Association between the Intake of Fermented Soy Products and Hypertension Risk in Postmenopausal Women and Men Aged 50 Years or Older: The Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2013–2018
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Population
2.2. Data Collection
2.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Characteristics of the Participants
3.2. Associations Between the Risk of Hypertension and Intakes of Sodium and Fermented Soy Products
3.3. Associations Between Blood Pressure and the Intakes of Sodium and Fermented Soy Products
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
- WHO. Global Atlas on Cardiovascular Disease Prevention and Control; Shanthi, M., Pekka, P., Bo, N., Eds.; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Korea Health Statistics 2016: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES VII-1); Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Sejong Cheongju, Korea, 2017.
- Whelton, P.K.; Carey, R.M.; Aronow, W.S.; Casey, D.E., Jr.; Collins, K.J.; Dennison Himmelfarb, C.; DePalma, S.M.; Gidding, S.; Jamerson, K.A.; Jones, D.W.; et al. 2017 ACC/AHA/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/AGS/APA/ASH/ASPC/NMA/PCNA Guideline for the prevention, detection, evaluation, and management of high blood pressure in adults: Executive summary: A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association task force on clinical practice guidelines. Circulation 2018, 138, 426–483. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Härtl, G. WHO issues new guidance on dietary salt and potassium. Cent. Eur. J. Public Health 2013, 21, 16. [Google Scholar]
- Mohan, S.; Campbell, N.R. Salt, and high blood pressure. Clin. Sci. 2009, 117, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Graudal, N.; Hubeck-Graudal, T.; Jürgens, G.; Taylor, R.S. Dose-response relation between dietary sodium and blood pressure: A meta-regression analysis of 133 randomized controlled trials. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2019, 109, 1273–1278. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Watanabe, H.; Kashimoto, N.; Kajimura, J.; Kamiya, K. A miso (Japanese soybean paste) diet conferred greater protection against hypertension than a sodium chloride diet in Dahl salt-sensitive rats. Hypertens. Res. 2006, 29, 731–738. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Yoshinaga, M.; Toda, N.; Tamura, Y.; Terakado, S.; Ueno, M.; Otsuka, K.; Numabe, A.; Kawabata, Y.; Uehara, Y. Japanese traditional miso soup attenuates salt-induced hypertension and its organ damage in Dahl salt-sensitive rats. Nutrition 2012, 28, 924–931. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mun, E.G.; Park, J.E.; Cha, Y.S. Effects of doenjang, a traditional Korean soybean paste, with high-salt diet on blood pressure in Sprague-Dawley rats. Nutrients 2019, 11, 2745. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Shin, D.H.; Jeong, D.Y. Korean traditional fermented soybean products: Jang. J. Ethn. Foods 2015, 2, 2–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Park, J.W.; Kim, S.J.; Kim, S.H.; Kim, B.H.; Kang, S.G.; Nam, S.H.; Jung, S.T. Determination of mineral and heavy metal contents of various salts. Korean J. Food Sci. Biotechnol. 2000, 32, 1442–1445. [Google Scholar]
