From Fruit Waste to Hydrogels for Agricultural Applications
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
2.2. Extraction of Pectin from Apples and Oranges Peel
2.3. Extraction of Starch from Banana Peel
2.4. Preparation of Pectin-and-Starch-Based Hydrogels
2.4.1. Starch Preparation by Thermal Approach
2.4.2. Pectin–Starch Hydrogels
2.5. Mechanical Properties of the Hydrogels
2.6. Surface Morphology and Inner Structure of the Hydrogels
2.7. FTIR Analysis
2.8. Methylation Degree of Extracted Pectin
2.9. Measurement of Water Absorbency
2.10. Soil Moisture Content
2.11. Determination of Water Retention Efficiency
2.12. Porosity
2.13. Retention Rate of Picloram in Soil
2.14. Biodegradation in Soil
3. Results
3.1. Extraction Yield
3.2. Hydrogels’ Characterization
3.2.1. FTIR Spectra
3.2.2. Mechanical Properties
3.2.3. Hydrogel Porosity
3.2.4. Swelling and Soil Water Retention
3.3. Biodegradation in Soil
- (a)
- Mechanism of de-esterification by pectin esterase and pectin methyl esterase—for example, a multi-attack mechanism—which is then followed by the decomposition of the oligomers to release the products;
- (b)
- Mechanism of hydrolytic cleavage in polygalacturonases and pectin lyases.
3.4. Retention Rate of Picloram in Sandy Soil
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Soil Properties | Value |
---|---|
Sand (%) | 95 |
Silt (%) | 6 |
Clay (%) | 4 |
Bulk Density (mg/m3) | 1.55 |
PWP (%) | 7.35 |
Conductivity (ds/m) | 2.4 |
pH | 7.8 |
CEC (cmol/kg) | 4.27 |
OM (%) | 0.09 |
CaCO3 (%) | 4.16 |
Biomass | Wet Weight (g) | Moisture Content in the Biomass (%) | Dry Weight (g) | Polysaccharide Yield (g)/(%) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Orange peel | 800 ± 10 | 82 ± 1 | 144 ± 1 | Pectin 87/26% |
Apple peel | 800 ± 10 | 76 ± 2 | 192 ± 1 | |
Banana peel | 1600 ± 10 | 85 ± 1 | 240 ± 1 | Starch 31/13% |
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Adi Sulianto, A.; Adiyaksa, I.P.; Wibisono, Y.; Khan, E.; Ivanov, A.; Drannikov, A.; Ozaltin, K.; Di Martino, A. From Fruit Waste to Hydrogels for Agricultural Applications. Clean Technol. 2024, 6, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.3390/cleantechnol6010001
Adi Sulianto A, Adiyaksa IP, Wibisono Y, Khan E, Ivanov A, Drannikov A, Ozaltin K, Di Martino A. From Fruit Waste to Hydrogels for Agricultural Applications. Clean Technologies. 2024; 6(1):1-17. https://doi.org/10.3390/cleantechnol6010001
Chicago/Turabian StyleAdi Sulianto, Akhmad, Ilham Putra Adiyaksa, Yusuf Wibisono, Elena Khan, Aleksei Ivanov, Aleksandr Drannikov, Kadir Ozaltin, and Antonio Di Martino. 2024. "From Fruit Waste to Hydrogels for Agricultural Applications" Clean Technologies 6, no. 1: 1-17. https://doi.org/10.3390/cleantechnol6010001