Sulfolane Analysis in Environmental Samples: A Critical Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Sampling of Environmental Matrices
3. Sample Preparation
3.1. Extraction
3.1.1. Extraction Solvent
Dichloromethane
Water
Toluene
Ethyl Acetate
Other Solvents
3.1.2. Dissolved Electrolyte Effect
3.1.3. pH Adjustment
4. Separation and Analysis Techniques
4.1. GC Inlet
4.2. GC Column
4.2.1. Stationary Phase
4.2.2. Column Dimensions
4.3. GC Detectors
4.4. Internal Standard
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Clark, E. Sulfolane and Sulfones. In Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology; John Wiley & Sons, Inc.: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2000; ISBN 978-0-471-23896-6. [Google Scholar]
- Bak, A.; Kozik, V.; Dybal, P.; Kus, S.; Swietlicka, A.; Jampilek, J. Sulfolane: Magic Extractor or Bad Actor? Pilot-Scale Study on Solvent Corrosion Potential. Sustainability 2018, 10, 3677. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Travis, C.C.; Arms, A.D. Bioconcentration of Organics in Beef, Milk, and Vegetation. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1988, 22, 271–274. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- O’Neil, M.J. (Ed.) The Merck Index: An Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals, 13th ed.; Merck: Whitehouse Station, NJ, USA, 2001; ISBN 978-0-911910-13-1. [Google Scholar]
- Coetzee, J.F. Sulpholane: Purification, Tests for Purity and Properties. Pure Appl. Chem. 1977, 49, 211–216. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Willer, R. Sulfoxides. In Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology; Kirk-Othmer, Ed.; Wiley: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2000; ISBN 978-0-471-48494-3. [Google Scholar]
- Greene, E.; Gieg, L.; Coy, D.; Fedorak, P. Sulfolane Biodegradation Potential in Aquifer Sediments at Sour Natural Gas Plant Sites. Water Res. 1998, 32, 3680–3688. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tindal, M.; Sevigny, J.; Potter, K.; Roe, S.; Hill, J. Canadian Environmental Quality Guidelines for Sulfolane: Water and Soil: Scientific Supporting Document; Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment: Winnipeg, MA, Canada, 2006; ISBN 978-1-896997-59-9. [Google Scholar]
- Meyers, R.A. (Ed.) UOP SULFOLANE PROCESS. In Handbook of Petroleum Refining Processes; McGraw-Hill Education: New York, NY, USA, 2016; ISBN 978-0-07-185049-0. [Google Scholar]
- Kim, C.; Clarke, W.; Lockington, D. Competitive Adsorption of Sulfolane and Thiolane on Clay Materials. Korean J. Chem. Eng. 1999, 16, 215–220. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stewart, O.; Minnear, L. Sulfolane Technical Assistance and Evaluation Report; Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation: Anchorage, AK, USA, 2010.
- Dinh, M.; Hakimabadi, S.G.; Pham, A.L.-T. Treatment of Sulfolane in Groundwater: A Critical Review. J. Environ. Manag. 2020, 263, 110385. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Khan, M.; Yu, L.; Achari, G. Sulfolane in Contaminated Sites: Environmental Toxicity and Bioremediation Technologies. Environ. Rev. 2022, 30, 217–227. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Testing Status of Sulfolane 11054. Available online: https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/go/ts-11054 (accessed on 17 September 2023).
- Mulder, D.; Yu, L.; Achari, G. A Laboratory and Field Investigation of Aerobic Biodegradation of Sulfolane in Groundwater. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 2021, 96, 2865–2871. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Headley, J.V.; Fedorak, P.M.; Dickson, L.C. A Review of Analytical Methods for the Determination of Sulfolane and Alkanolamines in Environmental Studies. J. AOAC Int. 2002, 85, 154–162. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Skoog, D.A.; West, D.M.; Holler, F.J.; Crouch, S.R. Fundamentals of Analytical Chemistry, 10th ed.; Cengage: Boston, MA, USA, 2022; ISBN 978-0-357-45043-7. [Google Scholar]
- Groundwater Sampling Operating Procedure. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2015-06/documents/Groundwater-Sampling.pdf (accessed on 16 April 2023).
- Soil Sampling Operating Procedure. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2015-06/documents/Soil-Sampling.pdf (accessed on 17 September 2023).
