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Energies, Volume 10, Issue 2 (February 2017) – 114 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): The development of distributed energy resources increases the needs of higher grid capacity. It is shown that by performing and comparing three power transformer capacity allocation mechanisms among virtual power plants (VPPs), the congestion problem at the transformer level can be prevented. Inside each VPP, an ACOPF problem is formulated to minimize operational costs, taking into account line thermal limits, voltage limits, and the transformer use power limits/congestion price resulting from the capacity allocation mechanism. View this paper.
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7639 KiB  
Article
Switchgrass-Based Bioethanol Productivity and Potential Environmental Impact from Marginal Lands in China
by Xun Zhang, Jingying Fu, Gang Lin, Dong Jiang and Xiaoxi Yan
Energies 2017, 10(2), 260; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10020260 - 21 Feb 2017
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 5117
Abstract
Switchgrass displays an excellent potential to serve as a non-food bioenergy feedstock for bioethanol production in China due to its high potential yield on marginal lands. However, few studies have been conducted on the spatial distribution of switchgrass-based bioethanol production potential in China. [...] Read more.
Switchgrass displays an excellent potential to serve as a non-food bioenergy feedstock for bioethanol production in China due to its high potential yield on marginal lands. However, few studies have been conducted on the spatial distribution of switchgrass-based bioethanol production potential in China. This study created a land surface process model (Environmental Policy Integrated Climate GIS (Geographic Information System)-based (GEPIC) model) coupled with a life cycle analysis (LCA) to explore the spatial distribution of potential bioethanol production and present a comprehensive analysis of energy efficiency and environmental impacts throughout its whole life cycle. It provides a new approach to study the bioethanol productivity and potential environmental impact from marginal lands based on the high spatial resolution GIS data, and this applies not only to China, but also to other regions and to other types of energy plant. The results indicate that approximately 59 million ha of marginal land in China are suitable for planting switchgrass, and 22 million tons of ethanol can be produced from this land. Additionally, a potential net energy gain (NEG) of 1.75 x 106 million MJ will be achieved if all of the marginal land can be used in China, and Yunnan Province offers the most significant one that accounts for 35% of the total. Finally, this study obtained that the total environmental effect index of switchgrass-based bioethanol is the equivalent of a population of approximately 20,300, and a reduction in the global warming potential (GWP) is the most significant environmental impact. Full article
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3072 KiB  
Article
A Nafion-Ceria Composite Membrane Electrolyte for Reduced Methanol Crossover in Direct Methanol Fuel Cells
by Parthiban Velayutham, Akhila K. Sahu and Sridhar Parthasarathy
Energies 2017, 10(2), 259; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10020259 - 21 Feb 2017
Cited by 42 | Viewed by 7438
Abstract
An alternative Nafion composite membrane was prepared by incorporating various loadings of CeO2 nanoparticles into the Nafion matrix and evaluated its potential application in direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs). The effects of CeO2 in the Nafion matrix were systematically studied in [...] Read more.
An alternative Nafion composite membrane was prepared by incorporating various loadings of CeO2 nanoparticles into the Nafion matrix and evaluated its potential application in direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs). The effects of CeO2 in the Nafion matrix were systematically studied in terms of surface morphology, thermal and mechanical stability, proton conductivity and methanol permeability. The composite membrane with optimum filler content (1 wt. % CeO2) exhibits a proton conductivity of 176 mS·cm−1 at 70 °C, which is about 30% higher than that of the unmodified membrane. Moreover, all the composite membranes possess a much lower methanol crossover compared to pristine Nafion membrane. In a single cell DMFC test, MEA fabricated with the optimized composite membrane delivered a peak power density of 120 mW·cm−2 at 70 °C, which is about two times higher in comparison with the pristine Nafion membrane under identical operating conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Direct Alcohol Fuel Cells)
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2715 KiB  
Article
The Influence of Micro-Oxygen Addition on Desulfurization Performance and Microbial Communities during Waste-Activated Sludge Digestion in a Rusty Scrap Iron-Loaded Anaerobic Digester
by Renjun Ruan, Jiashun Cao, Chao Li, Di Zheng and Jingyang Luo
Energies 2017, 10(2), 258; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10020258 - 21 Feb 2017
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 6342
Abstract
In this study, micro-oxygen was integrated into a rusty scrap iron (RSI)-loaded anaerobic digester. Under an optimal RSI dosage of 20 g/L, increasing O2 levels were added stepwise in seven stages in a semi-continuous experiment. Results showed the average methane yield was [...] Read more.
In this study, micro-oxygen was integrated into a rusty scrap iron (RSI)-loaded anaerobic digester. Under an optimal RSI dosage of 20 g/L, increasing O2 levels were added stepwise in seven stages in a semi-continuous experiment. Results showed the average methane yield was 306 mL/g COD (chemical oxygen demand), and the hydrogen sulphide (H2S) concentration was 1933 ppmv with RSI addition. O2 addition induced the microbial oxidation of sulphide by stimulating sulfur-oxidizing bacteria and chemical corrosion of iron, which promoted the generation of FeS and Fe2S3. In the 6th phase of the semi-continuous test, deep desulfurization was achieved without negatively impacting system performance. Average methane yield was 301.1 mL/g COD, and H2S concentration was 75 ppmv. Sulfur mass balance was described, with 84.0%, 11.90% and 0.21% of sulfur present in solid, liquid and gaseous phases, respectively. The Polymerase Chain Reaction-Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis (PCR-DGGE) analysis revealed that RSI addition could enrich the diversity of hydrogenotrophic methanogens and iron-reducing bacteria to benefit methanogenesis and organic mineralization, and impoverish the methanotroph (Methylocella silvestris) to reduce the consumption of methane. Micro-oxygen supplementation could enhance the diversity of iron-oxidizing bacteria arising from the improvement of Fe(II) release rate and enrich the sulphur-oxidising bacteria to achieved desulfurization. These results demonstrated that RSI addition in combination with micro-oxygenation represents a promising method for simultaneously controlling biogas H2S concentration and improving digestion performance. Full article
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2865 KiB  
Article
A Cluster Design on the Influence of Energy Taxation in Shaping the New EU-28 Economic Paradigm
by Marian Zaharia, Aurelia Pătrașcu, Manuela Rodica Gogonea, Ana Tănăsescu and Constanța Popescu
Energies 2017, 10(2), 257; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10020257 - 21 Feb 2017
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3727
Abstract
Environmental and energy taxation are essential components for designing global economic policies and they often contribute to achieving the sustainable economic development goals in contemporary economies. Starting from the analysis of certain elements such as the share of environmental, energy, transport and pollution [...] Read more.
