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Article

Characteristics and Influence Rules of Roadside Ponding along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway

by
Fuqing Cui
1,2,
Yu Zhu
1,
Xiaona Liu
1,
Jianbing Chen
2,
Ke Mu
3 and
Zhiyun Liu
1,*
1
College of Geology Engineering and Geomatics, Chang’an University, Xi’an 710054, China
2
National Key Laboratory of Green and Long-Life Road Engineering in Extreme Environment, CCCC First Highway Consultants Co., Ltd., Xi’an 710065, China
3
School of Management, Xi’an University of Finance and Economics, Xi’an 710100, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Water 2024, 16(7), 954; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16070954
Submission received: 14 February 2024 / Revised: 22 March 2024 / Accepted: 23 March 2024 / Published: 26 March 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cold Region Hydrology and Hydraulics)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Due to climate change and seasonal precipitation, water conditions in the Qinghai–Tibet region are a significant factor affecting the stability of subgrades. The accumulation of large amounts of surface water leads to subgrade diseases along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway. Based on remote sensing photos obtained from Google Earth Engine and processing the photos using ENVI 5.6.3 and CAD 2019 software, this paper analyzed the distribution characteristics of surface water and studied the impact of roadside ponding on subgrade diseases. The results showed that the total area of surface water was more than 3.7 million m2, and the surface water was most widely distributed in large river areas such as the Tuotuo River and Buqu River. The subgrade diseases of the Qinghai–Tibet Highway could be categorized into three types: settlement, longitudinal crack, and frost boiling, which accounted for 71.09%, 17.13%, and 11.78% of the total number of subgrade diseases, respectively. Additionally, the ground mean annual temperature was an important factor affecting the distribution of surface water, with the surface water area showing an increasing trend with the increase in ground mean annual temperature, and roadside ponding was most likely to form in the high-temperature extremely unstable permafrost area.

1. Introduction

The Qinghai–Tibet Plateau is one of the few areas in the world with a large river network density [1,2,3], and the surface water along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway is widely distributed and densely populated [4,5,6,7]. The annual rainfall along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway is low but the rainfall season is relatively concentrated. Due to the lack of drainage facilities along the highway and the formation of soil pits on both sides in the early stage of road construction, part of the precipitation accumulates in low-lying areas on both sides of the highway, especially in the low mountain and hilly areas such as the Hoh Xili, Kaixinling and Wudaoliang Mountains [8,9]. In recent years, deterioration of the permafrost has intensified, and the ecological environment along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway has also undergone changes, resulting in frequent geological disasters.
The engineering problems caused by roadside ponding along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway are extremely complicated. Seasonal infiltration of surface water affects the stability of permafrost subgrades and changes in the internal moisture conditions of the subgrades lead to frost heave, overtopping, and other roadway diseases [10,11,12,13,14]. Mao et al. [15] investigated the road diseases of National Highway 109 on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau and studied the impact of roadside ponding on the strength of Qinghai–Tibet Highway subgrades. They found that roadside ponding caused a decrease in the dynamic elastic modulus, which induced uneven deformation of the subgrades, longitudinal cracks, wave deformation, and other diseases. Wang et al. [16] established a permafrost subgrade model on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau based on the control equation of moisture and heat, and the results showed that water accumulation on the roadside had a significant effect on the deformation of subgrades, and longitudinal cracks were likely to be produced on the roadside where water had accumulated for a long period of time. Jiang [17] studied surface water accumulation in the Tuotuohe Basin by establishing a finite element model and found that the infiltration of surface water changed the volumetric water content of the subgrade, which in turn disturbed the thermal stability of perennial permafrost subgrades over time. Zhou [18] analyzed the change process of the temperature field of permafrost subgrades in the case of roadside ponding and determined that roadside ponding caused an uneven decrease in the upper limit of the permafrost in the subgrade, which led to an increase in the thawing depth of the subgrade.
The Qinghai–Tibet Plateau is known as the “Water Tower of Asia” due to its abundance of rivers, lakes, and glaciers [19,20,21], and climate change greatly affects the distribution of surface water in this region [22,23,24,25]. Luo et al. [26] developed a new method for high-precision surface water mapping based on Sentinel-1 synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images and convolutional networks (ConvNets) in order to obtain information on the dynamics of surface water in the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau region. Guan [27] explored the evolution trend of surface water resources on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau based on multi-period remote sensing data, and the results showed that the surface of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau as a whole tends to be wetter, and the trend of wetter changes in the central and western regions of the plateau was more significant. Ran et al. [28] established a dataset of surface water area on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau from 2000 to 2020 and found that the average surface water area was about 59,481 km2, with a significant increasing trend. Hu et al. [29] analyzed the water environment characteristics and influencing factors of highway roads in the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau region and found that rainfall runoff was an important influencing factor.
Existing studies have mainly analyzed the change characteristics of surface water area and the types of disease caused by roadside ponding, but they lack the analysis of influencing factors for surface water on the Qinghai–Tibet Highway, and the severity of diseases caused by roadside ponding is seldom involved [30,31,32,33,34]. Therefore, in order to study the distribution of surface water along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway and analyze the effect of roadside ponding on the subgrade, this paper investigated the surface water in the Qinghai–Tibet Engineering Corridor, conducted on-site surveys and monitored the typical lakes and ponds, and acquired 1059 high-magnitude remote sensing images along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway. This paper counted the area distribution of surface water in different sections of the Qinghai–Tibet Engineering Corridor and analyzed the surface water surface morphology to obtain the influence characteristics of ground mean annual temperature, ice content, and other factors on surface water of the Qinghai–Tibet Highway. By studying the relationship between roadside ponding on the Qinghai–Tibet Highway and permafrost subgrade diseases, the severity of different types of disease was analyzed to provide reference values for the maintenance of subgrade stability in the permafrost area.