- Baek, S.H.; Ahn, J.W.; Lee, H.R.; Cho, S.H.; Kim, J.H. Anti-hypertensive effect of a solar salt diet in elderly hypertensive patients: A preliminary randomized, double-blind clinical trial. Korean J. Health Promot. 2015, 15, 98–107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Messina, M. Soy and health update: Evaluation of the clinical and epidemiologic literature. Nutrients 2016, 8, 754. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Dong, J.Y.; Tong, X.; Wu, Z.W.; Xun, P.C.; He, K.; Qin, L.Q. Effect of soya protein on blood pressure: A meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Br. J. Nutr. 2011, 106, 317–326. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- van Mierlo, L.A.; Arends, L.R.; Streppel, M.T.; Zeegers, M.P.; Kok, F.J.; Grobbee, D.E.; Geleijnse, J.M. Blood pressure response to calcium supplementation: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J. Hum. Hypertens. 2006, 20, 571–580. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Filippini, T.; Naska, A.; Kasdagli, M.I.; Torres, D.; Lopes, C.; Carvalho, C.; Moreira, P.; Malavolti, M.; Orsini, N.; Whelton, P.K.; et al. Potassium intake and blood pressure: A dose-response meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J. Am. Heart Assoc. 2020, 9, e015719. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hu, X.; Gao, J.; Zhang, Q.; Fu, Y.; Li, K.; Zhu, S.; Li, D. Soy fiber improves weight loss and lipid profile in overweight and obese adults: A randomized controlled trial. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 2013, 57, 2147–2154. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nozue, M.; Shimazu, T.; Sasazuki, S.; Charvat, H.; Mori, N.; Mutoh, M.; Sawada, N.; Iwasaki, M.; Yamaji, T.; Inoue, M.; et al. Fermented soy product intake is inversely associated with the development of high blood pressure: The Japan Public Health Center-Based Prospective Study. J. Nutr. 2017, 147, 1749–1756. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kanda, A.; Hoshiyama, Y.; Kawaguchi, T. Association of lifestyle parameters with the prevention of hypertension in elderly Japanese men and women: A four-year follow-up of normotensive subjects. Asia Pac. J. Public Health 1999, 11, 77–81. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ito, K.; Miyata, K.; Mohri, M.; Origuchi, H.; Yamamoto, H. The effects of the habitual consumption of miso soup on the blood pressure and heart rate of Japanese adults: A cross-sectional study of a health examination. Intern. Med. 2017, 56, 23–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kweon, S.; Kim, Y.; Jang, M.J.; Kim, Y.; Kim, K.; Choi, S.; Chun, C.; Khang, Y.H.; Oh, K. Data resource profile: The Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES). Int. J. Epidemiol. 2014, 43, 69–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Williams, B.; Mancia, G.; Spiering, W.; Agabiti Rosei, E.; Azizi, M.; Burnier, M.; Clement, D.; Coca, A.; De Simone, G.; Dominiczak, A.; et al. 2018 Practice guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension and the European Society of Cardiology: ESH/ESC task force for the management of arterial hypertension. J. Hypertens. 2018, 36, 2284–2309. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Rural Development Administration National Institute of Agricultural Sciences. 8th Revision Korean Food Composition Table; Rural Development Administration National Institute of Agricultural Sciences: Wanju-gun, Jeollabuk-do, Korea, 2011.
- Rural Development Administration National Institute of Agricultural Sciences. 9th Revision Korean Food Composition Table II; Rural Development Administration National Institute of Agricultural Sciences: Wanju-gun, Jeollabuk-do, Korea, 2016.
