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Sports, Volume 6, Issue 4 (December 2018) – 76 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): Back squat with elastic bands (sometimes the “variable resistance training”) are used by many strength and conditioning coaches in the fields. However, there is no evidence that back squat with elastic bands could reduce the deceleration subphase. The optimal resistance from elastic bands is also unclear. The aim of this study was to investigate whether back squat with elastic bands reduce the deceleration subphase and to determine the optimal additional resistance of elastic bands. This study suggests that back squat with elastic band elicit greater power output during the acceleration and deceleration subphases especially with >80% band resistance. View this paper.
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9 pages, 1221 KiB  
Article
Validity and Reliability of the GymAware Linear Position Transducer for Squat Jump and Counter-Movement Jump Height
by Tanuj Wadhi, Jacob T. Rauch, Nauris Tamulevicius, Jody C. Andersen and Eduardo O. De Souza
Sports 2018, 6(4), 177; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports6040177 - 19 Dec 2018
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 10137
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to assess the concurrent validity and test-retest reliability of a linear position transducer (LPT) for the squat jump (SJ) and counter-movement jump (CMJ) height. Twenty-eight subjects (25.18 ± 7.1 years) performed three SJs followed by three CMJs [...] Read more.
The purpose of this study was to assess the concurrent validity and test-retest reliability of a linear position transducer (LPT) for the squat jump (SJ) and counter-movement jump (CMJ) height. Twenty-eight subjects (25.18 ± 7.1 years) performed three SJs followed by three CMJs using a force plate concurrently with the LPT to test validity. Subjects returned on a separate day, at least 48 h apart, to measure test-retest reliability. A t-test showed a significant difference between the two devices for both SJ (p < 0.001) and CMJ (p < 0.001) while Bland–Altman analysis for validity revealed that the LPT overestimated jump height for both SJ (mean difference (MD) = 8.01 ± 2.93 cm) and CMJ (MD = 8.68 ± 2.99 cm). With regards to reliability of the LPT, mean intraclass correlation (ICC) for both SJ (ICC = 0.84) and CMJ (ICC = 0.95) were high, and Bland–Altman analysis showed mean differences lower than minimal detectable change (MDC) between the days for both SJ (MD = 1.89 ± 4.16 cm vs. MDC = 2.72 cm) and CMJ (MD = 0.47 ± 3.23 cm vs. MDC = 2.11 cm). Additionally, there was a low coefficient of variation (CV) between days for both SJ (CV = 3.25%) and CMJ (CV = 0.74%). Therefore, while the LPT overestimates jump height, it is a reliable tool for tracking changes in jump height to measure performance improvement and monitor fatigue. Full article
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10 pages, 1570 KiB  
Article
Changes in Dynamic Strength Index in Response to Strength Training
by Paul Comfort, Christopher Thomas, Thomas Dos’Santos, Timothy J. Suchomel, Paul A. Jones and John J. McMahon
Sports 2018, 6(4), 176; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports6040176 - 19 Dec 2018
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 6505
Abstract
The primary aim of this investigation was to determine the effects of a four-week period of in-season strength training on the dynamic strength index (DSI). Pre and post a four-week period of strength-based training, twenty-four collegiate athletes (age = 19.9 ± 1.3 years; [...] Read more.
The primary aim of this investigation was to determine the effects of a four-week period of in-season strength training on the dynamic strength index (DSI). Pre and post a four-week period of strength-based training, twenty-four collegiate athletes (age = 19.9 ± 1.3 years; height = 1.70 ± 0.11 m; weight 68.1 ± 11.8 kg) performed three isometric mid-thigh pulls and countermovement jumps to permit the calculation of DSI. T-tests and Cohen’s effect sizes revealed a significant but small (p = 0.009, d = 0.50) decrease in DSI post-training (0.71 ± 0.13 N·N−1) compared to pre-training (0.65 ± 0.11 N·N−1); however, when divided into high and low DSI groups, differential responses were clear. The low DSI group exhibited no significant or meaningful (p = 1.000, d = 0.00) change in DSI pre to post-training (0.56 ± 0.05 N·N−1, 0.56 ± 0.09 N·N−1, respectively), whereas the high DSI group demonstrated a significant and large decrease (p = 0.034, d = 1.29) in DSI pre to post-training (0.85 ± 0.05 N·N−1, 0.74 ± 0.11 N·N−1, respectively), resulting in a significant and moderate difference (p = 0.034, d = 1.29) in the change in DSI between groups. These results demonstrate that DSI decreases in response to strength training, as expected, due to an increase in isometric mid-thigh pull peak force, with minimal change in dynamic (countermovement jump) peak force. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Neuromuscular Research)
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23 pages, 425 KiB  
Review
The Influence of Emotional Intelligence on Performance in Competitive Sports: A Meta-Analytical Investigation
by Alexandra Kopp and Darko Jekauc
Sports 2018, 6(4), 175; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports6040175 - 13 Dec 2018
Cited by 56 | Viewed by 11954
Abstract
Emotional intelligence (EI) is considered as a factor influencing sport performance. The research findings are inconsistent with respect to the size and even the direction of the relationship, however. In order to summarise the available evidence, we conducted a meta-analysis examining the relationship [...] Read more.
Emotional intelligence (EI) is considered as a factor influencing sport performance. The research findings are inconsistent with respect to the size and even the direction of the relationship, however. In order to summarise the available evidence, we conducted a meta-analysis examining the relationship between emotional intelligence (EI) and sports performance in competitive sports. A systematic literature search was conducted in June 2018. We identified 21 studies targeting EI and sports performance in competitive sports. We calculated correlation (r) to estimate the effect of the relationship. A random effects model was used to interpret findings. The meta-analysis of 22 effect sizes on the response of 3.431 participants found a small but significant relationship between EI and sports performance (r = 0.16). Additionally, the conceptualisation of EI (ability concept, trait concept, or mixed-model concept), type of publication, citation counts, and publication date turned out not to be significant moderators. Overall, the result is encouraging regarding the value of EI as a possible predictor in sports performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emotions in Sports and Exercise)
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15 pages, 1361 KiB  
Article
Comparison of Change of Direction Speed Performance and Asymmetries between Team-Sport Athletes: Application of Change of Direction Deficit
by Thomas Dos’Santos , Christopher Thomas, Paul Comfort and Paul A. Jones
Sports 2018, 6(4), 174; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports6040174 - 12 Dec 2018
Cited by 36 | Viewed by 6535
Abstract
The purpose of this study was twofold: (1) to examine differences in change of direction (COD) performance and asymmetries between team-sports while considering the effects of sex and sport; (2) to evaluate the relationship between linear speed, COD completion time, and COD deficit. [...] Read more.