- Saint-Fort, R. Sulfolane Attenuation by Surface and Subsurface Soil Matrices. J. Environ. Sci. Health Part A Tox. Hazard. Subst. Environ. Eng. 2006, 41, 1211–1231. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Doucette, W.; Chard, J.; Moore, B.; Staudt, W.; Headley, J. Uptake of Sulfolane and Diisopropanolamine (DIPA) by Cattails (Typha Latifolia). Michrochem. J. 2005, 81, 41–49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, J.K.; Lee, W.J.; Cho, Y.-J.; Park, D.H.; Lee, Y.-W.; Chung, J. Variation of Bacterial Community Immobilized in Polyethylene Glycol Carrier during Mineralization of Xenobiotics Analyzed by TGGE Technique. Korean J. Chem. Eng. 2010, 27, 1816–1821. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Izadifard, M.; Achari, G.; Langford, C. Degradation of Sulfolane Using Activated Persulfate with UV and UV-Ozone. Water Res. 2017, 125, 325–331. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Dominic, J.A.; Somathilake, P.; Achari, G.; Langford, C.H.; Tay, J.-H. Sunlight Mediated Passive Wastewater Treatment Technology Using Photochemical Reduction of Ferric Iron for Decontamination of Various Aqueous Contaminants. Sol. Energy 2018, 173, 470–477. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Izadifard, M.; Achari, G.; Langford, C. Mineralization of Sulfolane in Aqueous Solutions by Ozone/CaO2 and Ozone/CaO with Potential for Field Application. Chemosphere 2018, 197, 535–540. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Heydari, G.; Langford, C.; Achari, G. Passive Solar Photocatalytic Treatment of Emerging Contaminants in Water: A Field Study. Catalysts 2019, 9, 1045. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Khan, M.; Yu, L.; Achari, G.; Tay, J. Degradation of Sulfolane in Aqueous Media by Integrating Activated Sludge and Advanced Oxidation Process. Chemosphere 2019, 222, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Khan, M.; Yu, L.; Tay, J.; Achari, G. Coaggregation of Bacterial Communities in Aerobic Granulation and Its Application on the Biodegradation of Sulfolane. J. Hazard. Mater. 2019, 377, 206–214. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Khan, M.; Yu, L.; Achari, G. Field Evaluation of a Pressurized Ozone Treatment System to Degrade Sulfolane in Contaminated Groundwaters. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2020, 8, 104037. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Khan, M.; Yu, L.; Hollman, J.; Tay, J.; Achari, G. Integration of Aerobic Granulation and UV/H2O2 Processes in a Continuous Flow System for the Degradation of Sulfolane in Contaminated Water. Environ. Sci. Water Res. Technol. 2020, 6, 1711–1722. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yang, Y.; Yu, L.; Gopal, A. Aerobic Biodegradation of Sulfolane Using Archaea and Pseudomonas Strains. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 2022, 97, 1763–1770. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yu, L.; Iranmanesh, S.; Keir, I.; Achari, G. A Field Pilot Study on Treating Groundwater Contaminated with Sulfolane Using UV/H2O2. Water 2020, 12, 1200. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dharwadkar, S.; Yu, L.; Achari, G. Enhancement of LED Based Photocatalytic Degradation of Sulfolane by Integration with Oxidants and Nanomaterials. Chemosphere 2021, 263, 124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Dharwadkar, S.; Yu, L.; Achari, G. Photocatalytic Degradation of Sulfolane Using a LED-Based Photocatalytic Treatment System. Catalysts 2021, 11, 624. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yu, L.; Mehrabani-Zeinabad, M.; Achari, G.; Langford, C. Application of UV Based Advanced Oxidation to Treat Sulfolane in an Aqueous Medium. Chemosphere 2016, 160, 155–161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kasanke, C.; Leigh, M. Factors Limiting Sulfolane Biodegradation in Contaminated Subarctic Aquifer Substrate. PLoS ONE 2017, 12, e0181462. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Chang, S.; Wu, C.; Yang, C.; Lin, C. Evaluation Use of Bioaugmentation and Biostimulation to Improve Degradation of Sulfolane in Artificial Groundwater. Chemosphere 2021, 263, 127919. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Stevens, S.; Richardson, D. Analysis of Sulfolane in Biochar. Appita 2018, 71, 349–353. [Google Scholar]
- Eckardt, M.; Greb, A.; Simat, T.J. Polyphenylsulfone (PPSU) for Baby Bottles: A Comprehensive Assessment on Polymer-Related Non-Intentionally Added Substances (NIAS). Food Addit. Contam. Part Chem. Anal. Control Expo. Risk Assess. 2018, 35, 1421–1437. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Headley, J.V.; Peru, K.M.; Dickson, L.C. Gas Chromatographic–Mass Spectrometric Determination of Sulfolane in Wetland Vegetation Exposed to Sour Gas-Contaminated Groundwater. J. Chromatogr. A 1999, 859, 69–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Headley, J.; Dickson, L.; Peru, K. Comparison of Levels of Sulfolane and Diisopropanolamine in Natural Wetland Vegetation Exposed to Gas-Condensate Contaminated Ground Water. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 2002, 33, 3531–3544. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Versace, F.; Uppugunduri, C.R.S.; Krajinovic, M.; Théorêt, Y.; Gumy-Pause, F.; Mangin, P.; Staub, C.; Ansari, M. A Novel Method for Quantification of Sulfolane (a Metabolite of Busulfan) in Plasma by Gas Chromatography–Tandem Mass Spectrometry. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2012, 404, 1831–1838. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Silinski, M.A.R.; Uenoyama, T.; Cooper, S.D.; Fernando, R.A.; Robinson, V.G.; Waidyanatha, S. Development and Validation of an Analytical Method for Quantitation of Sulfolane in Rat and Mouse Plasma by GC-MS. J. Anal. Toxicol. 2019, 43, 477–481. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Shipkowski, K.A.; Cora, M.C.; Cesta, M.F.; Robinson, V.G.; Waidyanatha, S.; Witt, K.L.; Vallant, M.K.; Fallacara, D.M.; Hejtmancik, M.R.; Masten, S.A.; et al. Comparison of Sulfolane Effects in Sprague Dawley Rats, B6C3F1/N Mice, and Hartley Guinea Pigs after 28 Days of Exposure via Oral Gavage. Toxicol. Rep. 2021, 8, 581–591. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Greene, E.; Fedorak, P. Nutrient Stimulation of Sulfolane Biodegradation in a Contaminated Soil from a Sour Natural Gas Plant and in a Pristine Soil. Environ. Technol. 2001, 22, 619–629. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Brandao, M.; Yu, L.; Garcia, C.; Achari, G. Advanced Oxidation Based Treatment of Soil Wash Water Contaminated with Sulfolane. Water 2019, 11, 2152. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- BC Lab Manual for Sulfolane Analysis 2017, Government of British Columbia (Canada). Available online: https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/environment/research-monitoring-and-reporting/monitoring/emre/methods/sept2017/bc_lab_manual_sulfolane_method_15sept2017.pdf (accessed on 26 December 2023).
- Sulfolane Key Elements Document, Version 4. Available online: https://dec.alaska.gov/media/6165/key-element-all-media-2013-7-22.pdf (accessed on 26 December 2023).
- Fedorak, P.; Coy, D. Biodegradation of Sulfolane in Soil and Groundwater Samples from a Sour Gas Plant Site. Environ. Technol. 1996, 17, 1093–1102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Luther, S.; Dudas, M.; Fedorak, P. Sorption of Sulfolane and Diisopropanolamine by Soils, Clays and Aquifer Materials. J. Contam. Hydrol. 1998, 32, 159–176. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Greene, E.A.; Coy, D.L.; Fedorak, P.M. Laboratory Evaluations of Factors Affecting Biodegradation of Sulfolane and Diisopropanolamine. Bioremediation J. 1999, 3, 299–313. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kim, C.; Clarke, W.; Lockington, D. Determination of Retardation Coefficients of Sulfolane and Thiolane on Soils by K-Ow-K-Oc and Solubility Parameter, Batch and Column Experiments. Environ. Geol. 2000, 39, 741–749. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kim, C.; Lockington, D.; Clarke, W.; Kim, C. Preliminary Determination of Pollutants Plume in Groundwater at Hazardous Solid Waste Disposal Site by Employing CPT and Rig. Environ. Technol. 2000, 21, 17–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kim, C.; Chon, B. Oxygen Uptake Characteristics of Soil Inoculum Amended with Thiophene Derivatives. Korean J. Chem. Eng. 2002, 19, 773–779. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yang, C.; Liu, S.; Su, Y.; Chen, Y.; Lin, C.; Lin, K. Bioremediation Capability Evaluation of Benzene and Sulfolane Contaminated Groundwater: Determination of Bioremediation Parameters. Sci. Total Environ. 2019, 648, 811–818. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lin, C.-W.; Liu, S.-H.; Wu, C.-F.; Chang, S.-H. Critical Factors for Enhancing the Bioremediation of a Toxic Pollutant at High Concentrations in Groundwater: Toxicity Evaluation, Degrader Tolerance, and Microbial Community. J. Environ. Manag. 2021, 277, 111487. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Li, Z.; Song, J.; Zhang, S.; Wang, J.; Jian, X. Measurement and Correlation of Liquid-Liquid Equilibrium for the Ternary System (Water+1,2-Dichloroethane plus Sulfolane) at 288.15, 298.15, and 308.15 K. Chin. J. Chem. Eng. 2022, 51, 109–114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tobiszewski, M.; Namieśnik, J.; Pena-Pereira, F. Environmental Risk-Based Ranking of Solvents Using the Combination of a Multimedia Model and Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis. Green Chem. 2017, 19, 1034–1042. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hossaini, R.; Chipperfield, M.P.; Montzka, S.A.; Leeson, A.A.; Dhomse, S.S.; Pyle, J.A. The Increasing Threat to Stratospheric Ozone from Dichloromethane. Nat. Commun. 2017, 8, 15962. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pawliszyn, J.; Lord, H.L. (Eds.) Handbook of Sample Preparation; Wiley: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2010; ISBN 978-0-470-09934-6. [Google Scholar]
- EPA Method 3550C. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2015-12/documents/3550c.pdf (accessed on 17 April 2023).