- Friedewald, W.T.; Levy, R.I.; Fredrickson, D.S. Estimation of the concentration of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in plasma, without use of the preparative ultracentrifuge. Clin. Chem. 1972, 18, 499–502. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lee, H.Y.; Shin, J.; Kim, G.H.; Park, S.; Ihm, S.H.; Kim, H.C.; Kim, K.I.; Kim, J.H.; Lee, J.H.; Park, J.M.; et al. 2018 Korean Society of Hypertension Guidelines for the Management of Hypertension: Part II diagnosis and treatment of hypertension. Clin. Hypertens. 2019, 25, 20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Saylor, J.; Friedmann, E.; Lee, H.J. Navigating complex sample analysis using national survey data. Nurs. Res. 2012, 61, 231–237. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Greenland, S.; Pearce, N. Statistical foundations for model-based adjustments. Annu. Rev. Public Health 2015, 36, 89–108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hayes, A.F. Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis: A Regression-Based Approach; Guilford Press: New York, NY, USA, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Bahari, T.; Uemura, H.; Katsuura-Kamano, S.; Yamaguchi, M.; Nakamoto, M.; Miki, K.; Ishizu, M.; Arisawa, K. Nutrient-derived dietary patterns and their association with metabolic syndrome in a Japanese population. J. Epidemiol. 2018, 28, 194–201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Guo, F.; Zhang, Q.; Yin, Y.; Liu, Y.; Jiang, H.; Yan, N.; Lin, J.; Liu, H.; Ma, L. Legume consumption and risk of hypertension in a prospective cohort of Chinese men and women. Br. J. Nutr. 2020, 123, 564–573. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Woo, H.W.; Kim, M.K.; Lee, Y.H.; Shin, D.H.; Shin, M.H.; Choi, B.Y. Habitual consumption of soy protein and isoflavones and risk of metabolic syndrome in adults ≥ 40 years old: A prospective analysis of the Korean Multi-Rural Communities Cohort Study (MRCohort). Eur. J. Nutr. 2019, 58, 2835–2850. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yang, G.; Shu, X.O.; Jin, F.; Zhang, X.; Li, H.L.; Li, Q.; Gao, Y.T.; Zheng, W. Longitudinal study of soy food intake and blood pressure among middle-aged and elderly Chinese women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2005, 81, 1012–1017. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Richardson, S.I.; Steffen, L.M.; Swett, K.; Smith, C.; Burke, L.; Zhou, X.; Shikany, J.M.; Rodriguez, C.J. Dietary total isoflavone intake is associated with lower systolic blood pressure: The Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) study. J. Clin. Hypertens. (Greenwich) 2016, 18, 778–783. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Papanikolaou, Y.; Fulgoni, V.L., 3rd. Bean consumption is associated with greater nutrient intake, reduced systolic blood pressure, lower body weight, and a smaller waist circumference in adults: Results from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1999–2002. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 2008, 27, 569–576. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rivas, M.; Garay, R.P.; Escanero, J.F.; Cia, P., Jr.; Cia, P.; Alda, J.O. Soy milk lowers blood pressure in men and women with mild to moderate essential hypertension. J. Nutr. 2002, 132, 1900–1902. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Welty, F.K.; Lee, K.S.; Lew, N.S.; Zhou, J.R. Effect of soy nuts on blood pressure and lipid levels in hypertensive, prehypertensive, and normotensive postmenopausal women. Arch. Intern. Med. 2007, 167, 1060–1067. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Acharjee, S.; Zhou, J.R.; Elajami, T.K.; Welty, F.K. Effect of soy nuts and equol status on blood pressure, lipids, and inflammation in postmenopausal women stratified by metabolic syndrome status. Metabolism 2015, 64, 236–243. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Halla, H.J.; Ameer, M.A.; Uppaluri, K.R. DASH diet to stop hypertension. In StatPearls; StatPearls Publishing Copyright © 2020; StatPearls Publishing LLC.: Treasure Island, FL, USA, 2020. [Google Scholar]