The purpose of this study was twofold: (1) to examine differences in change of direction (COD) performance and asymmetries between team-sports while considering the effects of sex and sport; (2) to evaluate the relationship between linear speed, COD completion time, and COD deficit. A total of 115 (56 males, 59 females) athletes active in cricket, soccer, netball, and basketball performed the 505 for both left and right limbs and a 10-m sprint test. All team-sports displayed directional dominance (i.e., faster turning performance/shorter COD deficits towards a direction) (p ≤ 0.001, g = −0.62 to −0.96, −11.0% to −28.4%) with, male cricketers tending to demonstrate the greatest COD deficit asymmetries between directions compared to other team-sports (28.4 ± 26.5%, g = 0.19–0.85), while female netballers displayed the lowest asymmetries (11.0 ± 10.1%, g = 0.14–0.86). Differences in sprint and COD performance were observed between sexes and sports, with males demonstrating faster 10-m sprint times, and 505 times compared to females of the same sport. Male soccer and male cricketers displayed shorter COD deficits compared to females of the same sport; however, female court athletes demonstrated shorter COD deficits compared to male court athletes. Large significant associations (ρ = 0.631–0.643, p < 0.001) between 505 time and COD deficit were revealed, while trivial, non-significant associations (ρ ≤ −0.094, p ≥ 0.320) between COD deficit and 10-m sprint times were observed. In conclusion, male and female team-sport athletes display significant asymmetries and directional dominance during a high approach velocity 180° turning task. Coaches and practitioners are advised to apply the COD deficit for a more isolated measure of COD ability (i.e., not biased towards athletes with superior acceleration and linear speed) and perform COD speed assessments from both directions to establish directional dominance and create a COD symmetry profile. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment and Development of Change of Direction Speed and Agility)
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15 pages, 3407 KiB  
Article
Comparative Analysis of Load Profile between Small-Sided Games and Official Matches in Youth Soccer Players
by Carlos David Gómez-Carmona, José Martín Gamonales, José Pino-Ortega and Sergio José Ibáñez
Sports 2018, 6(4), 173; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports6040173 - 12 Dec 2018
Cited by 60 | Viewed by 5554
Abstract
The purposes of the present study are: (a) to characterize the external (eTL) and internal load (iTL) of official matches and small-sided games (SSGs) in relation to their objective, (b) to compare demands between SSG, and (c) to analyze the SSG requirements in [...] Read more.
The purposes of the present study are: (a) to characterize the external (eTL) and internal load (iTL) of official matches and small-sided games (SSGs) in relation to their objective, (b) to compare demands between SSG, and (c) to analyze the SSG requirements in relation to official matches during a one-month competition period. Twenty under-18 national-level soccer players were recorded using WIMUTM inertial devices (RealTrack Systems, Almeria, Spain) during four official matches and 12 training sessions where four SSGs with different objectives were performed: (SSG1) keeping the ball; (SSG2) keeping the ball and progressing; (SSG3) keeping the ball, progressing and ending in mini-goals; and (SSG4) keeping the ball, progressing and ending in an official goal with a goalkeeper. Statistical analysis included Kruskall-Wallis’ H and Mann-Whitney’s U with Cohen’s d effect size. The SSGs presented walking and jogging intensity movements (0.7–7 to 7–14 km/h), with a 5-to-8 %HIA (high intensity activity, >16 km/h), where low intensity accelerations, decelerations and impacts were predominant (1–2.5 m/s2; 5–7 G), and %HRMAX (maximum heart rate percentage) was between 70–90%. Only SSG4 presented similar demands to competition, finding differences between SSGs (p < 0.05; d = 1.40 − 0.36). In conclusion, the objective of the SSGs directly influenced the demands on the players in training sessions. For this reason, it is important to monitor demands for designing specific training sessions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Training Process in Soccer Players)
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12 pages, 2297 KiB  
Article
Influence of Resistance Exercise on Appetite and Affect Following Pre-Sleep Feeding
by Takudzwa A. Madzima, Jonas R. Black, Jared T. Melanson, Svetlana Nepocatych and Eric E. Hall
Sports 2018, 6(4), 172; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports6040172 - 11 Dec 2018
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3813
Abstract
To determine changes in appetite, affect and cortisol in response to an acute bout of resistance exercise (RE) the morning after consuming whey (WP) and casein (CP) protein and a non-caloric placebo (PLA) consumed pre-sleep, 14 active men (n = 5) and women [...] Read more.
To determine changes in appetite, affect and cortisol in response to an acute bout of resistance exercise (RE) the morning after consuming whey (WP) and casein (CP) protein and a non-caloric placebo (PLA) consumed pre-sleep, 14 active men (n = 5) and women (n = 9) consumed a single dose of 24 g WP, 48 g WP, 24 g CP, 48 g CP, or PLA 30 min pre-sleep. Prior to and immediately after RE, appetite, affect and cortisol were assessed. Significant time effects were observed for Energetic Arousal and Tense Arousal (p = 0.017) and Feeling Scale and Felt Arousal Scale (p < 0.001). Appetite did not change over time or condition. Cortisol levels increased after RE (p = 0.007). Pre-RE, Tense Arousal was correlated with hunger (r = 0.25, p = 0.047) and desire to eat (r = 0.35, p = 0.005). Post-RE, cortisol was found to be significantly related to Feeling Scale (r = 0.32, p = 0.018), Felt Arousal Scale (r = 0.33, p = 0.015) and Energetic Arousal (r = 0.32, p = 0.018). Varying doses of WP and CP pre-sleep did not have an effect on morning appetite and cortisol, but cortisol was found to be related to affect and appetite. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emotions in Sports and Exercise)
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7 pages, 655 KiB  
Article
High 1RM Tests Reproducibility and Validity are not Dependent on Training Experience, Muscle Group Tested or Strength Level in Older Women
by Matheus Barbalho, Paulo Gentil, Rodolfo Raiol, Fabrício Boscolo Del Vecchio, Rodrigo Ramirez-Campillo and Victor Silveira Coswig
Sports 2018, 6(4), 171; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports6040171 - 11 Dec 2018
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 5291
Abstract
Background: The maximal one-repetition test (1-RM) is widely used in scientific research; however, there are conflicting results regarding its reproducibility in elderly populations. The present study aimed to analyze the reproducibility of the test both before and after a 12-week training period by [...] Read more.
Background: The maximal one-repetition test (1-RM) is widely used in scientific research; however, there are conflicting results regarding its reproducibility in elderly populations. The present study aimed to analyze the reproducibility of the test both before and after a 12-week training period by using the bench press and leg press 45° 1-RM tests in the elderly, taking into consideration the training experience and strength level of the women. Methods: Elderly women (n = 376; age, 68.5 ± 14.1 years; height, 162.7 ± 5.5 cm; body mass, 71.2 ± 16.0 kg) who underwent ≥3 months of resistance training performed an initial week of familiarization and a second week of testing and retest, with a 48–72 h interval. Results: The results showed that Kappa indices ranged from 0.93 to 0.95, and the intraclass correlation coefficients were 0.99 for both the lower and upper limbs. In addition, minimal detectable changes were found that ranged between 1 and 3%, which means that changes lower than 1 kg could be detected. Conclusion: The present study confirms that the 1-RM test has high reliability and reproducibility in the elderly, for both upper and lower limbs. Full article
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8 pages, 698 KiB  
Article
Validity and Reliability of a Commercially-Available Velocity and Power Testing Device
by Andrew T. Askow, Jason D. Stone, Daniel J. Arndts, Adam C. King, Shiho Goto, Joseph P. Hannon, J. Craig Garrison, James M. Bothwell, Phil E. Esposito, Andrew R. Jagim, Margaret T. Jones, Will Jennings and Jonathan M. Oliver
Sports 2018, 6(4), 170; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports6040170 - 10 Dec 2018
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3697
Abstract
Given the relationship between explosive-type training and power adaptation, tracking movement velocity has become popular. However, unlike previous variables, tracking velocity necessitates the use of a valid and reliable tool to monitor adaptation over time. Therefore, the primary purpose of this research was [...] Read more.