2. Methods

2.1. Study Area

The Qinghai–Tibet Highway has a total length of 1147 km, crossing the permafrost area for about 550 km [35,36], and is densely populated with rivers along the route. The study area started from the Xidatan Fault Valley of the Qinghai–Tibet Highway in the north, near the northern boundary of the permafrost region of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau Engineering Corridor, and ended at the Tanggula Mountains and intermountain basins in the south, near the southern boundary of the permafrost region of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau Engineering Corridor. This study investigated and analyzed the surface water conditions on both sides of 14 areas along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway, as shown in Figure 1.

2.2. Data Source

Taking the Qinghai–Tibet Highway as the study center, Google Earth Engine (https://developers.google.cn/earth-engine/ accessed on 24 July 2014) was used to obtain a total of 1059 high-definition photographs along the left and right 300 m of the route, and the length of the highway was about 500 m for each photograph, which was a total highway mileage of about 540 km. Radiometric calibration and atmospheric correction of remote sensing photos were carried out with ENVI 5.6.3 (Environment for Visualizing Images) software, and the area of each surface water source point was calculated by CAD 2019 software. In addition, through on-site investigation, we also surveyed the water depth of typical lakes and ponds along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway and made a detailed investigation of the subgrade diseases along the route. Figure 2 presents examples of surface water in high-definition and on-site survey photographs.

3. Results

3.1. Distribution Characteristics of Surface Water

Through statistically analyzing the source surface area of surface water along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway, it was found that the roadside surface water was richly distributed, totaling more than 3.7 million m2. In order to study the distribution characteristics of surface water in various regions along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway, the distribution statistics of surface water in 14 sections along the highway are shown in Table 1.
As can be seen from Table 1, along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway, the Tanggula Mountains and intermountain basins had the largest number of surface water source points, with a total of 181. The Chumar River Plain, Chiqu Valley, and Tuotuo River Basin also had more than 100 surface water source points. And the Fenghuo Mountains had the scarcest surface water, with only seven water sources. From the perspective of surface water area, there was a large amount of surface water distributed in the Tuotuohe Basin and Buqu River Valley, with areas of 977,612 m2 and 501,766 m2, respectively. This indicated that surface water was widely distributed in large river basins along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway. In addition, the roadside surface water volume in the Kaixinling Mountains was also considerable, with an area of 280,270 m2. From the frequency of surface water distribution, the surface water distribution in the Chumar River Plain, Chiqu Valley, Wuli Basin, and Tuotuohe Basin was relatively dense.
Through remote sensing image analysis along the Qinghai–Tibet Engineering Corridor, a total of 922 surface water sources were identified, including 170 Talik and 752 permafrost regions. The area distribution is shown in Figure 3. As shown in the figure, the surface water area was mainly distributed in the range of 1000~10,000 m2, in which the inner Talik and permafrost regions accounted for 65.5% and 66.2%, respectively, indicating that the distribution characteristics of the two types of areas were basically similar.
According to the ratio of the long and short axes of surface water sources, the water surface morphology was divided into three categories: nearly circular (1–2), elliptical (2–4), and elongated (>4). The statistical results of the surface water morphology along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway are shown in Figure 4. It can be seen from the probability distribution that the surface water morphology along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway showed a significant downward trend with the increase in the ratio of the long and short axes. The proportions of the three types of surface water morphology, nearly circular, elliptical, and long strip, were 53.5%, 32.5%, and 14%, respectively. Therefore, the surface water morphology along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway was basically nearly circular.

