4.1.1. Natural Frequencies and Modal Shapes
The modal shapes without a crack, with a 60 mm crack, and with a 100 mm crack in the air and water can be seen in
Table 4 and
Table 5, respectively. For each simulation case, the modal displacement is divided into nine levels from high to low so that they can be compared together. The changes in both the natural frequency and the frequency-reduction ratios with the crack length in air and water can be seen in
Figure 5 and
Figure 6, respectively.
Obviously, the modal shapes are different in air and in water for the same ND modes with the same crack length, which has also been shown in [
10]. This may be mainly because the blades and the band suffer from different added mass factors [
9] in water for such structures with the different parts separated enough to have their own dominant modes. Due to the modal shape change from air to water, the frequency changes when increasing the crack length in air and water will also be very different, as shown in
Figure 5 and
Figure 6. Therefore, the Francis turbine in water can be seen as a new bladed-disk structure with the band, crown, and blades having different densities. Of course, due to the close distance between the blades, each may affect the vibration of nearby blades through hydraulic forces [
25], which may cause the system to be multi-coupled [
12]. However, for the researched modes, this coupling stiffness from hydraulic force ought to be very small compared with the coupling stiffness from band deformation, and thus its effect may be very limited. Therefore, the effect of a crack on the modal behavior in air and water ought to show many similarities, which can be seen in the following analysis.
From the modal shapes and natural frequencies, one of the doublet modes of each ND will change more than the other one. Generally, for actual turbines, there are no substructures that are without any deformations. Therefore, there are no modes that are completely unaffected by the crack. However, one of the doublet modes of each ND continues to change relatively more and the other one changes much less, which means the principle of the change in modes due to the crack is still in accordance with the theoretical analysis. In the following parts, the modes changing relatively more are referred to as changed modes (C-Mode), and modes changing relatively less are referred to as unchanged modes (UC-Mode).
When comparing the modal shape changes of the changed and unchanged doublet modes of each ND with the change in crack length, for most ND modes the changed mode usually originates from the one with low deformation on the damaged blade, and the damaged blade is close to the zero-displacement node. In contrast, for the 1ND and 8ND modes, which have nearly zero deformation blades, the changed mode usually originates from the one with high deformation on the damaged blade, and the damaged blade is far from the zero-displacement node.
The modal shape changes with the increase in crack length are not that regular, which may be because of the vibration instability mentioned above under the complicated high-intensity interaction. Due to the differences in vibration motion of the different ND modes, the changes can vary significantly. For all the unchanged modes, the modal shapes may also become distorted to some extent with the increase in crack length. Apart from the unchanged 1ND, which has low deformation at the damaged blade, the damaged blade is prone to have a large deformation close to the beginning part of the crack. This high deformation can cause the energy to concentrate at that part, which will induce a deformation degeneration at the band and other blades.
For the changed modes, the modal shape changes are even more irregular than those of the unchanged modes. Sometimes, under certain crack lengths, the highest deformation may appear at blades near the damaged blade, but when the crack length is very large, it will finally transmit to the damaged blade, like the changed 2ND and 3ND mode in air. Obviously, both in the air and in water, the changed 2ND mode has a high deformation concentration in the band near the damaged blade. This is the only mode that has a deformation concentration on the band near the damaged blade. Therefore, it ought to be the localized mode. The concentration usually is at the band piece next to the damaged blade sector when the crack is short, but it will finally transmit to the damaged blade sector, and the localization becomes very strong when the crack is large.
The 3ND in the air with a crack length of 100 mm is a special case, which has a high deformation concentration on the damaged blade with a strong deformation degeneration at the band and other blades. This mode may not be the localized mode because the band deformation has no concentration near the damaged blade. The origin of this mode may be the vibration instability mentioned earlier. The 3ND mode in water presents an interesting situation. When the crack is not too long, for example, 60 mm, this mode shows a high deformation concentration on the damaged blade with deformation degeneration on the band. However, when the crack is long, for example, 100 mm, the modal shape of the changed 3ND becomes similar to that of the 2ND. From
Figure 6, the natural frequency of the changed 3ND with a 100 mm crack is close to that of the 2ND mode. This means that when the changed modes are close to other modes with the reduction of frequencies, the modal shapes will become similar to the nearby one.
For the unchanged modes, the frequency reduction ratios are usually lower than 5% when the crack length is 100 mm. For some modes, such as the unchanged 1ND, the frequency reduction ratio can be as low as 0.1%. For the changed modes, the localized mode usually has a relatively high-frequency reduction ratio. When the crack length is 100 mm, the frequency reduction ratios of the localized 2ND can be as high as 16% in air and 26.5% in water. Though the changed 3ND mode in air has a high deformation concentration on the damaged blade when the crack length is 100 mm, its frequency reduction ratio is much lower than the localized 2ND. This may have a relationship with the damaged blade deformation, which means that for the changed 3ND mode, the deformation concentrates on the beginning part of the crack in the damaged blade and this modal shape of the damaged blade may not cause a high stiffness reduction ratio. However, when in water with a crack length of 60 mm, the frequency reduction ratio of the 3ND mode is higher than that of the localized 2ND mode. In addition to the damaged blade having a modal shape with the highest deformation at its middle part, the deformation concentration degree may also contribute to it, which means the changed 3ND has a higher deformation concentration degree than the localized 2ND mode in water with a crack of 60 mm.