Environmental and energy taxation are essential components for designing global economic policies and they often contribute to achieving the sustainable economic development goals in contemporary economies. Starting from the analysis of certain elements such as the share of environmental, energy, transport and pollution taxation in GDP and using the Hierarchical Clustering methodology, the paper aims to identify economic models of behaviour and to understand the influence of energy taxation in designing an economic paradigm. In addition, another objective of the paper is to deepen the relationships that energy taxation has in designing certain economic models of behaviour and to group the EU-28 Member States based on the specified criteria. The research results confirm that at the EU-28 level could exist elements for achieving energy taxation convergence and that the states should promote a more accurate fiscal policy in order to improve the loss of competitivity caused by an inaccurate energy taxation. Full article
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6035 KiB  
Article
A New Vertical JFET Power Device for Harsh Radiation Environments
by Pablo Fernández-Martínez, David Flores, Salvador Hidalgo, Xavier Jordà, Xavier Perpiñà, David Quirion, Lucia Ré, Miguel Ullán and Miquel Vellvehí
Energies 2017, 10(2), 256; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10020256 - 20 Feb 2017
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5559
Abstract
An increasing demand for power electronic devices able to be operative in harsh radiation environments is now taking place. Specifically, in High Energy Physics experiments the required power devices are expected to withstand very high radiation levels which are normally too hard for [...] Read more.
An increasing demand for power electronic devices able to be operative in harsh radiation environments is now taking place. Specifically, in High Energy Physics experiments the required power devices are expected to withstand very high radiation levels which are normally too hard for most of the available commercial solutions. In this context, a new vertical junction field effect transistor (JFET) has been designed and fabricated at the Instituto de Microelectrónica de Barcelona, Centro Nacional de Microelectrónica (IMB-CNM, CSIC). The new silicon V-JFET devices draw upon a deep-trenched technology to achieve volume conduction and low switch-off voltage, together with a moderately high voltage capability. The first batches of V-JFET prototypes have been already fabricated at the IMB-CNM clean room, and several aspects of their design, fabrication and the outcome of their characterization are summarized and discussed in this paper. Radiation hardness of the fabricated transistors have been tested both with gamma and neutron irradiations, and the results are also included in the contribution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Semiconductor Power Devices)
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3182 KiB  
Article
Research on the Combustion Characteristics and Kinetic Analysis of the Recycling Dust for a COREX Furnace
by Haiyang Wang, Jianliang Zhang, Guangwei Wang, Di Zhao, Jian Guo and Tengfei Song
Energies 2017, 10(2), 255; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10020255 - 20 Feb 2017
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3717
Abstract
Thermogravimetric analysis of recycling dust (RD) from the melter gasifier of COREX, coke1 (C-1), coke2 (C-2) and coal char (CC) under 70% oxygen atmosphere was carried out using thermal balance. The chemical composition and physical structure of the samples were investigated. The characteristic [...] Read more.
Thermogravimetric analysis of recycling dust (RD) from the melter gasifier of COREX, coke1 (C-1), coke2 (C-2) and coal char (CC) under 70% oxygen atmosphere was carried out using thermal balance. The chemical composition and physical structure of the samples were investigated. The characteristic temperatures and comprehensive combustion characteristic indexes were calculated and kinetic parameters during the combustion process were calculated as well using a distributed activation energy model (DAEM). The results show that the carbon in the recycling dust originates from unconsumed CC and coke fines, and the average stacking height of carbon in RD is larger than that of C-1, C-2 and CC. The conversion curves of RD are different from those of C-1, C-2 and CC, and there are two peaks in the RD conversion rate curves. The combustion profiles of RD moves to a higher temperature zone with increasing heating rates. The average activation energies of their combustion process for RD, C-1, C-2 and CC range from 191.84 kJ/mol to 128.31 kJ/mol. The activation energy for recycling dust increases as the fractional conversion increases, but the value for C-1, C-2 and CC decreases with increasing conversion, indicating different combustion mechanisms. Full article
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2667 KiB  
Article
Power Consumption Efficiency Evaluation of Multi-User Full-Duplex Visible Light Communication Systems for Smart Home Technologies
by Muhammad Tabish Niaz, Fatima Imdad and Hyung Seok Kim
Energies 2017, 10(2), 254; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10020254 - 20 Feb 2017
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 6866
Abstract
Visible light communication (VLC) has recently gained significant academic and industrial attention. VLC has great potential to supplement the functioning of the upcoming radio-frequency (RF)-based 5G networks. It is best suited for home, office, and commercial indoor environments as it provides a high [...] Read more.
