Carbon-Based Materials for Energy Storage Devices: Types and Characterization Techniques
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. History
1.2. Principle of Operation for EDLC
1.3. Components of the Supercapacitors: Active Electrode Materials, Electrolytes, Separator, and Current Collectors
- (i)
- Active Electrode Materials:
- (1)
- Onion-Like Carbons (OLCs)
- (2)
- Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs)
- (3)
- Graphene
- (4)
- Carbide-Derived Carbons (CDCs)
- (5)
- Activated Carbons (ACs)
- (6)
- Templated carbons
- a.
- Ion Sieving
- b.
- Ion Desolvation
- c.
- Pore Saturation
- d.
- Distortion
- (ii)
- Electrolytes:
- (iii)
- Current collectors:
- (iv)
- Separators:
2. Proposed Strategies for Higher Performance in Supercapacitors: (Nano)Structuring, Electrolyte Composition, Pseudocapacitance, and Hybrid and Composite Electrodes
- (i)
- Nanostructuration
- (ii)
- Electrolyte Composition
- (iii)
- Pseudocapacitance
- (iv)
- Hybrid Electrodes
- (v)
- Nanocomposite electrodes
3. Diagnostic Tools for Electrode Materials in Energy Storage
- (i)
- Cyclic Voltammetry (CV)
- (ii)
- Galvanostatic Charge-Discharge method (GCD)
- (iii)
- Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS)
- (iv)
- Electrochemical Quartz Crystal Microbalance (EQCM)
- (v)
- ac-electrogravimetry
- (vi)
- Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR)
- (vii)
- Computer Simulations
4. Advantages and Challenges of Main Techniques Used in Energy Storage
5. Summary and Perspectives
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Material | Carbon Onions | Carbon Nanotubes | Graphene | Activated Carbon | Carbide Derived Carbon | Templated Carbon |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dimensionality | 0-D | 1-D | 2-D | 3-D | 3-D | 3-D |
Conductivity | High | High | High | Low | Moderate | Low |
Volumetric Capacitance | Low | Low | Moderate | High | High | Low |
Cost | High | High | Moderate | Low | Moderate | High |
Structure |
Method | Arc-Discharge | Laser-Ablation | CVD |
---|---|---|---|
How | CNT growth on graphite electrodes during direct current arc-discharge evaporation of carbon in presence of an inert gas [39]. | To form CNTs, the vaporization of a mixture of carbon (graphite) and transition metals located in a target is used [40]. | Fixed bed method: decomposition of acetylene on graphite support iron particles at 700 °C [41]. |
Yield rate | >75% | >75% | >75% |
SWCNT or MWCNT | Both | Both | Both |
Advantage | Simple, inexpensive, high-quality nanotubes. | Relatively high purity CNTs, room-temperature synthesis. | Simple, inexpensive, low temperature, high purity, large-scale production, aligned growth is possible. |
Disadvantage | Purification of crude product is required, the method cannot be scaled, it must have a high temperature. | Method limited to the lab scale; crude product purification required. | Synthesized CNTs are usually MWNTs, defects. |
Method | Morphology | Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|---|---|
Electrochemical deposition | Nanostructured film | Less time required; morphology can be controlled through the control of synthesis parameters such as time, temperature, etc. | Unsuitable for large-scale production |
Hydrothermal method | Nanostructured film and powder | Large-scale production, easy control of morphology | High-temperature and time-consuming operations |
Chemical bath deposition (CBD) | Nanostructured film | Faster than hydrothermal method, large-scale production, easy control of morphology | Only some metal oxide can be possible to synthesize |