Given the relationship between explosive-type training and power adaptation, tracking movement velocity has become popular. However, unlike previous variables, tracking velocity necessitates the use of a valid and reliable tool to monitor adaptation over time. Therefore, the primary purpose of this research was to assess the validity and reliability of a commercially-available linear position transducer (LPT). Nine resistance-trained men completed four sessions consisting of a single set of barbell back squat to volitional failure at 75% or 90% one-repetition maximum. Kinetic and kinematic data were captured for each repetition by the LPT and a 3-dimensional motion capture system and bipedal force platforms. In total, 357 instances of data from both systems were analyzed using intraclass correlations (ICC), effect size estimates, and standard error of measurement. Overall, the LPT yielded excellent ICCs (all ≥0.94) and small/trivial differences (d < 0.60). When categorized by median values, ICCs remained high (all ≥0.89) and differences remained small or trivial with the exception of high peak velocities (d = −1.46). Together, these data indicate that the commercially-available LPT is a valid and reliable measure for kinetic and kinematic variables of interest with the exception of high peak velocities. Full article
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7 pages, 903 KiB  
Article
Spatiotemporal and Kinetic Determinants of Sprint Acceleration Performance in Soccer Players
by Munenori Murata, Yohei Takai, Hiroaki Kanehisa, Tetsuo Fukunaga and Ryu Nagahara
Sports 2018, 6(4), 169; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports6040169 - 09 Dec 2018
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3705
Abstract
We aimed to elucidate spatiotemporal and kinetic determinants of sprint acceleration performance in soccer players. Thirty-seven male soccer players performed 60-m sprints. The spatiotemporal variables and ground reaction impulses were calculated over a 50-m distance. When controlling the influence of stature and body [...] Read more.
We aimed to elucidate spatiotemporal and kinetic determinants of sprint acceleration performance in soccer players. Thirty-seven male soccer players performed 60-m sprints. The spatiotemporal variables and ground reaction impulses were calculated over a 50-m distance. When controlling the influence of stature and body mass, change in running speed was correlated with the step length at the 1st–4th step section (r = 0.695), step frequency from the 9th to 20th step sections (r = 0.428 to 0.484), braking impulse during the 17th–20th step section (r = 0.328), propulsive impulse from the 1st to 8th step sections (r = 0.738 and 0.379), net anteroposterior impulse for all step sections (r = 0.384 to 0.678), and vertical impulse from the 9th–12th step section and thereafter (r = −0.355 to −0.428). These results confirmed that an effective acceleration is probably accomplished by a greater step length originated in greater propulsive impulse during the initial acceleration phase (to the 8th step), a higher step frequency through smaller vertical impulse and smaller braking impulse during the middle and later acceleration phases (from the 9th step), as well as greater net anteroposterior impulse during the entire acceleration phase. Full article
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12 pages, 2434 KiB  
Article
Surfing the Waves of the CMJ; Are There between-Sport Differences in the Waveform Data?
by James Parker and Lina E. Lundgren
Sports 2018, 6(4), 168; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports6040168 - 08 Dec 2018
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 6082
Abstract
The ability to analyse countermovement jump (CMJ) waveform data using statistical methods, like principal component analysis, can provide additional information regarding the different phases of the CMJ, compared to jump height or peak power alone. The aim of this study was to investigate [...] Read more.
The ability to analyse countermovement jump (CMJ) waveform data using statistical methods, like principal component analysis, can provide additional information regarding the different phases of the CMJ, compared to jump height or peak power alone. The aim of this study was to investigate the between-sport force-time curve differences in the CMJ. Eighteen high level golfers (male = 10, female = 8) and eighteen high level surfers (male = 10, female = 8) performed three separate countermovement jumps on a force platform. Time series of data from the force platform was normalized to body weight and each repetition was then normalized to 0–100 percent. Principal component analyses (PCA) were performed on force waveforms and the first six PCs explained 35% of the variance in force parameters. The main features of the movement cycles were characterized by magnitude (PC1 and PC5), waveform (PC2 and PC4), and phase shift features (PC3). Surf athletes differ in their CMJ technique and show a greater negative centre of mass displacement when compared to golfers (PC1), although these differences are not necessarily associated with greater jump height. Principal component 5 demonstrated the largest correlation with jump height (R2 = 0.52). Further studies are recommended in this area, to reveal which features of the CMJ that relate to jumping performance, and sport specific adaptations. Full article
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9 pages, 638 KiB  
Article
The Constituent Year Effect: Relative Age Disparities in Australian Masters Track and Field Athletic Participation
by Nikola Medic, Jasmine Lares and Bradley W. Young
Sports 2018, 6(4), 167; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports6040167 - 08 Dec 2018
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2520
Abstract
The constituent year effect, a source of relative age disparities, in masters sport has been demonstrated mainly amongst North American samples. Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine whether a participation-related constituent year effect exists among athletes (n = 6492) [...] Read more.
The constituent year effect, a source of relative age disparities, in masters sport has been demonstrated mainly amongst North American samples. Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine whether a participation-related constituent year effect exists among athletes (n = 6492) competing in Australian Masters Athletics competitions between 2000 and 2014. The results indicated that a participation-related constituent year effect was observed as the likelihood of participating was significantly higher for masters athletes in their first and second constituent year of any five-year age category (p < 0.0001) and was lower when they were in the fourth or fifth constituent year. The results also indicated this effect is influenced by gender and age. Specifically, the effect was significant for both male (p < 0.0001) and female (p < 0.001) masters athletes; as well during the third, sixth, seventh, and eighth + decades of life (all ps < 0.001). These data demonstrate that despite masters sport being an avenue for promotion of participation and overall health, there is potential for improving how competitive organizational strategies are implemented given the recurring intermittent patterns of participation associated with five-year age brackets which are likely to compromise benefits. Full article
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9 pages, 374 KiB  
Article
Fat-Free Mass and the Balance Error Scoring System Predict an Appropriate Maximal Load in the Unilateral Farmer’s Walk
by Michael E. Holmstrup, Michael A. Kelley, Kyla R. Calhoun and Caleb L. Kiess
Sports 2018, 6(4), 166; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports6040166 - 08 Dec 2018
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3424
Abstract
This study quantified and compared unilateral farmer’s walk (UFW) performance in recreationally active males and females, and determined if additional variables allowed for the prediction of a maximal safe load. Anthropometric (height, body weight (BW), body mass index, body fat percentage, fat-free mass [...] Read more.