Visible light communication (VLC) has recently gained significant academic and industrial attention. VLC has great potential to supplement the functioning of the upcoming radio-frequency (RF)-based 5G networks. It is best suited for home, office, and commercial indoor environments as it provides a high bandwidth and high data rate, and the visible light spectrum is free to use. This paper proposes a multi-user full-duplex VLC system using red-green-blue (RGB), and white emitting diodes (LEDs) for smart home technologies. It utilizes red, green, and blue LEDs for downlink transmission and a simple phosphor white LED for uplink transmission. The red and green color bands are used for user data and smart devices, respectively, while the blue color band is used with the white LED for uplink transmission. The simulation was carried out to verify the performance of the proposed multi-user full-duplex VLC system. In addition to the performance evaluation, a cost-power consumption analysis was performed by comparing the power consumption and the resulting cost of the proposed VLC system to the power consumed and resulting cost of traditional Wi-Fi based systems and hybrid systems that utilized both VLC and Wi-Fi. Our findings showed that the proposed system improved the data rate and bit-error rate performance, while minimizing the power consumption and the associated costs. These results have demonstrated that a full-duplex VLC system is a feasible solution suitable for indoor environments as it provides greater cost savings and energy efficiency when compared to traditional Wi-Fi-based systems and hybrid systems that utilize both VLC and Wi-Fi. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Home Energy Management)
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4276 KiB  
Article
A Parameter Selection Method for Wind Turbine Health Management through SCADA Data
by Mian Du, Jun Yi, Peyman Mazidi, Lin Cheng and Jianbo Guo
Energies 2017, 10(2), 253; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10020253 - 20 Feb 2017
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4824
Abstract
Wind turbine anomaly or failure detection using machine learning techniques through supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system is drawing wide attention from academic and industry While parameter selection is important for modelling a wind turbine’s condition, only a few papers have been [...] Read more.
Wind turbine anomaly or failure detection using machine learning techniques through supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system is drawing wide attention from academic and industry While parameter selection is important for modelling a wind turbine’s condition, only a few papers have been published focusing on this issue and in those papers interconnections among sub-components in a wind turbine are used to address this problem. However, merely the interconnections for decision making sometimes is too general to provide a parameter list considering the differences of each SCADA dataset. In this paper, a method is proposed to provide more detailed suggestions on parameter selection based on mutual information. First, the copula is proven to be capable of simplifying the estimation of mutual information. Then an empirical copulabased mutual information estimation method (ECMI) is introduced for application. After that, a real SCADA dataset is adopted to test the method, and the results show the effectiveness of the ECMI in providing parameter selection suggestions when physical knowledge is not accurate enough. Full article
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5480 KiB  
Article
Spatial and Temporal Wind Power Forecasting by Case-Based Reasoning Using Big-Data
by Fabrizio De Caro, Alfredo Vaccaro and Domenico Villacci
Energies 2017, 10(2), 252; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10020252 - 20 Feb 2017
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4679
Abstract
The massive penetration of wind generators in electrical power systems asks for effective wind power forecasting tools, which should be high reliable, in order to mitigate the effects of the uncertain generation profiles, and fast enough to enhance power system operation. To address [...] Read more.
The massive penetration of wind generators in electrical power systems asks for effective wind power forecasting tools, which should be high reliable, in order to mitigate the effects of the uncertain generation profiles, and fast enough to enhance power system operation. To address these two conflicting objectives, this paper advocates the role of knowledge discovery from big-data, by proposing the integration of adaptive Case Based Reasoning models, and cardinality reduction techniques based on Partial Least Squares Regression, and Principal Component Analysis. The main idea is to learn from a large database of historical climatic observations, how to solve the windforecasting problem, avoiding complex and time-consuming computations. To assess the benefits derived by the application of the proposed methodology in complex application scenarios, the experimental results obtained in a real case study will be presented and discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Power System Operations and Planning)
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1338 KiB  
Article
The Efficiency Improvement by Combining HHO Gas, Coal and Oil in Boiler for Electricity Generation
by Chia-Nan Wang, Min-Tsong Chou, Hsien-Pin Hsu, Jing-Wein Wang and Sridhar Selvaraj
Energies 2017, 10(2), 251; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10020251 - 20 Feb 2017
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 9654
Abstract
Electricity is an essential energy that can benefit our daily lives. There are many sources available for electricity generation, such as coal, natural gas and nuclear. Among these sources, coal has been widely used in thermal power plants that account for about 41% [...] Read more.
Electricity is an essential energy that can benefit our daily lives. There are many sources available for electricity generation, such as coal, natural gas and nuclear. Among these sources, coal has been widely used in thermal power plants that account for about 41% of the worldwide electricity supply. However, these thermal power plants are also found to be a big pollution source to our environment. There is a need to explore alternative electricity sources and improve the efficiency of electricity generation. This research focuses on improving the efficiency of electricity generation through the use of hydrogen and oxygen mixture (HHO) gas. In this research, experiments have been conducted to investigate the combined effects of HHO gas with other fuels, including coal and oil. The results show that the combinations of HHO with coal and oil can improve the efficiency of electricity generation while reducing the pollution to our environment. Full article
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2977 KiB  
Article
Environmental Assessment of Possible Future Waste Management Scenarios
by Yevgeniya Arushanyan, Anna Björklund, Ola Eriksson, Göran Finnveden, Maria Ljunggren Söderman, Jan-Olov Sundqvist and Åsa Stenmarck
Energies 2017, 10(2), 247; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10020247 - 19 Feb 2017
Cited by 32 | Viewed by 8004
Abstract
Waste management has developed in many countries and will continue to do so. Changes towards increased recovery of resources in order to meet climate targets and for society to transition to a circular economy are important driving forces. Scenarios are important tools for [...] Read more.
Waste management has developed in many countries and will continue to do so. Changes towards increased recovery of resources in order to meet climate targets and for society to transition to a circular economy are important driving forces. Scenarios are important tools for planning and assessing possible future developments and policies. This paper presents a comprehensive life cycle assessment (LCA) model for environmental assessments of scenarios and waste management policy instruments. It is unique by including almost all waste flows in a country and also allow for including waste prevention. The results show that the environmental impacts from future waste management scenarios in Sweden can differ a lot. Waste management will continue to contribute with environmental benefits, but less so in the more sustainable future scenarios, since the surrounding energy and transportation systems will be less polluting and also because less waste will be produced. Valuation results indicate that climate change, human toxicity and resource depletion are the most important environmental impact categories for the Swedish waste management system. Emissions of fossil CO2 from waste incineration will continue to be a major source of environmental impacts in these scenarios. The model is used for analyzing environmental impacts of several policy instruments including weight based collection fee, incineration tax, a resource tax and inclusion of waste in a green electricity certification system. The effect of the studied policy instruments in isolation are in most cases limited, suggesting that stronger policy instruments as well as combinations are necessary to reach policy goals as set out in for example the EU action plan on circular economy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy and Waste Management)
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3235 KiB  
Article
Production Characteristics with Different Superimposed Modes Using Variogram: A Case Study of a Super-Giant Carbonate Reservoir in the Middle East
by Chenji Wei, Hongqing Song, Yong Li, Qi Zhang, Benbiao Song and Jiulong Wang
Energies 2017, 10(2), 250; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10020250 - 18 Feb 2017
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4630
Abstract
Heterogeneity of permeability is an important factor affecting the production of a carbonate reservoir. How to correctly characterize the heterogeneity of permeability has become a key issue for carbonate reservoir development. In this study, the reservoirs were categorized into four superimposed modes based [...] Read more.