Sol–gel | Nanostructured film and powder | Low costs; controllable film texture, composition, homogeneity, and structural properties | Difficult to produce films with controlled porosity, needs the use of hard/soft templates |
Chemical precipitation | Powders, colloidal nanostructures | Allows synthesis of composite electrode materials; efficient; easily implemented | Difficult to control morphology and may generate a waste product |
Chemical Vapor Depositions (CVD) | Nanostructured film | High material yield than CBD; good film uniformity | Expensive equipment and relatively high costs |
Type of Electrolyte | Voltage Window (V) | Ionic Conductivity (mS.cm−1) |
---|---|---|
Aqueous | ≤1.2 [9,28] | >400 [17,28] |
Organic (NEt4BF4/PC) | 3.0 [28] | 13 [28] |
Organic (NEt4BF4/ACN) | 2.7 [28] | 56 [28] |
Ionic Liquids | 3–5 [9,17] | <15 [17,28] |
Material | Potential Window/V | Specific Capacitance /F g−1 (Scan Rate or Current Density) | Electrolyte | Retention/% (Cycles) |
---|---|---|---|---|
ZrO2 carbon nanofibers | 0–1 | 140 (1 A g−1) | 6 M KOH | 82.6 (10,000) |
RuNi2O4/rGO composites | 0–1 | 792 (1 A g−1) | 0.5 M Na2SO4 | 93 (10,000) |
NiO/activated carbon composites | 0–0.4 | 568.7 (0.5 A g−1) | 2 M KOH | 90.6 (5000) |
Ni0.25Co0.25oxide/carbon nanofibers | −1–0 | 431.2 (1 A g−1) | 6 M KOH | 94 (2000) |
MnO/Fe2O3/carbon nanofibers | 0–1 | 437 (1 A g−1) | 6 M KOH | 94 (10,000) |
ZnO/MnO/carbon nanofibers | 0–1.6 | 1080 (1 A g−1) | 6 M KOH | 96 (800) |
Au-Mn3O4/GO nanocomposites | −0.2–1 | 475 (1 A g−1) | 0.5 M H2SO4 | 94 (10,000) |
Bi2O3/MWCNT composites | −1.2–0.2 | 437 (1 A g−1) | 6 M KOH | 88.7 (3000) |
NiO/MnO2/MWCNT composites | 0–0.55 | 1320 (1 A g−1) | 2 M KOH | 93.5 (3000) |
Carbon nanosheets/MnO2/ NiCo2O4 composites | 0–1 | 1254 (1 A g−1) | 1 M KOH | 81.9 (5000) |
ZrO2/C nanocomposites NiO/porous amorphous carbon nanostructure | 0–1 | 214 (1.5 A g−1) | 1 M H2SO4 | 97 (2000) |
NiO/porous amorphous carbon nanostructure | 0–1.6 | 508 (1 A g−1) | 6 M KOH | 78 (3000) |
Defective mesoporous carbon/MnO2 nanocomposites | −0.8–0.8 | 292 (0.5 A g−1) | 1 M Na2SO4 | 79 (2000) |
Parameters | EDLC | Pseudocapacitor | Hybrid Capacitor |
---|---|---|---|
Material | Carbon-based materials, e.g., activated carbon, carbon nanotubes | Metal oxides, conducting polymers, e.g., NiO, MgO, PANI | Metal oxide/carbon-based materials, conducting polymer/carbon-based materials, e.g., Ni(OH)2/rGO, PANI/rGO |
Storage mechanism | Non-faradic/electrostatic, electrical charge stored at the metal/electrolyte interface | Faradic, reversible redox reaction | Both faradic and non-faradic |
Specific capacitance | Lower | Higher | Higher |
Energy density | Low | High | High |
Cycle Life/stability | High | Low | High |
Voltage operation | High voltage and high-power operation | Low-voltage functioning is restricted by electrochemistry and the solvent’s solvent decomposition voltage | Increased cell voltage |
Charge/discharge speed | Faster | --- | Slower |
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Escobar-Teran, F.; Perrot, H.; Sel, O. Carbon-Based Materials for Energy Storage Devices: Types and Characterization Techniques. Physchem 2023, 3, 355-384. https://doi.org/10.3390/physchem3030025
Escobar-Teran F, Perrot H, Sel O. Carbon-Based Materials for Energy Storage Devices: Types and Characterization Techniques. Physchem. 2023; 3(3):355-384. https://doi.org/10.3390/physchem3030025
Chicago/Turabian StyleEscobar-Teran, Freddy, Hubert Perrot, and Ozlem Sel. 2023. "Carbon-Based Materials for Energy Storage Devices: Types and Characterization Techniques" Physchem 3, no. 3: 355-384. https://doi.org/10.3390/physchem3030025