3.2. Analysis of Typical Lakes and Ponds

Due to climate warming and permafrost melting, there are a large number of thermally melted lakes and ponds around the Qinghai–Tibet Highway. In order to further analyze the roadside surface water characteristics of the Qinghai–Tibet Highway, this study conducted field investigation and testing of typical surface water along the route and conducted related tests on the water depth of each lake and pond. The results are shown in Table 2. As can be seen from the table, there was no obvious correlation between surface water area and water depth along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway, and the depth of surface water was relatively shallow, generally below 1 m.

3.3. Impact of Roadside Ponding on Subgrade Diseases

3.3.1. Statistics of Subgrade Diseases along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway

In this study, a large number of subgrade diseases in the permafrost area of the Qinghai–Tibet Highway were investigated. The subgrade diseases of the Qinghai–Tibet Highway were mainly divided into three categories, namely settlement, longitudinal crack, and frost boiling. Settlement is mainly caused by the uneven settlement of the subgrade, which will seriously affect the bearing capacity of the road surface and accelerate the destruction of pavement mechanism. Longitudinal crack is caused by the capillary phenomenon at the bottom of the subgrade, caused by water on both sides of the subgrade, and uneven settlement or unilateral sliding on both sides of the highway after freeze and thaw cycles. Similarly, due to the existence of water under the pavement structure, the occurrence of freeze–thaw cycles lead to the reduction of local bearing capacity, which presses the pavement structure under the action of load and produces the phenomenon of frost boiling. In order to analyze the characteristics of subgrade diseases in different regions along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway, the types of disease in each region were statistically analyzed, as shown in Figure 5.
As can be seen from Figure 5, subgrade settlement disease was the main type of disease along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway, and there were different distribution characteristics of subgrade disease in different sections. The Tanggula Mountains and intermountain basins had the largest number of overall diseases, and the number of settlement, longitudinal crack, and frost boiling diseases were the highest among all regions, reaching 72, 25, and 22, respectively. The Kaixinling Mountains had the lowest number of diseases, with only three subgrade settlement diseases along the road. From the perspective of different disease types, in addition to the main distribution of diseases in the Tanggula Mountains and intermountain basins, the subgrade settlement diseases of the Qinghai–Tibet Highway were mainly distributed in the Chumar River Plain, Kunlun Mountains, and Buqu River Valley, and the number of diseases in these sections was more than 30. Longitudinal crack was mainly distributed in the Chumar River Plain and Tongtianhe Basin, where the number of diseases reached 10 or more, and in the Beiluhe Basin, there were also 8 longitudinal cracks. The number of frost boilings in the Chumar River Plain region was 9, and the number of diseases in other regions was below 5.

3.3.2. Subgrade Disease Severity Analysis

According to the severity of subgrade diseases along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway, they could be divided into severe (heavy), moderate (medium), and slight (light). A total of 467 subgrade diseases along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway were statistically analyzed under conditions of roadside ponding and no roadside ponding, and the analysis results are shown in Figure 6. As can be seen from Figure 6, the number of subgrade diseases along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway was high, mainly presenting the disease forms of settlement and longitudinal crack, and the severity of longitudinal crack produced by the subgrade was overall high.
In the case of the Qinghai–Tibet Highway with or without roadside ponding, the disease rates were calculated respectively, and the relationship between disease rate and roadside ponding of different types of permafrost subgrade was obtained, as shown in Figure 7. It can be seen from the figure that the disease rates of sections with roadside ponding were significantly higher than those without water accumulation, indicating that roadside ponding had a strong correlation with the generation and development of permafrost subgrade diseases. Among the three types of Qinghai–Tibet Highway subgrade diseases, roadside ponding had a significant impact on the incidence of road settlement. In the case of roadside ponding, the rate of road settlement disease was about twice that without roadside ponding. This was due to surface water seeping into the highway foundation, reducing the bearing capacity of the foundation and the shear strength of the foundation materials, resulting in subgrade settlement. Moreover, the permafrost hydrothermal coupling process was affected and the subgrade was subjected to lateral thermal erosion, leading to temperature rise and settlement.
In the case of roadside ponding along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway, the minimum distance from the water accumulation point to the foot of the subgrade slope was calculated, and its proportion to the total disease is shown in Figure 8. From the figure, it can be seen that both the total proportion and the proportion of diseases with different severity levels showed an increasing trend as the minimum distance from the roadside ponding point to the foot of the subgrade slope decreased, and the trend became more obvious with decreased distance. When the distance exceeded 30 m, the relationship between the minimum distance of the roadside ponding point and its disease was not very obvious, indicating that the distance between the roadside ponding and the permafrost subgrade was about 30 m.