- EPA Method 3540C. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/hw-sw846/sw-846-test-method-3540c-soxhlet-extraction (accessed on 26 December 2023).
- Neely, B.J.; Wagner, J.; Robinson, R.L., Jr.; Gasem, K.A.M. Mutual Solubility Measurements of Hydrocarbon–Water Systems Containing Benzene, Toluene, and 3-Methylpentane. J. Chem. Eng. Data 2008, 53, 165–174. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Altshuller, A.P.; Everson, H.E. The Solubility of Ethyl Acetate in Aqueous Electrolyte Solutions. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1953, 75, 4823–4827. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yang, Y.; Yu, L.; Iranmanesh, S.; Keir, I.; Achari, G. Laboratory and Field Investigation of Sulfolane Removal from Water Using Activated Carbon. J. Environ. Eng. 2020, 146, 1680. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Skoog, D.A.; Holler, F.J.; Crouch, S.R. Principles of Instrumental Analysis, 7th ed.; Cengage Learning: Melbourne, Australia, 2018; ISBN 978-1-305-57721-3. [Google Scholar]
- Kovacevik, B.; Zdravkovski, Z.; Mitrev, S. Pesticide analysis in water samples using GC-MS pulsed splitless injection. Comptes Rendus L’Académie Bulg. Sci. 2016, 69, 815–820. [Google Scholar]
- Thiophene, Tetrahydro-, 1,1-Dioxide. Available online: https://webbook.nist.gov/cgi/inchi?ID=C126330&Mask=200 (accessed on 22 September 2023).
Property | Value | Ref |
---|---|---|
Molecular formula | C4H8SO2 | [1] |
Molecular weight | 120.17 g/mol | [1] |
Melting point | 28.5 °C | [1] |
Boiling point | 287.3 °C | [1] |
Log P | −0.4 | [3] |
Solubility in water | Miscible at 30 °C | [4] |
pKa | 12.9 * | [5] |
Sample Type | Method of Extraction | Extraction Phase | NO. of Extraction Aliquotes | Solvent-to-Sample Ratio (mL:mL or mL:g) | Centrifugation | Filtration | Salting out Agent (Saturation %) | Water Removal of Extract | Solvent Evaporation (Concentration Factor) | pH Adjustment | Internal Standard | Recovery | Source |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Aqueous solution | AQ 1 direct injection | N/A | N/A | N/A | Yes | By filter paper | No | No | No | No | No | N/A | [20] |
Aqueous solution | LLE 2 | DCM 4 | 3 | 2:5 | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | 60 to 70 | [21] |
Aqueous solution | LLE 2 | DCM 4 | 1 | 2:5 | No | Yes | NaCl (80%) | No | No | No | Ethylene glycol butyl ether | N/A | [22] |
Aqueous solution | LLE 2 | DCM 4 | 1 | 1:1 | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | 80 | [23] |
Aqueous solution | LLE 2 | DCM 4 | 1 | 2:5 | No | N/A | No | No | No | No | No | N/A | [24] |
Aqueous solution | LLE 2 | DCM 4 | 1 | 2:1 | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | 80 | [25] |
Aqueous solution | LLE 2 | Ethyl acetate | 1 | 2:1 | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | N/A | [26] |
Aqueous solution | LLE 2 | DCM 4 | 1 | 3:5 | No | Yes | No | No | No | No | No | 80 ± 5 | [27] |
Aqueous solution | LLE 2 | DCM 4 | 1 | 3:5 | No | Yes | No | No | No | No | No | 80 ± 5 | [28] |
Aqueous solution | LLE 2 | Toluene | 1 | 2:1 | No | No | No | No | No | No | Sulfolane-d8 | N/A | [12] |