This study quantified and compared unilateral farmer’s walk (UFW) performance in recreationally active males and females, and determined if additional variables allowed for the prediction of a maximal safe load. Anthropometric (height, body weight (BW), body mass index, body fat percentage, fat-free mass (FFM), and fat mass), muscular endurance (maximal duration side bridge), and balance (Balance Error Scoring System (BESS)) tests were completed. Participants performed a series of 20 s UFW trials (non-dominant side) at a cadence of 66 beats/min. The initial load was 10% of BW and increased by 10% per trial until deviations in spinal alignment or compromised gait patterns were noted, and the series was terminated. The highest load carried before technical failure was recorded. Descriptive and comparative statistics and a stepwise linear regression analysis were utilized to determine relationships between UFW performance and anthropometric, muscular endurance, and balance tests. Males (N = 25) were significantly taller (177.3 ± 6.7 vs. 164.7 ± 7.2 cm, p < 0.05), heavier (81.7 ± 7.0 vs. 62.0 ± 9.4 kg, p < 0.05), and leaner (14.4 ± 4.4 vs. 22.4 ± 4.8%, p < 0.05) than females (N = 26). Further, males had a higher amount of FFM (p < 0.05) than females. The males (52.2 ± 9.0, 64% BW) carried a higher average UFW load than the females (32.5 ± 7.1 kg, 53% BW, p < 0.05). FFM was strongly predictive of UFW load (load = −9.88876 + 0.88679 × (FFM); r2 = 0.774, p < 0.0001). The addition of the BESS test further increased the accuracy of the prediction equation (r2 = 0.800, p < 0.0001). There are differences in UFW performance ability between males and females. As our method does not account for all potential confounding variables, the use of these equations should be combined with technique analysis and participant feedback to ensure an appropriate workload. Full article
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11 pages, 262 KiB  
Article
Individual Motivations, Motivational Climate, Enjoyment, and Physical Competence Perceptions in Finnish Team Sport Athletes: A Prospective and Retrospective Study
by Thaís Zanatta, Christoph Rottensteiner, Niilo Konttinen and Marc Lochbaum
Sports 2018, 6(4), 165; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports6040165 - 05 Dec 2018
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3873
Abstract
Despite the high rates of participation in sports clubs among Finnish youth, only a few reach elite levels. This study investigated a number of motivational factors, enjoyment, and perceived physical competence perceptions of Finnish youth athletes in their adolescence and then four years [...] Read more.
Despite the high rates of participation in sports clubs among Finnish youth, only a few reach elite levels. This study investigated a number of motivational factors, enjoyment, and perceived physical competence perceptions of Finnish youth athletes in their adolescence and then four years later to help understand determinants of elite level attainment. The sample consisted of 824 young athletes born in 1995, who were playing soccer, ice hockey, or basketball in the Finnish sports club system. As youths, participants completed measurements of the perceived task and ego climates, task and ego goal orientations, autonomous and controlled motivations, amotivation, sport enjoyment, and perceived physical competence. Retrospectively, the same participants completed measurements of task, ego, social relatedness, and autonomy supportive climates four years later. All variables were compared to self-reported elite status attainment. Additionally, we examined some demographic characteristics. Prospectively, the self-reported elite athletes (n = 79) reported significantly (p < 0.05) higher perceptions of a task climate, perceived physical competence, sport enjoyment, and autonomous motivation and a lower level of amotivation compared to nonelite athletes. The meaningfulness (Hedges’ g) of the significant differences ranged from small to moderate. Retrospectively, elite athletes indicated significantly (p < 0.05) higher perception of a task climate and a social relatedness climate during their sporting career. Hedges’ g ranged from moderate to large in meaningfulness. The findings highlighted the importance of focusing on the positive aspects surrounding elite athletes’ perceptions to promote youth athletes’ development, while not discounting the importance of physical size and talent. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motivational Theories in Physical Activity and Competitive Sports)
8 pages, 200 KiB  
Article
Core Temperature Responses in Elite Cricket Players during Australian Summer Conditions
by Sharon Stay, Michelle Cort, David Ward, Alex Kountouris, John Orchard, Justin Holland and Anna Saw
Sports 2018, 6(4), 164; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports6040164 - 05 Dec 2018
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4371
Abstract
This study aimed to observe core temperature responses in elite cricket players under match conditions during the summer in Australia. Thirty-eight Australian male cricketers ingested capsule temperature sensors during six four-day first-class matches between February 2016 and March 2017. Core temperature (Tc) was [...] Read more.
This study aimed to observe core temperature responses in elite cricket players under match conditions during the summer in Australia. Thirty-eight Australian male cricketers ingested capsule temperature sensors during six four-day first-class matches between February 2016 and March 2017. Core temperature (Tc) was recorded during breaks in play. Batters showed an increase in Tc related to time spent batting of approximately 1 °C per two hours of play (p < 0.001). Increases in rate of perceived exertion (RPE) in batters correlated with smaller elevations in Tc (0.2 °C per one unit of elevation in RPE) (p < 0.001). Significant, but clinically trivial, increases in Tc of batters were found related to the day of play, wet bulb globe temperature (WBGT), air temperature, and humidity. A trivial increase in Tc (p < 0.001) was associated with time in the field and RPE when fielding. There was no association between Tc and WBGT, air temperature, humidity, or day of play in fielders. This study demonstrates that batters have greater rises in Tc than other cricket participants, and may have an increased risk of exertional heat illness, despite exposure to similar environmental conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological Responses During Exercise)
11 pages, 478 KiB  
Article
Similar Strength and Power Adaptations between Two Different Velocity-Based Training Regimens in Collegiate Female Volleyball Players
by Jacob T. Rauch, Irineu Loturco, Nicholas Cheesman, Justin Thiel, Michael Alvarez, Nicholas Miller, Nathan Carpenter, Christopher Barakat, Gloria Velasquez, Alexandria Stanjones, Daniel Aube, Jody C. Andersen and Eduardo O. De Souza
Sports 2018, 6(4), 163; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports6040163 - 04 Dec 2018
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 7582
Abstract
This study investigated the effects of two different velocity-based training (VBT) regimens on muscular adaptations. Fifteen female college volleyball players were randomly assigned into either progressive velocity-based training (PVBT) or optimum training load (OTL). Both groups trained three times a week for seven [...] Read more.