Heterogeneity of permeability is an important factor affecting the production of a carbonate reservoir. How to correctly characterize the heterogeneity of permeability has become a key issue for carbonate reservoir development. In this study, the reservoirs were categorized into four superimposed modes based on the actual logging data from a super-giant heterogeneous carbonate reservoir in the Middle East. A modified permeability formula in terms of the variogram method was presented to reflect the heterogeneity of the reservoirs. Furthermore, the models of oil production and water cut were established and the analytical solutions were obtained. The calculation results show that the present model can predict the productivity of wells with different heterogeneous layers more accurately and rapidly. The larger the varigoram value, the stronger the heterogeneity of the reservoirs, and the faster the decline of production owing to a quicker reduction of formation pressure. With the increase in variogram value, the relative permeability of the oil phase is smaller and the water phase larger, and the water cut becomes larger. This study has provided a quick and reasonable prediction model for heterogeneous reservoir. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Oil and Gas Engineering)
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4947 KiB  
Article
Sectoral Electricity Consumption and Economic Growth: The Time Difference Case of China, 2006–2015
by Jian Zhang, Zhaoguang Hu, Yanan Zheng, Yuhui Zhou and Ziwei Wan
Energies 2017, 10(2), 249; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10020249 - 18 Feb 2017
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3776
Abstract
Unlike existing studies focused on the causal relationship between electricity consumption and economic growth at the macro level, this paper uses monthly data from January 2006 to December 2015 and applies the correlation coefficient, as well as Kullback-Leibler (KL) divergence, to study the [...] Read more.
Unlike existing studies focused on the causal relationship between electricity consumption and economic growth at the macro level, this paper uses monthly data from January 2006 to December 2015 and applies the correlation coefficient, as well as Kullback-Leibler (KL) divergence, to study the time difference relationship between sectoral electricity consumption and economic growth. The empirical results draw some main findings as follows: First, the time difference relationships show diversity at the sector level but will form a kind of overall characteristic between economic growth and total electricity consumption. Secondly, not all sectors have a remarkable correlation between sectoral electricity consumption and economic growth as only part of them have reasonable values to describe the time difference relationship. Thirdly, the results present both diversity and aggregation at the industry level, while lagging sectors mainly concentrate in the manufacturing industry. The relationship between sectoral electricity consumption and economic growth can be further explored and described from a new perspective based on the results. Further, the trend of economic development and sectoral electricity consumption can be predicted to help policy-makers formulate proper policies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Economics 2016)
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5788 KiB  
Article
A New Model for Estimating the Diffuse Fraction of Solar Irradiance for Photovoltaic System Simulations
by Martin Hofmann and Gunther Seckmeyer
Energies 2017, 10(2), 248; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10020248 - 18 Feb 2017
Cited by 35 | Viewed by 8404
Abstract
We present a new model for the calculation of the diffuse fraction of the global solar irradiance for solar system simulations. The importance of an accurate estimation of the horizontal diffuse irradiance is highlighted by findings that an inaccurately calculated diffuse irradiance can [...] Read more.
We present a new model for the calculation of the diffuse fraction of the global solar irradiance for solar system simulations. The importance of an accurate estimation of the horizontal diffuse irradiance is highlighted by findings that an inaccurately calculated diffuse irradiance can lead to significant over- or underestimations in the annual energy yield of a photovoltaic (PV) system by as much as 8%. Our model utilizes a time series of global irradiance in one-minute resolution and geographical information as input. The model is validated by measurement data of 28 geographically and climatologically diverse locations worldwide with one year of one-minute data each, taken from the Baseline Surface Radiation Network (BSRN). We show that on average the mean absolute deviation of the modelled and the measured diffuse irradiance is reduced from about 12% to about 6% compared to three reference models. The maximum deviation is less than 20%. In more than 80% of the test cases, the deviation is smaller 10%. The root mean squared error (RMSE) of the calculated diffuse fractions is reduced by about 18%. Full article
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6828 KiB  
Article
Development of Shale Gas Supply Chain Network under Market Uncertainties
by Jorge Chebeir, Aryan Geraili and Jose Romagnoli
Energies 2017, 10(2), 246; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10020246 - 18 Feb 2017
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 7872
Abstract
The increasing demand of energy has turned the shale gas and shale oil into one of the most promising sources of energy in the United States. In this article, a model is proposed to address the long-term planning problem of the shale gas [...] Read more.
The increasing demand of energy has turned the shale gas and shale oil into one of the most promising sources of energy in the United States. In this article, a model is proposed to address the long-term planning problem of the shale gas supply chain under uncertain conditions. A two-stage stochastic programming model is proposed to describe and optimize the shale gas supply chain network. Inherent uncertainty in final products’ prices, such as natural gas and natural gas liquids (NGL), is treated through the utilization of a scenario-based method. A binomial option pricing model is utilized to approximate the stochastic process through the generation of scenario trees. The aim of the proposed model is to generate an appropriate and realistic supply chain network configuration as well as scheduling of different operations throughout the planning horizon of a shale gas development project. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Production Systems)
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2675 KiB  
Article
Multi-Objective Optimization for Energy Performance Improvement of Residential Buildings: A Comparative Study
by Kangji Li, Lei Pan, Wenping Xue, Hui Jiang and Hanping Mao
Energies 2017, 10(2), 245; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10020245 - 17 Feb 2017
Cited by 51 | Viewed by 8439
Abstract
Numerous conflicting criteria exist in building design optimization, such as energy consumption, greenhouse gas emission and indoor thermal performance. Different simulation-based optimization strategies and various optimization algorithms have been developed. A few of them are analyzed and compared in solving building design problems. [...] Read more.
