix to the teaching note includes a blackboard picture that can be used for the lecture or as a basis for discussion.
The summary of the analysis results for case study A shows that the pedagogic quality of a case study depends on several dimensions and that these in turn are interdependent. Overall, it can be stated that case study A, in combination with the teaching note, fulfils the majority of the quality criteria. These overall findings can be depicted graphically to visualise the deviation from the pedagogic optimum with regard to the dimensions used for the case study analysis (
Figure 2).
4.2. Aggregation of Findings
The detailed findings of the individual case studies will now be presented in aggregated form.
Figure 3 below visualises the quality of the nine case studies analysed in a general overview. A summary view of the findings of all nine case studies enables the central findings of the study to be identified and the case studies to be compared. There are clear deficits in the
problem orientation,
complexity and
authenticity dimensions. Further weaknesses can also be identified in some case studies regarding the autonomy, structure of the process of action, open approaches and solutions, multiple contexts and perspectives, life and experience, and prior knowledge dimensions, while with regard to the real-life orientation dimension, most case studies have a high level of accordance with the pedagogic optimum.
Authentic design is an important characteristic of a case study. The findings show that case studies often have a narrative form and are only rarely characterised by dialogues and actions that depict realistic business processes, instead often reproducing corporate events and backgrounds as information reports based on original sources. This makes it particularly difficult for learners to identify themselves as one of the actors in the case study context and also affects the situational representativeness of the case study situation. In addition, the inadequate design of the case study situation (form, structure, and content) intensifies this problem in some case studies, although three case studies show a particularly high degree of authenticity of the design. One case study has a high degree of authenticity because of the dialogues and actions of the actors within a problem situation that is present throughout the case study.
On the
real-life orientation dimension,
Figure 3 initially suggests a high level of accordance with the pedagogic optimum in almost all cases. One of the reasons for this is that the case study situations were developed on the basis of real company contexts. However, the findings also show that the attempt to completely reproduce reality in the context of corporate situations often neglects the inherent learning process in the development of a case study. From a pedagogic point of view, this deficiency is reflected in the underlying interdependence of the dimensions, including
authenticity,
problem orientation,
complexity and structure of the learning and
process of action. Furthermore, because of inadequate design elements and the inherent limited problem and case study situations, discovery learning is made more difficult in several cases.
The analysis of the teaching notes, however, produces fewer positive findings. Here, all the accompanying information shows deficits that ultimately hinder a targeted and, from a pedagogic point of view, fruitful use of the case study for the lecturer. The learning objectives are for the most part imprecisely stated or can be derived only from the context of the teaching note, while subject-specific learning objectives are generally barely addressed, if at all. Furthermore, all teaching notes contain preparation, work, or discussion questions, but pedagogic information for their use is missing, as is information for the design of the learning process, as well as its sequence for students. In summary, all case studies lack information about the sequence of the learning process, the facilitation of social contexts (for example, cooperative/collaborative learning), and possible competence development through the case study and organisational framework. A positive feature of some case studies is the personal writing style, which guides the lecturer in a certain way (personal involvement) and also describes best practice experiences from teaching. A timeframe or a course plan for the design of the course is available in only three case studies and refers exclusively to the plenary discussion and, in the teaching note, to the questions provided for this purpose.