Aqueous solution | LLE 2 | DCM 4 | 1 | 3:5 | No | Yes | No | No | No | No | No | 80 ± 5 | [29] |
Aqueous solution | LLE 2 | DCM 4 | 1 | 3:5 | No | Yes | No | No | No | No | No | 80 ± 5 | [30] |
Aqueous solution | LLE 2 | DCM 4 | 1 | 3:5 | No | Yes | No | No | No | No | No | N/A | [31] |
Aqueous solution | LLE 2 | DCM 4 | 1 | 3:5 | No | Yes | No | No | No | No | No | 80 ± 5 | [32] |
Aqueous solution | LLE 2 | DCM 4 | 1 | 1:1 | No | By 0.2 μm PTFE filter | No | No | No | No | No | N/A | [33] |
Aqueous solution | LLE 2 | DCM 4 | 1 | 1:1 | No | By 0.2 μm PTFE filter | No | No | No | No | No | N/A | [34] |
Aqueous suspension | AQ 1 direct injection | N/A | N/A | N/A | Yes | By 0.22 μm nylon filter | No | No | No | No | No | N/A | [35] |
Aqueous suspension | LLE 2 | DCM 4 | 3 | N/A | N/A | N/A | No | No | No | No | Sulfolane-d8 and nitrobenzene-d8 | N/A | [36] |
Aqueous suspension | LLE 2 | DCM 4 | 1 | 1:10 | No | By 0.22 μm Teflon filter paper | NaCl (100%) | No | No | No | No | N/A | [37] |
Aqueous suspension | LLE 2 | DCM 4 | 1 | 3:5 | No | By 0.45 μm membrane syringe | No | No | No | No | No | N/A | [31] |
Biochar | Soxhlet extraction | Ethyl acetate | 6 | N/A | No | No | No | No | N/A | No | N-butanol | 43 to 50 | [38] |
Ethanol/water (1:1) mix | LLE 2 | Chloroform | 1 | 1:5 | No | No | No | By Na2SO4 | No | No | Dicyclohexylmethanol | 45.5 | [39] |
Homogenized water plant tissue mixture | LLE 2 | Toluene | 3 | 5:1 | Yes | By 0.2 μm cellulose acetate membrane filter | No | No | Yes (15) | No | No | 80 ± 12 | [40] |
Homogenized water plant tissue mixture | LLE 2 | Toluene | 3 | 5:1 | Yes | By 0.2 μm cellulose acetate membrane filter | No | No | Yes (15) | No | No | 80 ± 12 | [41] |
Homogenized water plant tissue mixture | LLE 2 | DCM 4 | 3 | 2:5 | No | By 0.2 membrane filter | No | No | No | No | No | 50 to 60 | [21] |
Plasma | LLE 2 | Ethyl acetate | 1 | 5:1 | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes (8) | by NaOH | Sulfolane-d8 | 93 | [42] |
Plasma | LLE 2 | Ethyl acetate | 1 | 5:1 | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes (8) | by NaOH | Sulfolane-d8 | 74.4 to 88.7 | [43] |
Plasma | LLE 2 | Ethyl acetate | 1 | 5:1 | Yes | No | Yes | No | No | by NaOH | Sulfolane-d8 | >85 | [44] |
PPSF polymer | SLE 3 | Acetonitrile | 1 | 20:1 | No | No | No | No | No | No | Dicyclohexylmethanol | N/A | [39] |
Soil | SLE 3 | Water | 2 | 5:1 | Yes | No | No | No | No | No | No | 65 to 102 | [45] |
Soil | SLE 3 | Water | 1 to 3 | 1:1 to 3:1 | Yes | 0.45 μm filter | No | No | No | No | No | 82 to 99 | [46] |
Soil | SLE 3 | DCM 4 | 1 | 1:1 | Yes | No | No | By Na2SO4 and NaCl | No | No | Sulfolane-d8 | 80–120 | [47] |
Soil | SLE 3 | DCM 4 | 3 | 5:2 | Yes | Yes | No | By Na2SO4 | If required | No | Sulfolane-d8 | 70–120 | [48] |
Soil | Soxhlet extraction | DCM 4 | 1 | 30:1 | No | No | No | By Na2SO4 | Yes (3) | No | Sulfolane-d8 | 70–120 | [48] |
Soil slurry | AQ 1 direct injection | Water | N/A | N/A | Yes | No | No | No | No | No | No | N/A | [7] |
Soil slurry/soil water mix | LLE 2 | DCM 4 | 3 | 1:2 | Yes | No | NaCl (80%) | By Na2SO4 | Yes (N/A) | No | Dibenzothiophene | N/A | [49] |