4. Discussion

4.1. The Influence of Ground Mean Annual Temperature

Due to global warming and climate change, the ground temperature in the Qinghai–Tibet region showed an increasing trend. Statistics on surface water in different ground mean annual temperature (GMAT) regions in the Qinghai–Tibet Engineering Corridor were obtained, and the distribution characteristics of surface water sources along the route are shown in Table 3. It can be seen from the table that the surface water source area in the high-temperature extremely unstable permafrost area (−0.5 ≤ GMAT < 0 °C) was the largest, reaching 1.63 million m2. This was because the existence of the perennial permafrost layer as a water insulation layer made the infiltration of surface water difficult, which created the gathering of a large amount of surface water.
Statistical analysis of the ground mean annual temperature area probability distribution of surface water along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway is shown in Figure 9. It can be seen that in the high-temperature extremely unstable permafrost area (−0.5 ≤ GMAT < 0 °C), surface water exhibited the characteristics of fewer water source points but larger water area. This was because compared to the high-temperature unstable permafrost area (−1.5 ≤ GMAT < −0.5 °C) and low-temperature stable and basically stable permafrost area (GMAT < −1.5 °C), the active layer thickness of the high-temperature extremely unstable permafrost area (−0.5 ≤ GMAT < 0 °C) was larger and the impermeable layer was deeper, resulting in small areas of water sources that easily infiltrated and dissipated, making it difficult to maintain.

4.2. The Influence of Ice Content

According to the statistics of surface water in permafrost areas with different ice contents in the Qinghai–Tibet Engineering Corridor, the distribution characteristics of surface water sources are shown in Table 4. It can be seen from the table that with the increase in ice content, the surface water volume increased. Among them, the ice-poor/icy soil permafrost region accounted for more than 40% of the total section length, but the proportion of surface water points along the route side was only 9.44% and its area proportion was only 7.72%. It was considered that the roadside surface water of the section with less ice content was obviously lower than that of the section with large ice content. Figure 10 shows the probability distribution of ice content in the permafrost area. From the unit area distribution of surface water source points, ice content had no significant impact on the area of water source points. The area of water source points with ice-poor/icy soil permafrost was even higher than that of the area with ice layer with soil inclusions.

4.3. The Influence of Highway Construction

The distance and water source points between the roadside surface water and the foot of the Qinghai–Tibet Highway slope were statistically analyzed, and the results are shown in Figure 11. It can be seen that most of the water source points along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway were close to the highway, and the number of roadside surface water source points decreased sharply as the distance increased. This indicated that the construction of the Qinghai–Tibet Highway had a significant promoting effect on the destruction of natural surface water and the formation of roadside surface water. Consistent with the previous analysis of the impact of ground mean annual temperature, as the ground temperature increased, the proportion of surface water formed due to the influence of highway construction correspondingly decreased, indicating that low-temperature permafrost areas were more susceptible to the influence of highway construction and formation of roadside surface water.
Meanwhile, it can also be seen from Figure 11 that when the distance from the highway exceeded 100 m, its impact basically disappeared. To further analyze the impact of different distances between surface water and the highway, the probability distribution of surface water source areas in different intervals with road distances of <30 m, 30–100 m, and >100 m was calculated, as shown in Figure 12. It can be seen that the probability distribution of surface water source point areas was basically the same within 100 m, but the area increased significantly after exceeding 100 m. It was considered that the impact of highways disappeared after 100 m, and the area mainly consisted of naturally formed lakes and ponds, and their average area increased accordingly.
In addition, statistical analysis was conducted on the distance between the surface water morphology and the highway, and the probability distribution is shown in Figure 13. It can be seen from the figure that the probability distribution of the distance from the highway of the nearly circular or elliptical surface water was basically the same, with mean values of 74.55 m and 75.18 m, respectively. The elongated morphology was obviously closer to the highway, with a mean value of 38.04 m, and it was basically distributed near the highway area, with 50% of surface water within 22 m and 80% of surface water within 50 m. The long axis direction of surface water was basically consistent with the direction of the highway, which further indicated that the highway had a strong influence on the formation of roadside surface water.