This study investigated the effects of two different velocity-based training (VBT) regimens on muscular adaptations. Fifteen female college volleyball players were randomly assigned into either progressive velocity-based training (PVBT) or optimum training load (OTL). Both groups trained three times a week for seven weeks. PVBT performed a 4-week strength block (e.g., 0.55–0.70 m·s−1) followed by a 3-week power block (e.g., 0.85–1.0 m·s−1), whereas OTL performed training at ~0.85–0.9 m·s−1. 1RM and peak power output (PP) assessments on the back squat (BS), bench press (BP) and deadlift (DL) exercises were assessed pre and post training. There was a main time effect (p ≤ 0.05) for BS and BP 1RM, (PVBT: 19.6%, ES: 1.72; OTL: 18.3%, ES: 1.57) and (PVBT: 8.5%, ES: 0.58; OTL: 10.2%, ES: 0.72), respectively. OTL increased DL 1RM to a greater extent than PVBT (p ≤ 0.05), (OTL: 22.9%, ES: 1.49; PVBT: 10.9%, ES: 0.88). Lastly, there was a main time effect (p ≤ 0.05) for BS, BP and DL PP, (PVBT: 18.3%, ES: 0.86; OTL: 19.8%, ES: 0.79); (PVBT: 14.5%, ES: 0.81; OTL: 27.9%, ES: 1.68); (PVBT: 15.7%, ES: 1.32; OTL: 20.1%, ES: 1.77) respectively. Our data suggest that both VBT regimens are effective for improving muscular performance in college volleyball players during the offseason period. Full article
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15 pages, 765 KiB  
Article
The Effect of Altering Body Posture and Barbell Position on the Between-Session Reliability of Force-Time Curve Characteristics in the Isometric Mid-Thigh Pull
by Stuart N. Guppy, Claire J. Brady, Yosuke Kotani, Michael H. Stone, Nikola Medic and Guy Gregory Haff
Sports 2018, 6(4), 162; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports6040162 - 30 Nov 2018
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3779
Abstract
Seventeen strength and power athletes (n = 11 males, 6 females; height: 177.5 ± 7.0 cm, 165.8 ± 11.4 cm; body mass: 90.0 ± 14.1 kg, 66.4 ± 13.9 kg; age: 30.6 ± 10.4 years, 30.8 ± 8.7 years), who regularly performed [...] Read more.
Seventeen strength and power athletes (n = 11 males, 6 females; height: 177.5 ± 7.0 cm, 165.8 ± 11.4 cm; body mass: 90.0 ± 14.1 kg, 66.4 ± 13.9 kg; age: 30.6 ± 10.4 years, 30.8 ± 8.7 years), who regularly performed weightlifting movements during their resistance training programs, were recruited to examine the effect of altering body posture and barbell position on the between-session reliability of force-time characteristics generated in the isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP). After participants were familiarised with the testing protocol, they undertook two testing sessions which were separated by seven days. In each session, the participants performed three maximal IMTP trials in each of the four testing positions examined, with the order of testing randomized. In each position, no significant differences were found between sessions for all force-time characteristics (p = >0.05). Peak force (PF), time-specific force (F50, F90, F150, F200, F250) and IMP time-bands (0–50, 0–90, 0–150, 0–200, 0–250 ms) were reliable across each of the four testing positions (ICC ≥ 0.7, CV ≤ 15%). Time to peak force, peak RFD, RFD time-bands (0–50, 0–90, 0–150, 0–200, 0–250 ms) and peak IMP were unreliable regardless of the testing position used (ICC = <0.7, CV = >15%). Overall, the use of body postures and barbell positions during the IMTP that do not correspond to the second pull of the clean have no adverse effect on the reliability of the force-time characteristics generated. Full article
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10 pages, 2239 KiB  
Article
Sprint Mechanical Properties of Female and Different Aged Male Top-Level German Soccer Players
by Christian Baumgart, Jürgen Freiwald and Matthias Wilhelm Hoppe
Sports 2018, 6(4), 161; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports6040161 - 28 Nov 2018
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4252
Abstract
This study compared the sprint mechanical properties of female and different aged male top-level soccer players. A total of 14 adult females (FEM) and 115 different aged male field players, competing at German top levels, participated in this study. The males belonged to [...] Read more.
This study compared the sprint mechanical properties of female and different aged male top-level soccer players. A total of 14 adult females (FEM) and 115 different aged male field players, competing at German top levels, participated in this study. The males belonged to teams of under 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, and 23 years (U 12–23) and professionals (PRO). All players were tested for a 30 m linear sprint. From timing gate derived sprint times, force-velocity and power-velocity relationships, as well as theoretical maximum running velocity, force, and power data were computed by an inverse dynamic approach applied to the center of mass. The approach was optimized for taking the starting time into account, which is a progress in the present research field, when aiming to compute sprint mechanical properties by different methodological approaches under field conditions. Sprint mechanical properties of FEM were lower than those of PRO. Compared to other age groups, sprint mechanical properties of FEM were similar to those of U 14 and U 15. An increase in sprint mechanical properties was found from U 12 to U 17. The study shows that sprint mechanical properties differ according to gender and age in top-level soccer players. Full article
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9 pages, 444 KiB  
Article
Effects of Adding Single Joint Exercises to a Resistance Training Programme in Trained Women
by Matheus Barbalho, Victor Silveira Coswig, Rodolfo Raiol, James Steele, James Fisher, Antonio Paoli and Paulo Gentil
Sports 2018, 6(4), 160; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports6040160 - 28 Nov 2018
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 7836
Abstract
Background: The present study’s aim was to compare the changes in muscle performance and anthropometric measures in trained women performing RT programs composed only of MJ exercises or programmes that involve the addition of SJ exercises. Methods: Seventeen trained women were randomised to [...] Read more.
Background: The present study’s aim was to compare the changes in muscle performance and anthropometric measures in trained women performing RT programs composed only of MJ exercises or programmes that involve the addition of SJ exercises. Methods: Seventeen trained women were randomised to MJ or MJ+SJ. Both groups performed the same MJ exercises following a nonlinear periodisation model for 8 weeks. The only difference was that the MJ+SJ group also performed SJ exercises. The participants were tested for 10 repetition maximum (10 RM), flexed arm circumference, and both biceps and triceps skinfold. Results: Both groups significantly increased 10 RM load for the bench press (12.6% MJ and 9.2% MJ+SJ), triceps (15.6% MJ and 17.9% MJ+SJ), pull down (9.8% MJ and 8.3% MJ+SJ), biceps (14.0% MJ and 13.0% MJ+SJ), leg press (15.2% MJ and 12.8% MJ+SJ) and knee extension (10.2% MJ and 9.1% MJ+SJ). The decreases in triceps (−5.1% MJ and −5.3% MJ+SJ) and biceps (−6.5% MJ and −5.7% MJ+SJ) skinfolds were also significant as were the increases in arm circumference (1.47% MJ and 1.58% MJ+SJ). In all tests there was nothing significantly different between groups. Conclusions: The use of SJ exercises as a complement to a RT programme containing MJ exercises brings no additional benefit to trained women. Full article
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12 pages, 1597 KiB  
Article
Flavanol-Rich Cacao Mucilage Juice Enhances Recovery of Power but Not Strength from Intensive Exercise in Healthy, Young Men
by Paul T. Morgan, Paola M. Wollman, Sarah R. Jackman and Joanna L. Bowtell
Sports 2018, 6(4), 159; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports6040159 - 28 Nov 2018
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3640
Abstract
(1) Background: Mucilage within cacao pods contains high levels of polyphenols. We investigated whether consumption of cacao juice enhances the recovery of muscle function following intensive knee extension exercise. (2) Methods: Ten recreationally active males completed two trials of 10 sets of 10 [...] Read more.