Numerous conflicting criteria exist in building design optimization, such as energy consumption, greenhouse gas emission and indoor thermal performance. Different simulation-based optimization strategies and various optimization algorithms have been developed. A few of them are analyzed and compared in solving building design problems. This paper presents an efficient optimization framework to facilitate optimization designs with the aid of commercial simulation software and MATLAB. The performances of three optimization strategies, including the proposed approach, GenOpt method and artificial neural network (ANN) method, are investigated using a case study of a simple building energy model. Results show that the proposed optimization framework has competitive performances compared with the GenOpt method. Further, in another practical case, four popular multi-objective algorithms, e.g., the non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm (NSGA-II), multi-objective particle swarm optimization (MOPSO), the multi-objective genetic algorithm (MOGA) and multi-objective differential evolution (MODE), are realized using the propose optimization framework and compared with three criteria. Results indicate that MODE achieves close-to-optimal solutions with the best diversity and execution time. An uncompetitive result is achieved by the MOPSO in this case study. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Zero-Carbon Buildings)
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6061 KiB  
Article
Maximum Safety Regenerative Power Tracking for DC Traction Power Systems
by Guifu Du, Dongliang Zhang, Guoxin Li, Yihua Hu, Yang Liu, Chonglin Wang and Jianhua Liu
Energies 2017, 10(2), 244; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10020244 - 17 Feb 2017
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 6848
Abstract
Direct current (DC) traction power systems are widely used in metro transport systems, with running rails usually being used as return conductors. When traction current flows through the running rails, a potential voltage known as “rail potential” is generated between the rails and [...] Read more.
Direct current (DC) traction power systems are widely used in metro transport systems, with running rails usually being used as return conductors. When traction current flows through the running rails, a potential voltage known as “rail potential” is generated between the rails and ground. Currently, abnormal rises of rail potential exist in many railway lines during the operation of railway systems. Excessively high rail potentials pose a threat to human life and to devices connected to the rails. In this paper, the effect of regenerative power distribution on rail potential is analyzed. Maximum safety regenerative power tracking is proposed for the control of maximum absolute rail potential and energy consumption during the operation of DC traction power systems. The dwell time of multiple trains at each station and the trigger voltage of the regenerative energy absorbing device (READ) are optimized based on an improved particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm to manage the distribution of regenerative power. In this way, the maximum absolute rail potential and energy consumption of DC traction power systems can be reduced. The operation data of Guangzhou Metro Line 2 are used in the simulations, and the results show that the scheme can reduce the maximum absolute rail potential and energy consumption effectively and guarantee the safety in energy saving of DC traction power systems. Full article
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5402 KiB  
Article
An Optimized Energy Management Strategy for Preheating Vehicle-Mounted Li-ion Batteries at Subzero Temperatures
by Tao Zhu, Haitao Min, Yuanbin Yu, Zhongmin Zhao, Tao Xu, Yang Chen, Xinyong Li and Cong Zhang
Energies 2017, 10(2), 243; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10020243 - 17 Feb 2017
Cited by 44 | Viewed by 7808
Abstract
This paper presents an optimized energy management strategy for Li-ion power batteries used on electric vehicles (EVs) at low temperatures. In low-temperature environments, EVs suffer a sharp driving range loss resulting from the energy and power capability reduction of the battery. Simultaneously, because [...] Read more.
This paper presents an optimized energy management strategy for Li-ion power batteries used on electric vehicles (EVs) at low temperatures. In low-temperature environments, EVs suffer a sharp driving range loss resulting from the energy and power capability reduction of the battery. Simultaneously, because of Li plating, battery degradation becomes an increasing concern as the temperature drops. All these factors could greatly increase the total vehicle operation cost. Prior to battery charging and vehicle operating, preheating the battery to a battery-friendly temperature is an approach to promote energy utilization and reduce total cost. Based on the proposed LiFePO4 battery model, the total vehicle operation cost under certain driving cycles is quantified in the present paper. Then, given a certain ambient temperature, a target preheating temperature is optimized under the principle of minimizing total cost. As for the preheating method, a liquid heating system is also implemented on an electric bus. Simulation results show that the preheating process becomes increasingly necessary with decreasing ambient temperature, however, the preheating demand declines as driving range grows. Vehicle tests verify that the preheating management strategy proposed in this paper is able to save on total vehicle operation costs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Electric and Hybrid Vehicles Collection)
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4548 KiB  
Article
Effects of SiO2/Al2O3 Ratios on Sintering Characteristics of Synthetic Coal Ash
by Hongwei Hu, Kun Zhou, Kesheng Meng, Lanbo Song and Qizhao Lin
Energies 2017, 10(2), 242; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10020242 - 16 Feb 2017
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 5056
Abstract
This article explores the effects of SiO2/Al2O3 ratios (S/A) on sintering characteristics and provides guidance for alleviating ash depositions in a large-scale circulation fluidized bed. Five synthetic coal ash (SCA) samples with different S/As were treated in a muffle furnace for 12 h [...] Read more.