- Handa, C.L.; Zhang, Y.; Kumari, S.; Xu, J.; Ida, E.I.; Chang, S.K. Comparative study of angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibition of soy foods as affected by processing methods and protein isolation. Processes 2020, 8, 978. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Da Silva, L.H.; Celeghini, R.M.; Chang, Y.K. Effect of the fermentation of whole soybean flour on the conversion of isoflavones from glycosides to aglycones. Food Chem. 2011, 128, 640–644. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kawakami, Y.; Tsurugasaki, W.; Nakamura, S.; Osada, K. Comparison of regulative functions between dietary soy isoflavones aglycone and glucoside on lipid metabolism in rats fed cholesterol. J. Nutr. Biochem. 2005, 16, 205–212. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shin, Z.I.; Yu, R.; Park, S.A.; Chung, D.K.; Ahn, C.W.; Nam, H.S.; Kim, K.S.; Lee, H.J. His-His-Leu, an angiotensin I converting enzyme inhibitory peptide derived from Korean soybean paste, exerts antihypertensive activity In Vivo. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2001, 49, 3004–3009. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Park, E.; Shin, J.I.; Park, O.J.; Kang, M.H. Soy isoflavone supplementation alleviates oxidative stress and improves systolic blood pressure in male spontaneously hypertensive rats. J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol. 2005, 51, 254–259. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Timpka, S.; Stuart, J.J.; Tanz, L.J.; Rimm, E.B.; Franks, P.W.; Rich-Edwards, J.W. Lifestyle in progression from hypertensive disorders of pregnancy to chronic hypertension in Nurses’ Health Study II: Observational cohort study. BMJ 2017, 358, j3024. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Mente, A.; O’Donnell, M.; Rangarajan, S.; McQueen, M.; Dagenais, G.; Wielgosz, A.; Lear, S.; Ah, S.T.L.; Wei, L.; Diaz, R.; et al. Urinary sodium excretion, blood pressure, cardiovascular disease, and mortality: A community-level prospective epidemiological cohort study. Lancet 2018, 392, 496–506. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jeong, Y.S.; Lim, H.J.; Kim, S.B.; Kim, H.J.; Son, S.M. Blood pressure and dietary related risk factors associated with high sodium intake assessed with 24-h urine analysis for Korean adults. Nutr. Res. Pract. 2014, 19, 537–549. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ashraf, M.S.; Vongpatanasin, W. Estrogen and hypertension. Curr. Hypertens. Rep. 2006, 8, 368–376. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hwang, C.S.; Kwak, H.S.; Lim, H.J.; Lee, S.H.; Kang, Y.S.; Choe, T.B.; Hur, H.G.; Han, K.O. Isoflavone metabolites and their in vitro dual functions: They can act as an estrogenic agonist or antagonist depending on the estrogen concentration. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 2006, 101, 246–253. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hooper, L.; Ryder, J.J.; Kurzer, M.S.; Lampe, J.W.; Messina, M.J.; Phipps, W.R.; Cassidy, A. Effects of soy protein and isoflavones on circulating hormone concentrations in pre- and post-menopausal women: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Hum. Reprod. Update 2009, 15, 423–440. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Nagata, C.; Inaba, S.; Kawakami, N.; Kakizoe, T.; Shimizu, H. Inverse association of soy product intake with serum androgen and estrogen concentrations in Japanese men. Nutr. Cancer 2000, 36, 14–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Taku, K.; Lin, N.; Cai, D.; Hu, J.; Zhao, X.; Zhang, Y.; Wang, P.; Melby, M.K.; Hooper, L.; Kurzer, M.S.; et al. Effects of soy isoflavone extract supplements on blood pressure in adult humans: Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials. J. Hypertens. 2010, 28, 1971–1982. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Franklin, S.S.; Wong, N.D. Hypertension and cardiovascular disease: Contributions of the Framingham heart study. Glob. Heart 2013, 8, 49–57. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Staessen, J.A.; van der Heijden-Spek, J.J.; Safar, M.E.; Den Hond, E.; Gasowski, J.; Fagard, R.H.; Wang, J.G.; Boudier, H.A.; Van Bortel, L.M. Menopause and the characteristics of the large arteries in a population study. J. Hum. Hypertens. 2001, 15, 511–518. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Nestel, P.; Fujii, A.; Zhang, L. An isoflavone metabolite reduces arterial stiffness and blood pressure in overweight men and postmenopausal women. Atherosclerosis 2007, 192, 184–189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Variables | Women | p–Value | Men | p–Value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Normotensive (n = 3438) | Hypertensive (n = 3058) | Normotensive (n = 2655) | Hypertensive (n = 2415) | |||
Age (years) | 60.07 ± 0.16 | 65.93 ± 0.19 | <0.001 | 59.72 ± 0.18 | 63.26 ± 0.23 | <0.001 |
BMI (kg/m2) | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||
<18.5 | 97 (2.9) | 34 (1.2) | 71 (2.4) | 43 (1.6) | ||
18.5 to <23.0 | 1504 (45.2) | 808 (27.6) | 1039 (37.6) | 663 (26.1) | ||
23.0 to <25.0 | 871 (25.0) | 793 (24.7) | 775 (29.7) | 630 (26.5) | ||
≥25.0 | 966 (27.0) | 1423 (46.4) | 770 (30.3) | 1079 (45.8) | ||
Family history of hypertension, n (%) | 964 (29.6) | 1166 (40.9) | <0.001 | 588 (25.8) | 815 (37.2) | <0.001 |
Regular exercise, n (%) 1 | 1594 (48.1) | 1140 (39.5) | <0.001 | 1262 (48.4) | 1078 (46.0) | 0.149 |
Alcohol drinking, n (%) 2 | 50 (1.5) | 68 (2.6) | 0.007 | 262 (11.2) | 364 (18.0) | <0.001 |
Smoking, n (%) | 0.781 | 0.020 | ||||
Never | 3263 (94.8) | 2897 (94.7) | 521 (19.1) | 455 (19.2) | ||
Past | 80 (2.3) | 81 (2.6) | 1343 (48.4) | 1343 (52.5) | ||
Current | 95 (3.0) | 80 (2.8) | 791 (32.5) | 617 (28.4) | ||
Education level, n (%) | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||
≤ Elementary school | 1191 (30.2) | 1823 (55.2) | 617 (18.7) | 686 (25.2) | ||
Middle school | 658 (19.4) | 467 (16.3) | 425 (14.6) | 447 (17.0) | ||
High school | 1040 (33.3) | 540 (20.1) | 820 (32.7) | 752 (32.4) | ||
≥College | 549 (17.2) | 228 (8.4) | 793 (34.0) | 530 (25.4) | ||
Household income, n (%) | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||
Low | 753 (19.1) | 1200 (36.1) | 514 (15.0) | 663 (22.9) | ||
Middle-low | 917 (25.2) | 808 (25.2) | 697 (23.6) | 644 (24.9) | ||
Middle-high | 806 (25.0) | 590 (21.3) | 654 (27.1) | 542 (24.3) | ||
High | 962 (30.7) | 460 (17.5) | 790 (34.3) | 566 (27.9) | ||
LDL-C (mmol/L) | 3.29 ± 0.02 | 2.98 ± 0.02 | <0.001 | 3.06 ± 0.02 | 2.73 ± 0.02 | <0.001 |
HDL-C (mmol/L) | 1.39 ± 0.01 | 1.31 ± 0.01 | <0.001 | 1.21 ± 0.01 | 1.19 ± 0.01 | 0.057 |
