Next Article in Journal
Designing a New Ni-Mn-Sn Ferromagnetic Shape Memory Alloy with Excellent Performance by Cu Addition
Previous Article in Journal
Effect of Mechanical Activation on the Kinetics of Copper Leaching from Copper Sulfide (CuS)
 
 
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Investigation of Fracturing and Adhesion Behavior of Hydroxapatite Coating Formed by Aminoacetic Acid-Sodium Aminoacetate Buffer Systems

Manisa Vocational School, Manisa Celal Bayar University, 45140 Manisa, Turkey
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Metals 2018, 8(3), 151; https://doi.org/10.3390/met8030151
Submission received: 15 January 2018 / Revised: 13 February 2018 / Accepted: 24 February 2018 / Published: 27 February 2018

Abstract

:
Biomaterials utilized in implantation can be categorized into 4 main categories, as ceramics, polymers, metals and composites. Ceramic-based biomaterials are opted for, particularly in the field of orthopedics. These materials, also named as bioceramics, are usually employed by coating them onto the base material, inasmuch as they are far from the mechanical values of bone. In this study, a hydroxyapatite coating that is fully compatible with human blood plasma was applied on Ti6Al4V alloy through a biomimetic technique using aminoacetic acid-sodium aminoacetate buffer system for the first time in the literature, and examinations related thereto were carried out. The surface of the base material Ti6Al4V alloy was activated with various chemicals. Subsequent to activating the surface, a coating process whereby the base material was kept in simulated body fluid for 24, 48, 72, 96 h was carried out. Ultimate microhardness (indentation) tests were performed to determine the average indentation depths in maximum load, vickers hardness and elasticity modulus of the coatings obtained by using the biomimetic method, while scratch tests were performed to measure the surface bonding strengths of the coating layers. Furthermore, the fracture toughness values of the coating were calculated. The results obtained through the study are evaluated and discussed.

1. Introduction

Their strength, moldability, and abrasion resistance, as well as their strong metallic bonds, have led to metallic materials having an important place in biomaterials [1]. The biggest disadvantage of metal prostheses in terms of biocompatibility is their being corroded in body fluids containing protein, oxygen and saline solutions [2]. Titanium and its alloys are frequently utilized in intracorporeal implants because of their low propensity for entering into chemical reactions. Metallic biomaterial Ti6Al4V alloy is widely used in the production of implants, such as hip prostheses, bone plates and bone screws in particular in orthopedic applications. The surfaces of these alloys are coated with ceramic-based biomaterials. Their bioactivity and biocompatibility are increased with this process [3].
Hydroxyapatite (HA) is a calcium phosphate (CaP) ceramic, and has the chemical formula Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2. It has been used as a coating for metallic implants in medical applications such as the repair of bone defects and bone augmentation, orthopedics, and odontology [4]. Hydroxyapatite coating on metallic biomaterial base materials was performed by the biomimetic method which is accepted as a reflection of natural systems in laboratory environments in this study. The surfaces of the base materials, activated through various chemicals, are covered by precipitation method in the simulated body fluid (SBF), prepared in the laboratory environment. The aim is to produce biomaterials with high biocompatibility by employing this method.
Simulated body fluid has been utilized by many researchers. SBF prepared with inorganic salts must be compatible with the blood plasma. In the literature, the ionic values in human blood plasma have previously been obtained by many researchers. Successful coatings have been achieved through the use of similar compositions in studies carried out by Aydin and Çaglayan [2]. The data for these studies are shown in Table 1.
In this study, for the first time in the literature, a biomimetic technique has been used to evaluate the hydroxyapatite coating in an aminoacetic acid-sodium aminoacetate buffer environment, which is fully compatible with human blood plasma.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Selection of Implant Material

Ti6Al4V alloy, which is frequently preferred in medical applications due to its high biocompatibility, has been utilized in this study, in which we performed the HA coating process on a metallic coating. The chemical composition of the Ti6Al4V alloy used is shown in Table 2, while the mechanical properties are shown in Table 3.