5. Conclusions

The Qinghai–Tibet Plateau has high terrain and a cold climate, and changes in climate and precipitation have an impact on the subgrade. Based on field survey and remote sensing data along the Qinghai–Tibet Engineering Corridor, this paper analyzed the distribution characteristics of surface water and its influencing factors and studied the impacts of roadside ponding on subgrade diseases. The following conclusions can be drawn from the study results:
(1) Surface water was widely distributed along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway, with the Tuotuohe Basin and Buqu River Valley having the largest surface water areas of 977,612 m2 and 501,766 m2, respectively. In addition, the Chumar River Plain, Chiqu Valley, and Wuli Basin also had abundant surface water sources.
(2) The subgrade diseases of the Qinghai–Tibet Highway can be divided into three categories, settlement, longitudinal crack, and frost boiling, which accounted for 71.09%, 17.13%, and 11.78% of the total number of subgrade diseases, respectively. The disease rate in the road section with roadside ponding was significantly higher than that in the section without roadside ponding.
(3) The ground annual mean temperature, ice content, and road construction all had an impact on the roadside surface water of the Qinghai–Tibet Highway. As the ground annual mean temperature and ice content of the permafrost increased, the surface water area showed an increasing trend. The construction of highways had a strong promoting effect on the formation of roadside surface water.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, F.C. and Y.Z.; methodology, X.L.; software, F.C. and K.M.; validation, Y.Z., X.L. and J.C.; formal analysis, X.L. and Z.L.; investigation, Y.Z.; resources, F.C. and K.M.; data curation, J.C. and Z.L.; writing—original draft preparation, F.C.; writing—review and editing, Y.Z.; visualization, X.L.; supervision, K.M.; project administration, J.C.; funding acquisition, F.C. and Z.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the National Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 42371149, 42230712), the Natural Science Foundation of Shaanxi Province (Grant No. 2022JM-143), the open fund of the National Key Laboratory of Green and Long-Life Road Engineering in Extreme Environment (YGY2021KFKT03), and the Scientific Innovation Practice Project of Postgraduates of Chang’an University (300103723048). We are grateful to the anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments to improve this manuscript.

Data Availability Statement

The data are available in the case that they are required.