Soil water mix | LLE 2 | Toluene | 3 | 5:1 | Yes | By 0.2 μm cellulose acetate membrane filter | No | No | Yes (15) | No | No | 126 | [41] |
Water | AQ 1 direct injection | N/A | 0 | N/A | Yes | No | No | No | No | No | No | N/A | [50] |
Water | AQ 1 direct injection | Water | N/A | N/A | Yes | No | No | No | No | No | No | N/A | [51] |
Water | LLE 2 | DCM 4 | 1 | 1:1 | Yes | By 0.2 membrane filter | No | By Na2SO4 | No | No | No | N/A | [10] |
Water | LLE 2 | DCM 4 | 1 | 1:1 | Yes | By 0.2 membrane filter | No | No | No | No | No | N/A | [52] |
Water | LLE 2 | DCM 4 | 3 | 1:20 | No | By glass wool | No | By Na2SO4 | Yes (15) | By NaOH to pH 10 | No | N/A | [53] |
Water | LLE 2 | Toluene | 3 | 5:1 | Yes | By 0.2 μm cellulose acetate membrane filter | No | No | Yes (15) | No | No | 127 | [41] |
Water | LLE 2 | DCM 4 | 1 | 1:1 | No | By 0.2 membrane filter | No | By Na2SO4 | No | No | No | N/A | [54] |
Water | LLE 2 | DCM 4 | 1 | 1:10 | No | No | NaCl (100%) | No | No | By Na2CO3 to pH 5–8 | No | N/A | [55] |
Water | LLE 2 | DCM 4 | 1 | 1:10 | No | No | NaCl (100%) | No | No | By Na2CO3 to pH 5–8 | No | N/A | [56] |
Water | LLE 2 | DCM 4 | 1 | 5:2 | No | By 0.45 μm PTFE | No | No | No | No | No | N/A | [15] |
Water | LLE 1 | 1,2-dichloroethane | 1 | 1:1 | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | N/A | [57] |
Water | LLE 2 | DCM 4 | 2 | 1:1 | No | No | Yes | By Na2SO4 | Yes (200) | Yes (pH < 2) | Sulfolane-d8 | 80–120 | [47] |
Sample Type | Sample Solvent | Carrier Gas | Carrier Gas Flow Rate/Pressure | Mode of Injection | Injection Volume | Inlet Temperature (°C) | Type of Column | Column Stationary Phase | Column Dimensions | Detector | LLOD 4 | LLOQ 5 | Detector Temperature (°C) | Source |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Aqueous solution | DCM 1 | N2 | 10 mL/min | N/A | N/A | N/A | WCOT 2 | DB-5 | 30 m × 0.45 mm × 0.25 μm | FID | N/A | N/A | N/A | [21] |
Aqueous solution | Water | N2 | 360 mL/min | Splitless | N/A | 280 | SCOT 3 | OS-138 | 7.5 m × 0.51 mm | FID | 6 mg/L | N/A | N/A | [20] |
Aqueous solution | DCM 1 | He | 1 mL/min | Splitless | 1 | 250 | WCOT 2 | DB-WAXETR | 30 m × 0.32 mm × 1 μm | MS | N/A | N/A | N/A | [22] |
Aqueous solution | DCM 1 | He | 250 KPa | Splitless | 2 | 165 | WCOT 2 | ZB-5 | N/A | FID | 1 mg/L | N/A | 250 | [23] |
Aqueous solution | DCM 1 | He | 10 mL/min | Splitless | 2 | 250 | WCOT 2 | ZB-5 | N/A | FID | N/A | N/A | 320 | [24] |
Aqueous solution | DCM 1 | He | 250 kPa | Splitless | 2 | 165 | WCOT 2 | ZB-5 | N/A | FID | 1 mg/L | N/A | 250 | [25] |
Aqueous solution | Ethyl acetate | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | WCOT 2 | ZB-5 | N/A | FID | N/A | N/A | N/A | [26] |
Aqueous solution | DCM 1 | He | 1.07 mL/min | Splitless | 1 | 250 | WCOT 2 | ZB-5 | N/A | MS | 10 μg/L | N/A | N/A | [27] |
Aqueous solution | DCM 1 | He | 1.07 mL/min | Splitless | 1 | 250 | WCOT 2 | ZB-5 | N/A | MS | 10 μg/L | N/A | N/A | [28] |
Aqueous solution | Toluene | He | 1 mL/min | Splitless | 0.5 | 285 | WCOT 2 | DB-5 | 30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 μm | MS | 20 μg/L | 70 μg/L | Ion source: 285 | [12] |