(1) Background: Mucilage within cacao pods contains high levels of polyphenols. We investigated whether consumption of cacao juice enhances the recovery of muscle function following intensive knee extension exercise. (2) Methods: Ten recreationally active males completed two trials of 10 sets of 10 single leg knee extensions at ~80% one repetition maximum. Participants consumed each supplement (ZumoCacao® juice, CJ or a dextrose drink, PL) for 7 days prior to and 48 h post exercise. Knee extension maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) and a counter movement jump (CMJ) were performed at baseline, immediately, 24 h, and 48 h post-exercise. Venous blood samples were collected at each time point and analyzed for indices of inflammation, oxidative damage, and muscle damage. (3) Results: CMJ height recovered faster with CJ at 24 h and 48 h post-exercise (p < 0.05), but there was no effect of CJ on recovery of MVC (both p > 0.05). There was also no effect of the trial on any blood markers (all p > 0.05). (4) Conclusions: Supplementation with CJ for 7 days prior to and 2 days after intensive knee extensor exercise improved functional recovery as shown by an improved recovery of CMJ up to 48 h post-exercise. However, the precise mechanism of action is unclear and requires further investigation. Full article
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13 pages, 7663 KiB  
Article
A Study of Automatic and Real-Time Table Tennis Fault Serve Detection System
by Chang-Hung Hung
Sports 2018, 6(4), 158; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports6040158 - 28 Nov 2018
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3656
Abstract
Calling a table tennis fault serve has never been easy for umpires, since they can only rely on their intuition. This study presents an algorithm that is able to automatically find the positions of the ball and racket in the images captured by [...] Read more.
Calling a table tennis fault serve has never been easy for umpires, since they can only rely on their intuition. This study presents an algorithm that is able to automatically find the positions of the ball and racket in the images captured by high-speed camera. The trajectory of ball toss is analyzed and the result can be used as the objective basis for the umpire to decide if the serve is legal. This algorithm mainly consists of YCbCr color space processing, morphological processing method, circle Hough transform application, separation of moving and static components in an image sequence using the stable principal component pursuit method. The experiment results show that YCbCr color space provides better performance than HSV color space in recognizing the ball color close to skin tone. It is also demonstrated that the positions of the ball and racket can be successfully located by using the methods of color segmentation and stable principal component pursuit. Lastly, it is hoped that this study will provide more useful information regarding how to identify illegal ball toss in tennis ball game using image processing techniques to other researchers. Full article
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6 pages, 481 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of Physical Fitness in Water Polo Players According to Playing Level and Positional Role
by Petros G. Botonis, Argyris G. Toubekis and Theodoros I. Platanou
Sports 2018, 6(4), 157; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports6040157 - 28 Nov 2018
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4983
Abstract
Background: We aimed to investigate whether water polo players of different playing levels and positions differ in fitness parameters (i.e., strength, aerobic endurance, and anaerobic potential). Methods: Twenty-four water polo players were assigned to international- (IL) and national-level (NL) groups or to centers [...] Read more.
Background: We aimed to investigate whether water polo players of different playing levels and positions differ in fitness parameters (i.e., strength, aerobic endurance, and anaerobic potential). Methods: Twenty-four water polo players were assigned to international- (IL) and national-level (NL) groups or to centers and peripherals. At the beginning of preseason training, maximal bench press strength was measured and a speed–lactate test (5 × 200m) was performed to determine the speed corresponding to lactate concentrations of 4.0 (V4), 5.0 (V5), and 10.0 (V10) mmol·L−1. Results: Maximal muscular strength was similar between international- and national-level water polo players, but it was higher in centers than in peripherals (109.2 ± 12.2 kg vs. 96.9 ± 8.5 kg, p = 0.007). IL players showed higher V4, V5, and V10 compared to NL players (V4, IL: 1.27 ± 0.04 m·s−1 vs. NL: 1.17 ± 0.06 m·s−1), (V5, IL: 1.33 ± 0.03 m·s−1 vs. NL: 1.22 ± 0.05 m·s−1), and V10 (IL: 1.50 ± 0.31 vs. NL: 1.35 ± 0.06 m·s−1) (p < 0.01)). However, no significant differences were detected between centers and peripherals inV4, V5, and V10. Conclusions: We suggest that V4, V5, and V10 distinguish playing level in water polo, whereas they are comparable between playing positions. Although maximal strength is similar between playing levels, it is different between playing positions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological Responses During Exercise)
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15 pages, 1607 KiB  
Article
Neuromuscular Fatigue at Task Failure and During Immediate Recovery after Isometric Knee Extension Trials
by Christian Froyd, Fernando G. Beltrami and Timothy D. Noakes
Sports 2018, 6(4), 156; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports6040156 - 28 Nov 2018
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4366
Abstract
We asked whether the level of peripheral fatigue would differ when three consecutive exercise trials were completed to task failure, and whether there would be delayed recovery in maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) force, neuromuscular activation and peripheral fatigue following task failure. Ten trained [...] Read more.
We asked whether the level of peripheral fatigue would differ when three consecutive exercise trials were completed to task failure, and whether there would be delayed recovery in maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) force, neuromuscular activation and peripheral fatigue following task failure. Ten trained sport students performed three consecutive knee extension isometric trials (T1, T2, T3) to task failure without breaks between trials. T1 and T2 consisted of repeated 5-s contractions followed by 5-s rests. In T1, contractions were performed at a target force at 60% pre-exercise MVC. In T2, all contractions were MVCs, and task failure occurred at 50% MVC. T3 was a sustained MVC performed until force fell below 15% MVC. Evoked force responses to supramaximal electrical femoral nerve stimulation were recorded to assess peripheral fatigue. Electromyography signals were normalized to an M-wave amplitude to assess neuromuscular activation. Lower levels of evoked peak forces were observed at T3 compared with T2 and T1. Within 5 s of task failure in T3, MVC force and neuromuscular activation recovered substantially without any recovery in evoked peak force. Neuromuscular activation 5–10 s after T3 was unchanged from pre-exercise values, however, evoked peak forces were substantially reduced. These results challenge the existence of a critical peripheral fatigue threshold that reduces neuromuscular activation. Since neuromuscular activation changed independently of any change in evoked peak force, immediate recovery in force production after exercise is due to increased central recruitment and not to peripheral mechanisms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuromuscular Function and Movement Control)
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9 pages, 235 KiB  
Article
Career Termination of Portuguese Elite Football Players: Comparison between the Last Three Decades
by António Carapinheira, Pedro Mendes, Pedro Guedes Carvalho, Miquel Torregrossa and Bruno Travassos
Sports 2018, 6(4), 155; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports6040155 - 28 Nov 2018
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3959
Abstract
The aim of this study was to explore the process of career termination of elite soccer players, comparing the quality and the resources to support career termination over the last three decades. To this end, was developed a questionnaire defined by four sections: [...] Read more.