As mentioned earlier, when the changed modes are close to other modes with the reduction of frequencies, the modal shapes will become similar to those modes. This phenomenon may have large effects on the frequency reduction ratios of the changed modes. In water, this phenomenon can be more significant than in air because the frequencies of different modes are closer. For the changed 3ND, 4ND, and 5ND modes in water, as well as the changed 5ND mode in air, when this phenomenon occurs with an increase in crack length, the frequency reduction rate is greatly decreased. Overall, the natural frequency changes for all ND modes are small when the crack is not long enough. This is due to two main reasons. On the one hand, though the band is like a thin ring, the couplings between neighboring sectors are still very high. On the other hand, the blades are firmly constrained by the band and the crown, which may reduce the stiffness reduction ratio. For different modes, the frequency reduction ratios can vary significantly.
In reality, the runner is connected to the shaft. By assuming that the shaft is nearly rigid, a fixed support is given to the top face of the crown, as shown in
Figure 7 (support A and this support is the same with that used in the harmonic response later), and the modal shapes under the fixed support in the air are shown in
Table 6. Due to the fixed support, the 0ND, 1ND, and 2ND modes were reduced from 408.38 Hz, 605.84 Hz, and 356.95 Hz to 256.43 Hz, 301.43 Hz, and 369.27 Hz, respectively. The modal shapes of 0ND and 1ND also change a lot. This means that these modes have relatively high deformations on the crown. The fixed support at the top face can be more or less seen as increasing the stiffness of the crown, which will greatly change the blade–disk (band) interaction properties of these modes. The natural frequencies of the higher ND modes are nearly unaffected by the fixed support. Obviously, the 0ND mode quickly becomes localized with the increase in crack length. The interesting thing about the 1ND is that it also shows some localization, even though the degree of localization is much less than 0ND. The 2ND mode no longer has localization. The 3ND mode still shows a strong deformation concentration at the damaged blade when the crack is 100 mm. From the above analysis, the mode with the lowest natural frequency is most prone to localize. This may have a relationship with the blade–disk interaction property and the mode with the lowest frequency is just at its veering point [
23]. That 1ND shows some localization may be because of its relatively low frequency and the strong instability of its vibration. When there is no fixed support at the crown, the 1ND mode is at a high-frequency area, and no localization occurs on it. Considering the low degree of localization of 1ND, it may be considered that there is still only one localized mode.
4.1.2. FFT of Modal Shapes and the Localization Factor
The modal shape change due to a crack can also be described using a Fast Fourier Transform (
FFT) of the modal shape. The first step of this procedure is to choose the sample point to represent the modal shape change. First, the sample point is chosen as the intersection point of the trailing edge and the band for each blade. Therefore, 17 sample points were obtained, and the modal displacement variation of these 17 points for each mode was used for
FFT. The
FFT results of the changed 2ND, unchanged 2ND, unchanged 3ND, and changed 3ND in air for crack lengths of 0 mm, 20mm, 60 mm, and 100 mm are shown in
Figure 8a–d, respectively. Each modal shape can be seen to be synthesized by different ND harmonic waveforms with different magnitudes. For each ND, its value was plotted by the percentage of its magnitude to the sum of the magnitudes of all ND waveforms.
Without a crack, each modal shape clearly contains only one waveform. With the increase in crack length, the percentage value of this original waveform will continue to decrease and other ND waveforms will appear with an increasing percentage value. For the unchanged modes, the decrease in the original ND waveform and the increase other ND waveforms are very insignificant, while for the changed modes, they are much more significant, particularly for the localized mode and the mode with a strong deformation concentration on the damaged blade (like the changed 3ND in
Figure 8d). The values of the new appearing ND waveforms usually decrease with their separation from the original ND waveform.
For a Francis turbine, the excitation from the hydraulic force is due to the rotor–stator interaction and the excitation is order excitation [
26]. To make the runner resonant, both the frequency and the ND of the excitation should be in accordance with the runner mode. This is to say that only the mode with the same ND can extract energy from the excitation force. When a crack is present, other ND waveforms start to appear. This means that the mode now can not only be excited by the original ND excitation but also be excited by other ND excitations. With an increase in the crack length, the decrease in the original ND percentage value means the ability to extract energy from the corresponding ND excitation decreases and the increase in the other ND percentage values means the ability to extract energy from the corresponding ND excitation increases [
27]. However, the
FFT value change may depend on the sample points positions because with the crack, the deformations on the blades, particular the damaged blade, become very ununiform. With other groups of sample points, the
FFT results may vary a lot and become not that regular. Using those sample points may be not appropriate because of the locally unregular deformation change on the damaged blade, and it may be better to use the sample points on the band.
The maximum response under order excitation not only depends on the
FFT value change but also depends on the Localization Factor (
LF) [
28] change. The
LF is defined as
where
is the maximum modal displacement of one mode without a crack and
is the maximum modal displacement of the mode with a crack. The
LF describes the frequency response function (FRF) [
29] change due to the crack under point excitation for one mode. Of course, the damping is not considered in the modal analysis, and this may have some effects on the
LF values. With damage, the deformation will have concentrations, which will induce the increase of the modal displacement. When the frequency change due to a crack is not that too large, the deformation concentration will increase the
LF value. From
Figure 9, for most of the modes, the
LF will increase with the crack length increase. The increases for changed modes are much more significant than the unchanged modes due to higher deformation concentrations. The localized mode and modes with high deformation concentrations on the damaged blade are prone to have high
LF value increases.