2.2. Preparation of the Coating

The HA coating process using a biomimetic method employed in this study consists of 3 stages: cleaning and chemical treatment of base materials, heat treatment in aluminum foil, and keeping in prepared simulated body fluid. The materials were firstly sanded, then washed with distilled water and kept in acetone to dissolve the oil particles for the surface cleaning of the Ti6Al4V alloys selected as base materials. The materials, which were cleaned again by distilled water, were kept in an ultrasonic bath, and their surface cleaning was completed. The materials were kept in 100 mL of 5 M NaOH + 0.5 mL % 35 H2O2 at 40 °C for 24 h to increase their potential to form chemical bonds by activating the surface of the base materials. After this process, the materials were again washed with distilled water and allowed to dry at 60 °C for 24 h. Material surfaces, which were dehumidified, were wrapped with aluminum foil for protect them against air contact, and were kept at 600 °C for 1 h and cooled to room temperature. This process activated apatite nucleation on the base surface. Materials, the heat treatment stages of which had been completed, were subjected to agitation for 24, 48, 72 and 96 h at 37 °C in the simulated body fluid, the inorganic salt values of which are shown in Table 4. Following the coating process using the biomimetic method, the materials were washed with distilled water and allowed to dry at 60 °C for 24 h.

2.3. Preparation of Simulated Body Liquid

Approximately 1.5 L of purified water was put in a large beaker and the salts given in the first 6 lines of Table 4 were added in the indicated amounts in order to prepare 2 L of simulated body fluid with the same ionic values as blood plasma. A pH electrode was immersed in the solution to determine the pH value of the solution mixed by magnetic stirrer with heater. After this process, the pH value was decreased to 8 at 37 °C by slowly adding 1 M glycine to the solution. 2 L of distilled water, the mixture, and CaCl2·2H2O and MgCl2·6H2O salt in the amounts indicated in Table 4 were added to the solution. Finally, 2 L of the simulated body fluid, which was obtained by adding glycine again until the pH value of the mixture reached 7.4, was taken.

2.4. Test Methods

The tests required for determining the average indentation depths at maximum load, hardness and elasticity modulus of the obtained HA coatings were carried out with the IBIS Nanoindentation System DME-DS 95 Series AFM device at Electronic Materials Manufacturing and Application Center (EMUM) of the Dokuz Eylül University. The indentation process was performed using a Berkovich brand type tip at a depth of 2 μm under 2 mN load. Nine measurements were taken for each sample at waiting times of 24, 48, 72 and 96 h, and the average of the results was taken.
Scratch tests were performed by the IBIS Nanoindentation System DME-DS 95 Series AFM device at the Electronic Materials Manufacturing and Application Center (EMUM) of Dokuz Eylül University to determine the surface bonding strengths of the HA coatings on the Ti6Al4V alloy selected as the base material. Both indentation tests and scratch tests can be performed by the same type of device. Tests carried out by 100.00 µm/h speed freight and 1–30 mN load were repeated three times for each sample, and the average of the values obtained was taken.
0.245 N load was applied on the coatings by the HVS-1000 Digital Display Microhardness Tester device in Ege Vocational Training School of Ege University. The length of the fracture that occurred as a result of the load application (c) (see Figure 1) was measured and was is placed into Equation (1).
K 1 c = ( E H ) 0.5 ( P c 1.5 )
In the above formula, K1c is the fracture toughness values, P is the load applied during testing in N, H is the hardness value in GPa, E is the elasticity modulus in GPa and c is the crack distance in m. The value of “α” in the equation was taken as 0.016 based on the literature studies [12].

3. Results

3.1. Ultra Microhardness (Indentation) Tests

The average maximum indentation depths obtained at the end of the measurement are shown in Table 5, while the Vickers hardness and elasticity modulus values are given in Table 6.
When the data in Table 5 are examined, it can be observed that the average indentation depths (ht) at maximum load increase continuously with the increase in holding period (24, 48, 72 and 96 h).
When the data in Table 6 are examined, it can be seen that the Vickers hardness and modulus of elasticity of HA-coated surfaces decrease continuously depending on the holding times in SBF. Mechanical properties vary in each region of the human bone. For example, the elasticity modulus value of crustal bone is between 7 and 30 GPa, while the values in spongiform bone are 0.05–0.5 Gpa; it is 0.001–0.01 GPa in joint cartilage, and 1 GPa in the tendon bone [13,14,15,16]. It is observed that mechanical properties close to those of bone are achieved by the HA coating process on the implant material in this study when the obtained results and the mechanical values of the bone are examined.