TG (mmol/L) | 1.38 ± 0.02 | 1.56 ± 0.02 | <0.001 | 1.75 ± 0.04 | 1.88 ± 0.04 | 0.011 |
FPG (mmol/L) | 5.48 ± 0.02 | 5.95 ± 0.03 | <0.001 | 5.81 ± 0.03 | 6.13 ± 0.04 | <0.001 |
SBP (mmHg) | 114.84 ± 0.24 | 134.88 ± 0.39 | <0.001 | 116.21 ± 0.26 | 132.42 ± 0.40 | <0.001 |
DBP (mmHg) | 72.78 ± 0.15 | 78.11 ± 0.26 | <0.001 | 75.38 ± 0.18 | 80.52 ± 0.31 | <0.001 |
Energy intake (kcal/day) | 1681.51 ± 12.61 | 1569.34 ± 12.33 | <0.001 | 2191.55 ± 16.82 | 2105.22 ± 17.56 | <0.001 |
Total sodium intake (mg/day)3 | 2928.53 ± 33.92 | 2820.17 ± 36.30 | 0.017 | 4030.34 ± 44.21 | 4014.40 ± 55.26 | 0.819 |
Sodium intake from fermented soy products (mg/day) 3 | 690.48 ± 15.33 | 691.22 ± 15.45 | 0.971 | 924.89 ± 20.66 | 893.00 ± 21.27 | 0.260 |
Fermented soy product intake (g/day) | 17.47 ± 0.42 | 16.02 ± 0.38 | 0.008 | 23.60 ± 0.59 | 22.32 ± 0.60 | 0.117 |
Variables | Quintiles of Intake | p-Trend 1 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Q1 (n = 1299) | Q2 (n = 1299) | Q3 (n = 1300) | Q4 (n = 1299) | Q5 (n = 1299) | ||
Total sodium intake (mg/day) | <1437.25 | 1437.25 to <2085.23 | 2085.23 to <2846.36 | 2846.36 to <3936.08 | ≥3936.08 | |
Crude OR (95% CI) | 1 | 0.80 (0.67–0.96) | 0.71 (0.59–0.84) | 0.63 (0.53–0.76) | 0.62 (0.52–0.74) | <0.001 |
Adjusted OR (95% CI) 2 | 1 | 0.88 (0.71–1.08) | 0.83 (0.67–1.02) | 0.82 (0.66–1.02) | 0.82 (0.64–1.05) | 0.183 |
Sodium intake from fermented soy products (mg/day) | <130.57 | 130.57 to <354.53 | 354.53 to <627.84 | 627.84 to <1076.44 | ≥1076.44 | |
Crude OR (95% CI) | 1 | 0.85 (0.72–1.02) | 0.82 (0.68–0.98) | 0.90 (0.76–1.07) | 0.76 (0.64–0.90) | 0.011 |
Adjusted OR (95% CI) 2 | 1 | 0.93 (0.76–1.14) | 0.92 (0.76–1.13) | 1.02 (0.83–1.25) | 0.83 (0.68–1.01) | 0.124 |
Fermented soy product intake (g/day) | <2.85 | 2.85 to <7.89 | 7.89 to <14.60 | 14.60 to <26.39 | ≥26.39 | |
Crude OR (95% CI) | 1 | 0.91 (0.76–1.08) | 0.85 (0.71–1.02) | 0.88 (0.74–1.05) | 0.72 (0.61–0.86) | <0.001 |
Adjusted OR (95% CI) 2 | 1 | 0.97 (0.80–1.19) | 1.00 (0.82–1.23) | 1.00 (0.82–1.23) | 0.81 (0.66–0.98) | 0.023 |
Variables | Quintiles of Intake | p-Trend 1 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Q1 (n = 1014) | Q2 (n = 1014) | Q3 (n = 1014) | Q4 (n = 1014) | Q5 (n = 1014) | ||
Total sodium intake (mg/day) | <2165.32 | 2165.32 to <3068.22 | 3068.22 to <4013.82 | 4013.82 to <5365.74 | ≥5365.74 | |
Crude OR (95% CI) | 1 | 0.74 (0.61–0.91) | 0.67 (0.55–0.83) | 0.78 (0.64–0.94) | 0.67 (0.54–0.82) | <0.001 |
Adjusted OR (95% CI) 2 | 1 | 0.80 (0.64–1.02) | 0.78 (0.62–0.98) | 0.94 (0.74–1.19) | 0.77 (0.60–1.00) | 0.209 |
Sodium intake from fermented soy products (mg/day) | <206.93 | 206.93 to <493.55 | 493.55 to <859.18 | 859.18 to <1469.45 | ≥1469.45 | |
Crude OR (95% CI) | 1 | 0.96 (0.79–1.18) | 0.84 (0.69–1.03) | 0.88 (0.72–1.09) | 0.79 (0.65–0.97) | 0.020 |
Adjusted OR (95% CI) 2 | 1 | 1.03 (0.83–1.28) | 0.90 (0.73–1.11) | 1.01 (0.80–1.27) | 0.85 (0.68–1.07) | 0.150 |
Fermented soy product intake (g/day) | <4.66 | 4.66 to <11.57 | 11.57 to <20.62 | 20.62 to <36.34 | ≥36.34 | |
Crude OR (95% CI) | 1 | 0.88 (0.72–1.07) | 0.88 (0.72–1.08) | 0.74 (0.60–0.92) | 0.81 (0.66–1.00) | 0.043 |
Adjusted OR (95% CI) 2 | 1 | 0.94 (0.76–1.17) | 0.94 (0.75–1.17) | 0.84 (0.66–1.05) | 0.89 (0.70–1.12) | 0.281 |
Variables | Quintiles of Intake | p-Trend 1 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Q1 (n = 1299) | Q2 (n = 1299) | Q3 (n = 1300) | Q4 (n = 1299) | Q5 (n = 1299) | ||
Total sodium intake (mg/day) | <1437.25 | 1437.25 to <2085.23 | 2085.23 to <2846.36 | 2846.36 to <3936.08 | ≥3936.08 | |