This article explores the effects of SiO2/Al2O3 ratios (S/A) on sintering characteristics and provides guidance for alleviating ash depositions in a large-scale circulation fluidized bed. Five synthetic coal ash (SCA) samples with different S/As were treated in a muffle furnace for 12 h at different temperatures (from 773 K to 1373 K, in 100 K intervals). The morphological and chemical results of the volume shrinkage ratio (VSR), thermal deformation analysis by dilatometer (DIL), scanning electron microscope (SEM), X-ray photoelectron spectrometer (XPS), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) were combined to describe the sintering characteristics of different samples. The results showed that the sintering procedure mainly occurred in the third sintering stage when the temperature was over 1273 K, accompanied with significant decreases in the VSR curve. Excess SiO2 (S/A = 4.5) resulted in a porous structure while excess Al2O3 (S/A = 0.5) brought out large aggregations. The other three samples (S/A = 1.5, 2.5, 3.5) are made up of an amorphous compacted structure and are composed of low fusion temperature materials (e.g., augite and wadsleysite.). Sintering temperatures first dramatically decrease to a low level and then gradually rise to a high level as S/A increases, suggesting that Al2O3-enriched additives are more effective than SiO2enriched additives in alleviating depositions. Full article
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2716 KiB  
Article
Optimization Models for Islanded Micro-Grids: A Comparative Analysis between Linear Programming and Mixed Integer Programming
by Alberto Dolara, Francesco Grimaccia, Giulia Magistrati and Gabriele Marchegiani
Energies 2017, 10(2), 241; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10020241 - 16 Feb 2017
Cited by 31 | Viewed by 5008
Abstract
This paper presents a comparison of optimization methods applied to islanded micro-grids including renewable energy sources, diesel generators and battery energy storage systems. In particular, a comparative analysis between an optimization model based on linear programming and a model based on mixed integer [...] Read more.
This paper presents a comparison of optimization methods applied to islanded micro-grids including renewable energy sources, diesel generators and battery energy storage systems. In particular, a comparative analysis between an optimization model based on linear programming and a model based on mixed integer programming has been carried out. The general formulation of these models has been presented and applied to a real case study micro-grid installed in Somalia. The case study is an islanded micro-grid supplying the city of Garowe by means of a hybrid power plant, consisting of diesel generators, photovoltaic systems and batteries. In both models the optimization is based on load demand and renewable energy production forecast. The optimized control of the battery state of charge, of the spinning reserve and diesel generators allows harvesting as much renewable power as possible or to minimize the use of fossil fuels in energy production. Full article
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7779 KiB  
Article
Investigation of a Diesel-Engined Vehicle’s Performance and Emissions during the WLTC Driving Cycle—Comparison with the NEDC
by Evangelos G. Giakoumis and Alexandros T. Zachiotis
Energies 2017, 10(2), 240; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10020240 - 16 Feb 2017
Cited by 34 | Viewed by 7382
Abstract
The present work presents results from an experimentally validated simulation code, regarding a turbocharged diesel-powered vehicle running on the recently developed worldwide light-duty vehicles WLTC driving cycle. The simulation is based on an engine mapping approach, with correction coefficients applied vis-à-vis the transient [...] Read more.
The present work presents results from an experimentally validated simulation code, regarding a turbocharged diesel-powered vehicle running on the recently developed worldwide light-duty vehicles WLTC driving cycle. The simulation is based on an engine mapping approach, with correction coefficients applied vis-à-vis the transient discrepancies encountered. Both performance and engine-out emission results are presented and discussed. As regards the latter, the concerned pollutants are soot and nitrogen monoxide. Since the WLTC driving cycle is scheduled to replace the NEDC in Europe from September 2017 with regard to the certification of passenger cars and light-duty trucks, a comparative analysis between the two test schedules is also performed for the engine/vehicle under study. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Automotive Engines Emissions and Control)
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2300 KiB  
Article
Greenhouse Gas Mitigation of Rural Household Biogas Systems in China: A Life Cycle Assessment
by Jun Hou, Weifeng Zhang, Pei Wang, Zhengxia Dou, Liwei Gao and David Styles
Energies 2017, 10(2), 239; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10020239 - 16 Feb 2017
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 5723
Abstract
Rural household biogas (RHB) systems are at a crossroads in China, yet there has been a lack of holistic evaluation of their energy and climate (greenhouse gas mitigation) efficiency under typical operating conditions. We combined data from monitoring projects and questionnaire surveys across [...] Read more.
Rural household biogas (RHB) systems are at a crossroads in China, yet there has been a lack of holistic evaluation of their energy and climate (greenhouse gas mitigation) efficiency under typical operating conditions. We combined data from monitoring projects and questionnaire surveys across hundreds of households from two typical Chinese villages within a consequential life cycle assessment (LCA) framework to assess net GHG (greenhouse gas) mitigation by RHB systems operated in different contexts. We modelled biogas production, measured biogas losses and used survey data from biogas and non-biogas households to derive empirical RHB system substitution rates for energy and fertilizers. Our results indicate that poorly designed and operated RHB systems in northern regions of China may in fact increase farm household GHG emissions by an average of 2668 kg CO2-eq· year−1, compared with a net mitigation effect of 6336 kg CO2-eq per household and year in southern regions. Manure treatment (104 and 8513 kg CO2-eq mitigation) and biogas leakage (-533 and -2489 kg CO2-eq emission) are the two most important factors affecting net GHG mitigation by RHB systems in northern and southern China, respectively. In contrast, construction (−173 and −305 kg CO2-eq emission), energy substitution (−522 emission and 653 kg·CO2-eq mitigation) and nutrient substitution (−1544 and −37 kg CO2-eq emission) made small contributions across the studied systems. In fact, survey data indicated that biogas households had higher energy and fertilizer use, implying no net substitution effect. Low biogas yields in the cold northern climate and poor maintenance services were cited as major reasons for RHB abandonment by farmers. We conclude that the design and management of RHB systems needs to be revised and better adapted to local climate (e.g., digester insulation) and household energy demand (biogas storage and micro power generators to avoid discharge of unburned biogas). More precise nutrient management planning could ensure that digestate nutrients are more effectively utilized to substitute synthetic fertilizers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Economics of Bioenergy 2016)
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4832 KiB  
Article
Effect of Injection Flow Rate on Product Gas Quality in Underground Coal Gasification (UCG) Based on Laboratory Scale Experiment: Development of Co-Axial UCG System
by Akihiro Hamanaka, Fa-qiang Su, Ken-ichi Itakura, Kazuhiro Takahashi, Jun-ichi Kodama and Gota Deguchi
Energies 2017, 10(2), 238; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10020238 - 16 Feb 2017
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 5828
Abstract
Underground coal gasification (UCG) is a technique to recover coal energy without mining by converting coal into a valuable gas. Model UCG experiments on a laboratory scale were carried out under a low flow rate (6~12 L/min) and a high flow rate (15~30 [...] Read more.