Aqueous solution | DCM 1 | He | 1.07 mL/min | Splitless | 1 | 250 | WCOT 2 | ZB-5 | N/A | MS | 10 μg/L | N/A | N/A | [29] |
Aqueous solution | DCM 1 | He | 1.07 mL/min | Splitless | 1 | 250 | WCOT 2 | ZB-5 | N/A | MS | 10 μg/L | N/A | N/A | [30] |
Aqueous solution | DCM 1 | He | N/A | Splitless | 1 | 165 | WCOT 2 | ZB-5 | N/A | FID | 0.3 mg/L | 1 mg/L | 330 | [65] |
Aqueous solution | DCM 1 | He | 1.07 mL/min | Splitless | 1 | 250 | WCOT 2 | ZB-5 | N/A | MS | 10 μg/L | N/A | N/A | [32] |
Aqueous solution | DCM 1 | He | 1.07 mL/min | Splitless | 1 | 165 | WCOT 2 | ZB-5 | N/A | FID | N/A | N/A | 330 | [33] |
Aqueous solution | DCM 1 | He | 1.07 mL/min | Splitless | 1 | 165 | WCOT 2 | ZB-5 | N/A | FID | N/A | N/A | 330 | [34] |
Aqueous suspension | Water | He | N/A | Splitless | 1 | 165 | WCOT 2 | ZB-5 | N/A | FID | 1 mg/L | N/A | 250 | [35] |
Aqueous suspension | DCM 1 | N/A | N/A | Pulsed-splitless | N/A | N/A | WCOT 2 | RTX-200 | 30 m | MS | N/A | 40 μg/L | N/A | [36] |
Aqueous suspension | DCM 1 | N2 | N/A | Splitless | 1 | 200 | WCOT 2 | Stabliwax | 30 m × 0.53 × 1 μm | FID | N/A | N/A | 250 | [37] |
Aqueous suspension | DCM 1 | He | N/A | Splitless | 1 | N/A | WCOT 2 | 5-MSI | N/A | FID | N/A | N/A | 330 | [31] |
Biochar | Ethyl acetate | He | N/A | Split (10:1) | 1 | N/A | WCOT 2 | ZB-Wax-Plus | 30 m × 0.32 mm × 0.5 μm | FID | 10 mg/L | N/A | N/A | [38] |
Ethanol/water (1:1) solution | Chloroform | He | 1 mL/min | Splitless | 1 | N/A | WCOT 2 | HP-5 | 30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 μm | MS | 10 μg/Kg of Ethanol/water (1:1) | N/A | N/A | [39] |
Homogenized water plant tissue mixture | Toluene | He | 25 cm/s | Splitless | N/A | 250 | WCOT 2 | DB-5 | 25 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 μm | MS | 90 ng per gram of wet plant tissue | 300 ng per g of wet plant tissue | Ion source: 280 | [40] |
Homogenized water plant tissue mixture | Toluene | He | 25 cm/s | Splitless | N/A | 250 | WCOT 2 | DB-5 | 25 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 μm | MS | 90 ng per gram of wet plant tissue | 300 ng per g of wet plant tissue | Ion source: 280 | [41] |
Homogenized water plant tissue mixture | DCM 1 | N2 | 10 mL/min | N/A | N/A | N/A | WCOT 2 | DB-5 | 30 m × 0.45 mm × 0.25 μm | FID | N/A | N/A | N/A | [21] |
Plasma | Isopropanol | He | 1 mL/min | Splitless | 1 | 250 | WCOT 2 | ZB-5 | 15 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 μm | MS/MS | N/A | 20 μg/L | Ion source: 200 | [42] |
Plasma | Isopropanol | He | 1 mL/min | Split (50:1) | 1 | 250 | WCOT 2 | DB-5 | 30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 μm | MS | 0.516 μg/L | 20 μg/L | Ion source: 230 | [43] |
Plasma | Ethyl acetate | He | 1 mL/min | Split (50:1) | 1 | 250 | WCOT 2 | DB-5 | 30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 μm | MS | 1.25 μg/L | N/A | Ion source: 230 | [44] |
PPSF polymer | Acetonitrile | He | 1 mL/min | Splitless | 1 | N/A | WCOT 2 | HP-5 | 30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 μm | MS | N/A | N/A | N/A | [39] |