The aim of this study was to explore the process of career termination of elite soccer players, comparing the quality and the resources to support career termination over the last three decades. To this end, was developed a questionnaire defined by four sections: (a) biographical data, (b) athletic career, (c) quality of career termination and (d) available resources at the moment of career termination. Ninety male former elite Portuguese soccer players participated in this study. The results highlighted a decrease in the length of athletic career as football players and an increase in the number of years as youth players over the last 30 years. The results also revealed that the quality of career termination was difficult. The analysis of resources for career termination revealed an increase in a high level of education over the years. Despite the evolution in the level athletes’ education in the last three decades, the athletic career termination remained difficult and it was reported that they did not plan their career termination. In line with previous studies, the results highlight that the lack of plans for career termination is one of the most important factors that constrain the quality of career transition. Full article
9 pages, 365 KiB  
Article
Sex-Related Differences in the Maximal Lactate Steady State
by Paul S. Hafen and Pat R. Vehrs
Sports 2018, 6(4), 154; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports6040154 - 27 Nov 2018
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 5981
Abstract
The maximal lactate steady state (MLSS) is one of the factors that differentiates performance in aerobic events. The purpose of this study was to investigate the sex differences in oxygen consumption (VO2), heart rate (HR), and the respiratory exchange ratio (RER) [...] Read more.
The maximal lactate steady state (MLSS) is one of the factors that differentiates performance in aerobic events. The purpose of this study was to investigate the sex differences in oxygen consumption (VO2), heart rate (HR), and the respiratory exchange ratio (RER) at the MLSS in well-trained distance runners. Twenty-two (12 female, 10 male) well-trained distance runners (23 ± 5.0 years) performed multiple 30-min steady-state runs to determine their MLSS, during which blood lactate and respiratory gas exchange measures were taken. To interpret the MLSS intensity as a training tool, runners completed a time-to-exhaustion (TTE) run at their MLSS. The relative intensity at which the MLSS occurred was identical between males and females according to both oxygen consumption (83 ± 5 %O2max) and heart rate (89 ± 7 %HRmax). However, female runners displayed a significantly lower RER at MLSS compared to male runners (p < 0.0001; 0.84 ± 0.02 vs. 0.88 ± 0.04, respectively). There was not a significant difference in TTE at MLSS between males (79 ± 17 min) and females (80 ± 25 min). Due to the observed difference in the RER at the MLSS, it is suggested that RER derived estimates of MLSS be sex-specific. While the RER data suggest that the MLSS represents different metabolic intensities for males and females, the relative training load of MLSS appears to be similar in males and female runners. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological Responses During Exercise)
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15 pages, 843 KiB  
Review
Monitoring Exercise-Induced Muscle Fatigue and Adaptations: Making Sense of Popular or Emerging Indices and Biomarkers
by George Theofilidis, Gregory C. Bogdanis, Yiannis Koutedakis and Christina Karatzaferi
Sports 2018, 6(4), 153; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports6040153 - 26 Nov 2018
Cited by 53 | Viewed by 14273
Abstract
Regular exercise with the appropriate intensity and duration may improve an athlete’s physical capacities by targeting different performance determinants across the endurance–strength spectrum aiming to delay fatigue. The mechanisms of muscle fatigue depend on exercise intensity and duration and may range from substrate [...] Read more.
Regular exercise with the appropriate intensity and duration may improve an athlete’s physical capacities by targeting different performance determinants across the endurance–strength spectrum aiming to delay fatigue. The mechanisms of muscle fatigue depend on exercise intensity and duration and may range from substrate depletion to acidosis and product inhibition of adenosinetriphosphatase (ATPase) and glycolysis. Fatigue mechanisms have been studied in isolated muscles; single muscle fibers (intact or skinned) or at the level of filamentous or isolated motor proteins; with each approach contributing to our understanding of the fatigue phenomenon. In vivo methods for monitoring fatigue include the assessment of various functional indices supported by the use of biochemical markers including blood lactate levels and more recently redox markers. Blood lactate measurements; as an accompaniment of functional assessment; are extensively used for estimating the contribution of the anaerobic metabolism to energy expenditure and to help interpret an athlete’s resistance to fatigue during high intensity exercise. Monitoring of redox indices is gaining popularity in the applied sports performance setting; as oxidative stress is not only a fatigue agent which may play a role in the pathophysiology of overtraining syndrome; but also constitutes an important signaling pathway for training adaptations; thus reflecting training status. Careful planning of sampling and interpretation of blood biomarkers should be applied; especially given that their levels can fluctuate according to an athlete’s lifestyle and training histories. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological Responses During Exercise)
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7 pages, 1610 KiB  
Article
The Effect of Sex and Performance Level on Pacing in Duathlon
by Pantelis T. Nikolaidis, Elias Villiger, Rodrigo L. Vancini, Thomas Rosemann and Beat Knechtle
Sports 2018, 6(4), 152; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports6040152 - 23 Nov 2018
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2765
Abstract
The purpose of the present research was to study the effect of sex and performance on pacing in short (Run1-10 km, Bike-50 km and Run2-5 km) and long distance (Run1-10 km, Bike-150 km and Run2-30 km) in the Powerman World Championship ‘Powerman Zofingen’. [...] Read more.
The purpose of the present research was to study the effect of sex and performance on pacing in short (Run1-10 km, Bike-50 km and Run2-5 km) and long distance (Run1-10 km, Bike-150 km and Run2-30 km) in the Powerman World Championship ‘Powerman Zofingen’. All finishers (n = 6671; women, n = 1037; men, n = 5634) competing either in the short or long distance versions of ‘Powerman Zofingen’ from 2003 to 2017 were analyzed for the time spent in each discipline (Run1, Bike and Run2), and in transition (Tran) from Run1 to Bike (Tran1) and from Bike to Run2 (Tran2). Athletes were ranked in quartile (Q) groups (Q1, Q2, Q3 and Q4), with Q1 the fastest and Q4 the slowest. In short distance, in both sexes, a medium discipline/transition × quartile interaction on relative time was observed (p < 0.001, η2p = 0.103 and η2p = 0.119, respectively), where Q1 was relatively the fastest in Tran1, Tran2 and Run2, and the slowest in Bike (p < 0.001). In long distance, in both sexes, a large discipline/transition × quartile interaction on relative time was observed (p < 0.001, η2p = 0.208 and η2p = 0.180, respectively), where Q1 was relatively the fastest in Tran1, Tran2 and Run2, and the slowest in Bike (p < 0.001). In summary, a similar trend of variation of pacing by performance level was observed in both sexes and distances with the fastest duathletes being the fastest in Run2 and both transitions, and the slowest in Bike. Full article
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9 pages, 1290 KiB  
Article
Effect of Accommodating Elastic Bands on Mechanical Power Output during Back Squats
by Takafumi Kubo, Kuniaki Hirayama, Nobuhiro Nakamura and Mitsuru Higuchi
Sports 2018, 6(4), 151; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports6040151 - 22 Nov 2018
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 6061
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate whether accommodating elastic bands with barbell back squats (BSQ) increase muscular force during the deceleration subphase. Ten healthy men (mean ± standard deviation: Age: 23 ± 2 years; height: 170.5 ± 3.7 cm; mass: 66.7 [...] Read more.