Underground coal gasification (UCG) is a technique to recover coal energy without mining by converting coal into a valuable gas. Model UCG experiments on a laboratory scale were carried out under a low flow rate (6~12 L/min) and a high flow rate (15~30 L/min) with a constant oxygen concentration. During the experiments, the coal temperature was higher and the fracturing events were more active under the high flow rate. Additionally, the gasification efficiency, which means the conversion efficiency of the gasified coal to the product gas, was 71.22% in the low flow rate and 82.42% in the high flow rate. These results suggest that the energy recovery rate with the UCG process can be improved by the increase of the reaction temperature and the promotion of the gasification area. Full article
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9941 KiB  
Article
Correlation Characteristic Analysis for Wind Speed in Different Geographical Hierarchies
by Shiyu Liu, Gengfeng Li, Haipeng Xie and Xifan Wang
Energies 2017, 10(2), 237; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10020237 - 16 Feb 2017
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 5874
Abstract
As the scale of wind power bases rises, it becomes significant in power system planning and operation to provide detailed correlation characteristic of wind speed in different geographical hierarchies, that is among wind turbines, within a wind farm and its regional wind turbines, [...] Read more.
As the scale of wind power bases rises, it becomes significant in power system planning and operation to provide detailed correlation characteristic of wind speed in different geographical hierarchies, that is among wind turbines, within a wind farm and its regional wind turbines, and among different wind farms. A new approach to analyze the correlation characteristics of wind speed in different geographical hierarchies is proposed in this paper. In the proposed approach, either linear or nonlinear correlation of wind speed in each geographical hierarchy is firstly identified. Then joint sectionalized wind speed probability distribution is modeled for linear correlation analysis while a Copula function is adopted in nonlinear correlation analysis. By this approach, temporal-geographical correlations of wind speed in different geographical hierarchies are properly revealed. Results of case studies based on Jiuquan Wind Power Base in China are analyzed in each geographical hierarchy, which illustrates the feasibility of the proposed approach. Full article
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6044 KiB  
Article
Influence of Water Saturation on the Mechanical Behaviour of Low-Permeability Reservoir Rocks
by Decheng Zhang, Ranjith Pathegama Gamage, Mandadige Samintha Anne Perera, Chengpeng Zhang and Wanniarachchillage Ayal Maneth Wanniarachchi
Energies 2017, 10(2), 236; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10020236 - 16 Feb 2017
Cited by 55 | Viewed by 5446
Abstract
The influence of water on the mechanical properties of rocks has been observed by many researchers in rock engineering and laboratory tests, especially for sedimentary rocks. In order to investigate the effect of water saturation on the mechanical properties of low-permeability rocks, uniaxial [...] Read more.
The influence of water on the mechanical properties of rocks has been observed by many researchers in rock engineering and laboratory tests, especially for sedimentary rocks. In order to investigate the effect of water saturation on the mechanical properties of low-permeability rocks, uniaxial compression tests were conducted on siltstone with different water contents. The effects of water on the strength, elastic moduli, crack initiation and damage thresholds were observed for different water saturation levels. It was found that 10% water saturation level caused more than half of the reductions in mechanical properties. A new approach is proposed to analyze the stress-strain relations at different stages of compression by dividing the axial and lateral stress-strain curves into five equal stress zones, where stress zones 1–5 refer to 0%–20%, 20%–40%, 40%–60%, 60%–80% and 80%–100% of the peak stress, respectively. Stress zone 2 represents the elastic range better than stress zone 3 which is at half of the peak stress. The normalized crack initiation and crack damage stress thresholds obtained from the stress-strain curves and acoustic emission activities averaged 31.5% and 83% of the peak strength respectively. Pore pressure is inferred to take part in the deformation of low-permeability siltstone samples, especially at full saturation levels. A change of failure pattern from multi-fracturing to single shear failure with the increase of water saturation level was also observed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Unconventional Natural Gas (UNG) Recoveries)
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3247 KiB  
Article
Distributed Economic Dispatch of Virtual Power Plant under a Non-Ideal Communication Network
by Chi Cao, Jun Xie, Dong Yue, Chongxin Huang, Jixiang Wang, Shuyang Xu and Xingying Chen
Energies 2017, 10(2), 235; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10020235 - 16 Feb 2017
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 5164
Abstract
A virtual power plant (VPP) is aimed to integrate distributed energy resources (DERs). To solve the VPP economic dispatch (VPED) problem, the power supply-demand balance, power transmission constraints, and power output constraints of each DER must be considered. Meanwhile, the impacts of communication [...] Read more.
A virtual power plant (VPP) is aimed to integrate distributed energy resources (DERs). To solve the VPP economic dispatch (VPED) problem, the power supply-demand balance, power transmission constraints, and power output constraints of each DER must be considered. Meanwhile, the impacts of communication time delays, channel noises, and the time-varying topology on the communication networks cannot be ignored. In this paper, a VPED model is established and a distributed primal-dual sub-gradient method (DPDSM) is employed to address the presented VPED model. Compared with the traditional centralized dispatch, the distributed dispatch has the advantages of lower communication costs and stronger system robustness, etc. Simulations are realized in the modified IEEE-34 and IEEE-123 bus test VPP systems and the results indicate that the VPED strategy via DPDSM has the superiority of better convergence, more economic profits, and stronger system stability. Full article
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501 KiB  
Article
Computational Model of a Biomass Driven Absorption Refrigeration System
by Munyeowaji Mbikan and Tarik Al-Shemmeri
Energies 2017, 10(2), 234; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10020234 - 16 Feb 2017
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4717
Abstract
The impact of vapour compression refrigeration is the main push for scientists to find an alternative sustainable technology. Vapour absorption is an ideal technology which makes use of waste heat or renewable heat, such as biomass, to drive absorption chillers from medium to [...] Read more.