Conflicts of Interest

Author Jianbing Chen was employed by the company National Key Laboratory of Green and Long-Life Road Engineering in Extreme Environment, CCCC First Highway Consultants Co., Ltd. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Study area along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway.
Figure 1. Study area along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway.
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Figure 2. Photographs of surface water.
Figure 2. Photographs of surface water.
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Figure 3. Area distribution of surface water along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway.
Figure 3. Area distribution of surface water along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway.
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Figure 4. Distribution of surface water morphology along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway.
Figure 4. Distribution of surface water morphology along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway.
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Figure 5. Statistics of subgrade disease types in each section.
Figure 5. Statistics of subgrade disease types in each section.
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Figure 6. Disease analysis results of the Qinghai–Tibet Highway.
Figure 6. Disease analysis results of the Qinghai–Tibet Highway.
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Figure 7. Disease rate of Qinghai–Tibet Highway with or without roadside ponding.
Figure 7. Disease rate of Qinghai–Tibet Highway with or without roadside ponding.
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Figure 8. Proportion of different distances to total diseases in roadside ponding areas.
Figure 8. Proportion of different distances to total diseases in roadside ponding areas.
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Figure 9. Area probability distribution of ground mean annual temperature.
Figure 9. Area probability distribution of ground mean annual temperature.
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Figure 10. Area probability distribution of ice content.
Figure 10. Area probability distribution of ice content.
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Figure 11. Distribution of surface water distance and water source points.
Figure 11. Distribution of surface water distance and water source points.
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Figure 12. Distribution of surface water distance from the highway and water source area.
Figure 12. Distribution of surface water distance from the highway and water source area.
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Figure 13. Cumulative probability distribution of distance between different surface water morphologies and the Qinghai–Tibet Highway.
Figure 13. Cumulative probability distribution of distance between different surface water morphologies and the Qinghai–Tibet Highway.
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Table 1. Regional distribution of surface water along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway.
Table 1. Regional distribution of surface water along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway.
Serial NumberGeomorphic UnitMileageNumber of
Water Points		Total Area (m2)Number Within 10 mAverage Area (m2)Section Length (km)Number of
Water Points per Kilometer		Area per
Kilometer (m2/km)
1Xidatan Fault ValleyK2866-K28771617387109111.45158
2Kunlun MountainsK2877-K292083112,217321662431.932610
3Chumar River PlainK2920-K2982137221,393361566622.213571
4Hoh Xil MountainsK2982-K30352379,66353371530.431503
5Beiluhe BasinK3035-K305623139,92416084211.106663
6Fenghuo MountainsK3056-K3082717,51202190260.27674
7Chiqu ValleyK3082-K3108111412,920273720264.2715,882
8Wuli BasinK3108-K312751158,81049663192.688358
9Tuotuohe BasinK3127-K3154105977,612149311273.8936,208
10Kaixinling MountainsK3154-K316523280,27097607212.0925,479
11Tongtianhe River BasinK3165-K319039104,42222677251.564177
12Buqu River ValleyK3190-K326084501,76665973701.207168
13Wenquan Fault BasinK3260-K330039261,71546711400.986543
14Tanggula Mountains and Intermountain BasinsK3300-K3420181502,3912127761201.514187
Table 2. Statistics of typical lakes and ponds along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway.
Table 2. Statistics of typical lakes and ponds along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway.
Serial NumberMileageLongitudeLatitudeWater Depth/cmArea/m2
1K2925 + 30093°51′0135°30′52922365
2K2949 + 10093°37′1635°27′122026224
3K2958 + 10093°32′4435°24′077116,356
4K2959 + 60093°31′4635°23′47393996
5K2961 + 50093°30′2835°23′178115,703
6K2964 + 50093°29′0035°22′402119,740
7K2968 + 10093°26′4035°21′57175947
8K2972 + 20093°23′5135°21′27254011
9K2979 + 10093°20′0035°19′572011365
10K2994 + 00093°11′5135°16′06551527
11K3041 + 00092°57′1634°57′267225,433
12K3050 + 20092°56′0934°52′3722989
13K3052 + 90092°56′5734°51′17271351
14K3056 + 50092°55′4734°49′01632415
15K3057 + 50092°55′5934°49′1994852
16K3079 + 70092°54′0334°39′09561274
17K3085 + 10092°51′1434°37′52662448
18K3095 + 50092°45′1234°35′44941504
19K3107 + 50092°43′4534°29′25531790
20K3110 + 20092°29′2434°16′559210,702
21K3128 + 00092°32′0934°18′213211,420
22K3140 + 00092°36′1134°22′328159,044
23K3145 + 00092°43′4234°27′571738452
Table 3. Distribution characteristics of surface water sources in different GMAT.
Table 3. Distribution characteristics of surface water sources in different GMAT.
Ground Mean Annual Temperature/°CSurface Water Source PointsSurface Water Source AreaPermafrost Distribution
CountProportion (%)Area (104 m2)Proportion (%)Length (km)Proportion (%)
GMAT < −1.520522.2133.049.2411220.6
−1.5 ≤ GMAT < −0.536039.0097.6227.3013925.6
−0.5 ≤ GMAT < 018720.26163.0745.6114927.5
Talik17118.5363.8417.8514226.2
Table 4. Distribution characteristics of surface water sources in different ice content.
Table 4. Distribution characteristics of surface water sources in different ice content.
Type of Ice ContentSurface Water Source PointsSurface Water Source AreaPermafrost Distribution
CountProportion (%)Area (104 m2)ProportionLength (km)Proportion (%)
Ice-poor/Icy soil879.4421.387.7216441.04
Ice-rich/Ice-saturated44247.94179.2264.728621.44
Ice layer with soil inclusions23325.2776.327.5615037.52
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Cui, F.; Zhu, Y.; Liu, X.; Chen, J.; Mu, K.; Liu, Z. Characteristics and Influence Rules of Roadside Ponding along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway. Water 2024, 16, 954. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16070954

AMA Style

Cui F, Zhu Y, Liu X, Chen J, Mu K, Liu Z. Characteristics and Influence Rules of Roadside Ponding along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway. Water. 2024; 16(7):954. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16070954

Chicago/Turabian Style

Cui, Fuqing, Yu Zhu, Xiaona Liu, Jianbing Chen, Ke Mu, and Zhiyun Liu. 2024. "Characteristics and Influence Rules of Roadside Ponding along the Qinghai–Tibet Highway" Water 16, no. 7: 954. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16070954

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