The aim of this study was to investigate whether accommodating elastic bands with barbell back squats (BSQ) increase muscular force during the deceleration subphase. Ten healthy men (mean ± standard deviation: Age: 23 ± 2 years; height: 170.5 ± 3.7 cm; mass: 66.7 ± 5.4 kg; and BSQ one repetition maximum (RM): 105 ± 23.1 kg; BSQ 1RM/body mass: 1.6 ± 0.3) were recruited for this study. The subjects performed band-resisted parallel BSQ (accommodating elastic bands each sides of barbell) with five band conditions in random order. The duration of the deceleration subphase, mean mechanical power, and the force and velocity during the acceleration and deceleration subphases were calculated. BSQ with elastic bands elicited greater mechanical power output, velocity, and force during the deceleration subphase, in contrast to that elicited with traditional free weight (p < 0.05). BSQ with elastic bands also elicited greater mechanical power output and velocity during the acceleration subphase. However, the force output during the acceleration subphase using an elastic band was lesser than that using a traditional free weight (p < 0.05). This study suggests that BSQ with elastic band elicit greater power output during the acceleration and deceleration subphases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Neuromuscular Research)
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8 pages, 808 KiB  
Article
Reproducibility of Blood Lactate Concentration Rate under Isokinetic Force Loads
by Nico Nitzsche, Lutz Baumgärtel, Christian Maiwald and Henry Schulz
Sports 2018, 6(4), 150; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports6040150 - 20 Nov 2018
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3177
Abstract
(1) Background: Maximum isokinetic force loads show strongly increased post-load lactate concentrations and an increase in the maximum blood lactate concentration rate ( V ˙ Lamax), depending on load duration. The reproducibility of V ˙ Lamax must be known to [...] Read more.
(1) Background: Maximum isokinetic force loads show strongly increased post-load lactate concentrations and an increase in the maximum blood lactate concentration rate ( V ˙ Lamax), depending on load duration. The reproducibility of V ˙ Lamax must be known to be able to better assess training-related adjustments of anaerobic performance using isokinetic force tests. (2) Methods: 32 subjects were assigned to two groups and completed two unilateral isokinetic force tests (210° s−1, Range of Motion 90°) within seven days. Group 1 (n = 16; age 24.0 ± 2.8 years, BMI 23.5 ± 2.6 kg m−2, training duration: 4.5 ± 2.4 h week−1) completed eight repetitions and group 2 (n = 16; age 23.7 ± 1.9 years, BMI 24.6 ± 2.4 kg m−2, training duration: 5.5 ± 2.1 h week−1) completed 16 repetitions. To determine V ˙ Lamax, capillary blood (20 µL) was taken before and immediately after loading, and up to the 9th minute post-load. Reproducibility and variability was determined using Pearson and Spearman correlation analyses, and variability were determined using within-subject standard deviation (Sw) and Limits of Agreement (LoA) using Bland Altman plots. (3) Results: The correlation of V ˙ Lamax in group 1 was r = 0.721, and in group 2 r = 0.677. The Sw of V ˙ Lamax was 0.04 mmol L−1 s−1 in both groups. In group 1, V ˙ Lamax showed a systematic bias due to measurement repetition of 0.02 mmol L−1 s−1 in an interval (LoA) of ±0.11 mmol L−1 s−1. In group 2, a systematic bias of −0.008 mmol L−1 s−1 at an interval (LoA) of ±0.11 mmol L−1 s−1 was observed for repeated measurements of V ˙ Lamax. (4) Conclusions: Based on the existing variability, a reliable calculation of V ˙ Lamax seems to be possible with both short and longer isokinetic force loads. Changes in V ˙ Lamax above 0.11 mmol L−1 s−1 due to training can be described as a non-random increase or decrease in V ˙ Lamax. Full article
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10 pages, 2690 KiB  
Article
Using Portable Force Plates to Assess Vertical Jump Performance: A Metrological Appraisal
by François Raymond, Benoit Lussier, François Dugas, Mathieu Charbonneau, Félix Croteau, Cory Kennedy and Nicolas Berryman
Sports 2018, 6(4), 149; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports6040149 - 19 Nov 2018
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4624
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to verify the metrological properties of portable force plates that are used to assess countermovement jump performance. While 88 participants (38 males, 50 females) were included in the agreement analyses, 84 participants (37 males and 47 females) [...] Read more.
The purpose of this study was to verify the metrological properties of portable force plates that are used to assess countermovement jump performance. While 88 participants (38 males, 50 females) were included in the agreement analyses, 84 participants (37 males and 47 females) completed the reliability part of the study. This randomized crossover design suggests that portable force plates could be used interchangeably with a reference system. Indeed, the differences between both devices were all considered trivial (effect size (ES) < 0.20), and the mean bias was never greater than 3.41% in comparison to the reference system. In addition, the absolute and relative reliability parameters were found to be acceptable for clinical use, even when used on different floor surfaces. However, it was found that the ratio between flight time and contraction time (FTCT) showed questionable reliability when tests were conducted on different surfaces (intraclass correlation coefficient = 0.49; coefficient of variation = 26.72%). Therefore, practitioners should be careful when installing the portable device on different floor surfaces in order to optimize the reliability and the ability to detect real change in the context of a countermovement jump monitoring process. Full article
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10 pages, 746 KiB  
Article
Effects of Strength Training Program and Infrared Thermography in Soccer Athletes Injuries
by Pedro Menezes, Matthew R. Rhea, Carlos Herdy and Roberto Simão
Sports 2018, 6(4), 148; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports6040148 - 19 Nov 2018
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 7233
Abstract
The purpose of this investigation was to examine the effects of a periodized strength training program and the use of infrared thermography (IRT) in injuries mapping in under 20-year-old (U-20) soccer players. In this study, 26 professional soccer players participated in strength training [...] Read more.
The purpose of this investigation was to examine the effects of a periodized strength training program and the use of infrared thermography (IRT) in injuries mapping in under 20-year-old (U-20) soccer players. In this study, 26 professional soccer players participated in strength training (ST) twice a week and were tested with IRT consistently across the 1-year. Strength, vertical jump, heat differences and injuries were tracked and analyzed. Results: 69 injuries occurred during 12 months of tracking; most identified injuries were: contusions, sprains, strains to the thigh (n = 16), ankle (n = 15) and knee (n = 12). Differences (>7 °C) in IRT patterns were noted among injured and non-injured athletes. Significant improvements in strength (p < 0.005) were found for vertical jump, bench press, front lat pull down, shoulder press, leg press, leg curl and squat. Number of injuries decreased from 23 (33.3%) to 14 (20.3%) when early year rates were compared to late year (p < 0.005). Combined ST and IRT represent useful strategies for reducing injuries among U-20 soccer players. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength Training in Sprint Sports)
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