SBP (mmHg) | 125.44 ± 0.61 | 124.47 ± 0.57 | 123.23 ± 0.59 | 122.74 ± 0.58 | 122.20 ± 0.57 | 0.612 |
DBP (mmHg) | 75.16 ± 0.33 | 74.79 ± 0.31 | 75.15 ± 0.33 | 74.96 ± 0.31 | 75.50 ± 0.31 | 0.838 |
Sodium intake from fermented soy products (mg/day) | <130.57 | 130.57 to <354.53 | 354.53 to <627.84 | 627.84 to <1076.44 | ≥1076.44 | |
SBP (mmHg) | 124.51 ± 0.61 | 123.48 ± 0.55 | 123.91 ± 0.64 | 123.93 ± 0.56 | 122.25 ± 0.57 | 0.087 |
DBP (mmHg) | 75.40 ± 0.32 | 75.16 ± 0.31 | 75.03 ± 0.33 | 75.24 ± 0.31 | 74.74 ± 0.29 | 0.148 |
Fermented soy product intake (g/day) | <2.85 | 2.85 to <7.89 | 7.89 to <14.60 | 14.60 to <26.39 | ≥26.39 | |
SBP (mmHg) | 124.51 ± 0.60 | 124.05 ± 0.56 | 123.56 ± 0.61 | 123.88 ± 0.55 | 122.05 ± 0.58 | 0.043 |
DBP (mmHg) | 75.36 ± 0.33 | 75.21 ± 0.31 | 75.05 ± 0.32 | 75.29 ± 0.31 | 74.65 ± 0.30 | 0.067 |
Variables | Quintiles of Intake | p-Trend 1 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Q1 (n = 1014) | Q2 (n = 1014) | Q3 (n = 1014) | Q4 (n = 1014) | Q5 (n = 1014) | ||
Total sodium intake (mg/day) | <2165.32 | 2165.32 to <3068.22 | 3068.22 to <4013.82 | 4013.82 to <5365.74 | ≥5365.74 | |
SBP (mmHg) | 125.51 ± 0.57 | 123.50 ± 0.60 | 122.23 ± 0.54 | 123.41 ± 0.58 | 122.83 ± 0.58 | 0.180 |
DBP (mmHg) | 77.70 ± 0.41 | 77.49 ± 0.39 | 77.01 ± 0.36 | 78.59 ± 0.37 | 78.43 ± 0.39 | 0.195 |
Sodium intake from fermented soy products (mg/day) | <206.93 | 206.93 to <493.55 | 493.55 to <859.18 | 859.18 to <1469.45 | ≥1469.45 | |
SBP (mmHg) | 123.90 ± 0.56 | 123.93 ± 0.58 | 122.66 ± 0.60 | 122.85 ± 0.57 | 123.96 ± 0.63 | 0.614 |
DBP (mmHg) | 77.63 ± 0.40 | 78.16 ± 0.36 | 77.24 ± 0.39 | 77.26 ± 0.38 | 78.10 ± 0.38 | 0.304 |
Fermented soy product intake (g/day) | <4.66 | 4.66 to <11.57 | 11.57 to <20.62 | 20.62 to <36.34 | ≥36.34 | |
SBP (mmHg) | 124.07 ± 0.57 | 123.43 ± 0.58 | 123.34 ± 0.57 | 122.24 ± 0.54 | 124.22 ± 0.61 | 0.450 |
DBP (mmHg) | 77.74 ± 0.39 | 77.70 ± 0.37 | 77.45 ± 0.36 | 77.43 ± 0.39 | 78.07 ± 0.38 | 0.239 |
SBP | DBP | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Women | Men | Women | Men | |
Indirect effect | ||||
Protein | 0.0036 (−0.0158, 0.0214) | −0.0173 (−0.0520, 0.0121) | −0.0047 (−0.0238, 0.0017) | −0.0073 (−0.0224, 0.0074) |
Fiber | 0.0120 (−0.0090, 0.0349) | 0.0012 (−0.0216, 0.0236) | 0.0011 (−0.0104, 0.0140) | 0.0059 (−0.0063, 0.0190) |
Calcium | −0.0045 (−0.0209, 0.0123) | 0.0023 (−0.0053, 0.0348) | −0.0003 (−0.0080, 0.0093) | 0.0014 (−0.0080, 0.0112) |
Potassium | 0.0179 (−0.0006, 0.0345) | 0.0017 (−0.0182, 0.0196) | 0.0046 (−0.0056, 0.0143) | −0.0052 (−0.0173, 0.0069) |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Yoo, D.; Park, Y. Association between the Intake of Fermented Soy Products and Hypertension Risk in Postmenopausal Women and Men Aged 50 Years or Older: The Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2013–2018. Nutrients 2020, 12, 3621. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12123621
Yoo D, Park Y. Association between the Intake of Fermented Soy Products and Hypertension Risk in Postmenopausal Women and Men Aged 50 Years or Older: The Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2013–2018. Nutrients. 2020; 12(12):3621. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12123621
Chicago/Turabian StyleYoo, Dohyun, and Yongsoon Park. 2020. "Association between the Intake of Fermented Soy Products and Hypertension Risk in Postmenopausal Women and Men Aged 50 Years or Older: The Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2013–2018" Nutrients 12, no. 12: 3621. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12123621