3.2. Scratch Tests

The results obtained from the tests are shown in Figure 2. The mean values of the results are given in Table 7.
The critical load values of the coatings prepared using citric acid-sodium citrate buffer system for the first time by Aydın in the literature were found to be 54.79 N, 8.85 N, 8.69 N and 39.2 N for 24, 48, 72 and 96 h, respectively [17]. Kui et al. reported that the critical load values for surface adhesion of the HA coatings they created in their work varied between 390 and 478 mN [18]. Xiang et al. reported the critical load values of HA coatings they prepared as 27.85 mN and 68.74 mN in their study [19]. Dunstan et al. reported that the critical load value of the HA coatings they prepared was 2.4 N, while Pasinli reported the critical load value of the HA coating prepared as 8 mN [20,21]. Caglayan found the critical load values of the HA coatings prepared in the Alanine-Alanine sodium salt environment to be 22.23 mN, 24.93 mN, 20.76 mN and 7.74 mN, respectively, at 24, 48, 72 and 96 h [22].
The surface adhesion strengths of HA coatings in the aminoacetic acid-sodium aminoacetate buffer environment were examined by scratch test for the first time in the literature in this study. When we look at the values, we observe that the highest critical load value, and therefore the best adhesion strength value, was 37.12 mN, obtained at 48 h. It is observed that very successful results were achieved for each time period when compared with other studies in the literature.

3.3. Fracture Toughness

The fracture toughness values obtained are shown in Table 8. In the literature, when the calculated fracture toughness values of the HA coating surfaces were examined, the fracture toughness values of hydroxyapatite coating surfaces made by Zhang et al., Marcelo et al., Tsui et al., Li et al. Mohammadi et al. and Bharat et al. were reported as between ~0.12 and 0.31 MPa m1/2 [23], 1.18 MPa m1/2 [24], between 0.23 and 1.20 MPa m1/2 [25], between 0.49 and 0.67 MPa m1/2 [26], between 0.99 and 1.27 MPa m1/2 value [27] and 0.74 MPa m1/2, respectively [28]. Çağlayan found the fracture toughness values of coatings obtained in the Alanine-Alanine sodium salt buffer medium as 1.57 MPa m1/2, 1.73 MPa m1/2, 2.29 MPa m1/2 and 2.31 MPa m1 for 24, 48, 72 and 96 h, respectively [22]. Aydin found the fracture toughness values of HA coatings prepared by using a citric acid-sodium citrate buffer system for first time in the literature to be within the range of 1.98–2.075 MPa m1/2 [17]. Bonfield has reported that fracture toughness values calculated in different regions on the bone shell is between 2 and 12 MPa m1/2 [13]. A good fracture toughness value was found when compared with those in the literature, and the fracture toughness values on bone reported by Bonfield et al. were observed.

4. Conclusions

As a result of this study, a simulated body fluid (SBF) solution biocompatible with human body was prepared by using a biomimetic method in an aminoacetic acid-sodium aminoacetate buffer environment for the first time in literature, and HA coating was performed. HA coating was realized at 37 °C and pH = 7.4 by using the lactic acid/Na-lactate buffer system which was first proposed by Pasinli et al. in an environment that is fully compatible with human blood plasma. Successful results were obtained by working at 37 °C and pH = 7.4 in an environment that is fully compatible with human blood plasma, and which is non-toxic for the human body in a citric acid/Na-citrate buffer environment within the context of Aydın’s PhD thesis, and a contribution was made to the literature. These two pioneering studies were accepted as a guide and a similar recipe was applied in this study, and all values in human blood plasma were realized in this new buffer system. Furthermore NaOH + H2O2 mixture was used instead of NaOH to activate the chemical base. A better and faster activation was performed in this way. When the data obtained by the mechanical tests performed were examined, it was found that the produced coatings showed successful results when compared with data in the literature. It was also seen that the coatings are compatible with the mechanical properties of bone. Based on the results of this study, biomaterials of a quality whereby they could be applied in the industry were obtained, and the biomimetic method was used, and a further step was taken towards moving to production of hydroxyapatite-coated implant in a biocompatible environment.

Author Contributions

İ.A. conceived and designed the experiments; İ.A. and M.K. performed the experiments; İ.A. and M.K. analyzed the data; İ.A. wrote the paper.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest. The founding sponsors had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, and in the decision to publish the results.