Soil | Water | He | 25 mL/min | Splitless | 2 | 250 | Packed | Tenax-GC coated with 5% polyphenyl ether | 1.2 m × 0.32 cm | FID | 1 mg/L | N/A | 250 | [45] |
Soil | DCM 1 | He | 250 KPa | Splitless | 1 | 250 | WCOT 2 | ZB-5 | N/A | MS | <1 mg/L | <1 mg/L | 330 | [46] |
Soil slurry | Water | He | 24 mL/min | Splitless | 2 | 250 | Packed | Tenax-GC coated with 5% polyphenyl ether | 2 m × 0.3 cm | FID | 0.5 mg/L | N/A | 250 | [7] |
Soil slurry or soil water mixture | DCM 1 | N/A | N/A | Split (20:1) | N/A | 250 | WCOT 2 | DB-5 | 25 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 μm | FID | N/A | N/A | 250 | [49] |
Soil water mixture | Toluene | He | 25 cm/s | Splitless | N/A | 250 | WCOT 2 | DB-5 | 25 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 μm | MS | 90 ng per gram of wet plant tissue | N/A | Ion source: 280 | [41] |
Water | Water | N2 | 30 mL/min | Splitless | 2 | 250 | Packed | Tenax-GC coated with 5% polyphenyl ether | 1.8 m × 0.32 cm | FID | 5 mg/L | N/A | 250 | [50] |
Water | Water | He | 25 mL/min | Splitless | 2 | 250 | Packed | Tenax-GC coated with 5% polyphenyl ether | 1.2 m × 0.32 cm | FID | 1 mg/L | N/A | 250 | [51] |
Water | DCM 1 | He | 1.7 mL/min | N/A | N/A | 300 | WCOT 2 | DB-5 | 30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 μm | FID | N/A | N/A | 350 | [10] |
Water | DCM 1 | He | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | WCOT 2 | DB-5 | 30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 μm | FID | N/A | N/A | N/A | [52] |
Water | DCM 1 | He | 1.7 mL/min | Split (N/A) | 5 | 300 | WCOT 2 | DB-5 | 30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 μm | FID | N/A | N/A | 350 | [53] |
Water | Toluene | He | 25 cm/s | Splitless | N/A | 250 | WCOT 2 | DB-5 | 25 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 μm | MS | 1 ng/mL | N/A | Ion source: 280 | [41] |
Water | DCM 1 | He | 1.7 mL/min | N/A | N/A | 300 | WCOT 2 | DB-5 | 30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 μm | FID | N/A | N/A | 350 | [54] |
Water | DCM 1 | He | N/A | N/A | 0.2 | 200 | WCOT | Stabliwax | 30 m × 0.53 × 1 μm | FID | N/A | N/A | 250 | [55] |
Water | DCM 1 | He | N/A | N/A | 0.2 | 200 | WCOT 2 | Stabliwax | 30 m × 0.53 × 1 μm | FID | N/A | 0.44 mg/L | 250 | [56] |
Water | DCM 1 | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | FID | 1 mg/L | N/A | N/A | [15] |
Water | 1,2-dichloroethane | N2 | 4.5 mL/min | Split (8:1) | 0.2 | 250 | WCOT 2 | DB-FFAP | 30 m × 0.53 × 1 μm | FID | N/A | N/A | 250 | [57] |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Kobarfard, M.; Górecki, T. Sulfolane Analysis in Environmental Samples: A Critical Review. Separations 2024, 11, 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/separations11010011
Kobarfard M, Górecki T. Sulfolane Analysis in Environmental Samples: A Critical Review. Separations. 2024; 11(1):11. https://doi.org/10.3390/separations11010011
Chicago/Turabian StyleKobarfard, Merrik, and Tadeusz Górecki. 2024. "Sulfolane Analysis in Environmental Samples: A Critical Review" Separations 11, no. 1: 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/separations11010011