The impact of vapour compression refrigeration is the main push for scientists to find an alternative sustainable technology. Vapour absorption is an ideal technology which makes use of waste heat or renewable heat, such as biomass, to drive absorption chillers from medium to large applications. In this paper, the aim was to investigate the feasibility of a biomass driven aqua-ammonia absorption system. An estimation of the solid biomass fuel quantity required to provide heat for the operation of a vapour absorption refrigeration cycle (VARC) is presented; the quantity of biomass required depends on the fuel density and the efficiency of the combustion and heat transfer systems. A single-stage aqua-ammonia refrigeration system analysis routine was developed to evaluate the system performance and ascertain the rate of energy transfer required to operate the system, and hence, the biomass quantity needed. In conclusion, this study demonstrated the results of the performance of a computational model of an aqua-ammonia system under a range of parameters. The model showed good agreement with published experimental data. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomass for Energy Country Specific Show Case Studies)
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2939 KiB  
Article
Evaluation and Reliability Assessment of GaN-on-Si MIS-HEMT for Power Switching Applications
by Po-Chien Chou, Szu-Hao Chen, Ting-En Hsieh, Stone Cheng, Jesús A. Del Alamo and Edward Yi Chang
Energies 2017, 10(2), 233; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10020233 - 16 Feb 2017
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 6883
Abstract
This paper reports an extensive analysis of the physical mechanisms responsible for the failure of GaN-based metal–insulator–semiconductor (MIS) high electron mobility transistors (HEMTs). When stressed under high applied electric fields, the traps at the dielectric/III-N barrier interface and inside the III-N barrier cause [...] Read more.
This paper reports an extensive analysis of the physical mechanisms responsible for the failure of GaN-based metal–insulator–semiconductor (MIS) high electron mobility transistors (HEMTs). When stressed under high applied electric fields, the traps at the dielectric/III-N barrier interface and inside the III-N barrier cause an increase in dynamic on-resistance and a shift of threshold voltage, which might affect the long term stability of these devices. More detailed investigations are needed to identify epitaxy- or process-related degradation mechanisms and to understand their impact on electrical properties. The present paper proposes a suitable methodology to characterize the degradation and failure mechanisms of GaN MIS-HEMTs subjected to stress under various off-state conditions. There are three major stress conditions that include: VDS = 0 V, off, and off (cascode-connection) states. Changes of direct current (DC) figures of merit in voltage step-stress experiments are measured, statistics are studied, and correlations are investigated. Hot electron stress produces permanent change which can be attributed to charge trapping phenomena and the generation of deep levels or interface states. The simultaneous generation of interface (and/or bulk) and buffer traps can account for the observed degradation modes and mechanisms. These findings provide several critical characteristics to evaluate the electrical reliability of GaN MIS-HEMTs which are borne out by step-stress experiments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Semiconductor Power Devices)
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3612 KiB  
Article
Exploring Soot Particle Concentration and Emissivity by Transient Thermocouples Measurements in Laminar Partially Premixed Coflow Flames
by Gianluigi De Falco, Giulia Moggia, Mariano Sirignano, Mario Commodo, Patrizia Minutolo and Andrea D’Anna
Energies 2017, 10(2), 232; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10020232 - 15 Feb 2017
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5359
Abstract
Soot formation in combustion represents a complex phenomenon that strongly depends on several factors such as pressure, temperature, fuel chemical composition, and the extent of premixing. The effect of partial premixing on soot formation is of relevance also for real combustion devices and [...] Read more.
Soot formation in combustion represents a complex phenomenon that strongly depends on several factors such as pressure, temperature, fuel chemical composition, and the extent of premixing. The effect of partial premixing on soot formation is of relevance also for real combustion devices and still needs to be fully understood. An improved version of the thermophoretic particle densitometry (TPD) method has been used in this work with the aim to obtain both quantitative and qualitative information of soot particles generated in a set of laminar partially-premixed coflow flames characterized by different equivalence ratios. To this aim, the transient thermocouple temperature response has been analyzed to infer particle concentration and emissivity. A variety of thermal emissivity values have been measured for flame-formed carbonaceous particles, ranging from 0.4 to 0.5 for the early nucleated soot particles up to the value of 0.95, representing the typical value commonly attributed to mature soot particles, indicating that the correct determination of the thermal emissivity is necessary to accurately evaluate the particle volume fraction. This is particularly true at the early stage of the soot formation, when particle concentration measurement is indeed particularly challenging as in the central region of the diffusion flames. With increasing premixing, an initial increase of particles is detected both in the maximum radial soot volume fraction region and in the central region of the flame, while the further addition of primary air determines the particle volume fraction drop. Finally, a modeling analysis based on a sectional approach has been performed to corroborate the experimental findings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Combustion and Propulsion)
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1320 KiB  
Article
Exploring the Environment/Energy Pareto Optimal Front of an Office Room Using Computational Fluid Dynamics-Based Interactive Optimization Method
by Kangji Li, Wenping Xue and Guohai Liu
Energies 2017, 10(2), 231; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10020231 - 15 Feb 2017
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4720
Abstract
This paper is concerned with the development of a high-resolution and control-friendly optimization framework in enclosed environments that helps improve thermal comfort, indoor air quality (IAQ), and energy costs of heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) system simultaneously. A computational fluid dynamics (CFD)-based [...] Read more.
This paper is concerned with the development of a high-resolution and control-friendly optimization framework in enclosed environments that helps improve thermal comfort, indoor air quality (IAQ), and energy costs of heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) system simultaneously. A computational fluid dynamics (CFD)-based optimization method which couples algorithms implemented in Matlab with CFD simulation is proposed. The key part of this method is a data interactive mechanism which efficiently passes parameters between CFD simulations and optimization functions. A two-person office room is modeled for the numerical optimization. The multi-objective evolutionary algorithm—non-dominated-and-crowding Sorting Genetic Algorithm II (NSGA-II)—is realized to explore the environment/energy Pareto front of the enclosed space. Performance analysis will demonstrate the effectiveness of the presented optimization method. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Zero-Carbon Buildings)
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