References

  1. Gür, A.K.; Taşkın, M. Metallic Biomaterials and Biocompability. East. Anatol. Reg. Res. 2004, 2, 106–113. [Google Scholar]
  2. Aydin, I.; Cetinel, H.; Pasinli, A.; Yuksel, M. Preparation of hydroxyapatite coating by using citric acid sodium citrate buffer system in the biomimetic proce. Mater. Test. 2013, 58, 782–788. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Aydin, I.; Caglayan, M.E.; Pasinli, A. Hydroxyapatite Coating of Ti6A14V Alloys in Alanin-Alanine Sodium Salt Environment with Biomimetic Method. CBU J. Sci. 2016, 12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Hendi, A.A. Hydroxyapatite based nanocomposite ceramics. J. Alloy. Compound. 2017, 712, 147–151. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Aydin, I.; Kirman, M.; Pasinli, A. Coating Ti6Al4V Alloy by Hydroxyapatite through Biomimetic Method Using Aminoacetic Acid-Sodium Aminoacetate Buffer System and Examination of Features of Coating. In Proceedings of the 1st International Mediterrannean Science and Engineering Congress, Adana, Turkey, 26–28 October 2016. [Google Scholar]
  6. Kokubo, T.; Kim, H.M.; Miyaji, F.; Takadama, H.; Miyazaki, T. Ceramic–metal and ceramic–polymer composites prepared by a biomimetic process. Comp. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 1999, 30, 405–409. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Tas, A.C.; Bhaduri, S.B. Rapid coating of Ti6Al4V at room temperature with a Cacium phosphate solution similar to 10 × SBF. J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 1999, 19, 2573–2579. [Google Scholar]
  8. Sepahvandi, A.; Moztarzadeh, F.; Mozafari, M.; Ghaffari, M.; Raee, N. Photoluminescence in the characterization and early detection of biomimetic bone-like apatite formation on the surface of alkaline-treated titanium implant. Biointerfaces 2011, 86, 390–396. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  9. Faure, J.; Balamurugan, A.; Benhayoune, H.; Torres, P.; Balossier, G.; Ferreira, J.M.F. Morphological and chemical characterisation of biomimetic bone like apatite formation on Ti6Al4V titanium alloy. Mater. Sci. Eng. C 2009, 29, 1252–1257. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Li, P.J. Biomimetic nano-apatite coating capable of promoting bone ingrowth. J Biomed. Mater. Res. A 2003, 6, 79–85. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  11. Chen, X.; Li, Y.; Hodgson, P.D.; Wen, C. Misrostructures and bond strengths of the calcium phosphate coatings formed on titanium from diffrent simulated body fluids. Mater. Sci. Eng. C 2009, 29, 165–171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Kırman, M. Coating Ti6Al4V Alloy by Hydroxyapatite through Biomimetic Method Using Aminoacetic Acid-Sodium Aminoacetate Buffer System and Examination of Features of the Coating. Master’s Thesis, Celal Bayar University, Manisa, Turkey, 2016. [Google Scholar]
  13. Bonfield, W. Elasticity and viscoelasticity of cortical bone. In Natural and Living Biomaterials; Hasting, G.W., Ducheyne, P., Eds.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 1984; pp. 43–60. [Google Scholar]
  14. Audekereke, V.R.; Martens, M. Mechanical Properties of Cancellous Bone. In Natural and Living Biomaterials; Hasting, G.W., Ducheyne, P., Eds.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 1984; pp. 89–98. [Google Scholar]
  15. Kempson, G.E. Relationship between the tensile properties of articular cartilage from the human knee and age. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 1982, 41, 508–511. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  16. Butler, D.L.; Grood, E.S.; Noyes, F.R.; Zernicke, R.F.; Bracket, K. Effects of structure and strain measurement techniques on the material properties of young human tendons and fascia. J. Biomech. 1984, 17, 579–596. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Aydin, I.; Cetinel, H.; Pasinli, A.; Yuksel, M. Fracturing and adhesion behavior of hydroxyapatite formed by a citric acid and sodium citrate buffer system. Mater. Test. 2016, 58, 140–145. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Cheng, K.; Ren, C.; Weng, W.; Du, P.; Shen, G.; Han, G.; Zhang, S. Bonding strength of fluoridated hydroxyapatite coatings: A comparative study on pull out and scratch analysis. Thin Solid Films 2009, 517, 5361–5364. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Ge, X.; Leng, Y.; Ren, F.; Lu, X. Integrity and zeta potential of fluoridated hydroxyapatite nanothick coatings for biomedical applications. J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater. 2011, 4, 1046–1056. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  20. Barnes, D.; Johnson, S.; Snell, R.; Best, S. Using scratch testing to measure the adhesion strength of calcium phosphate coatings applied to poly (carbonate urethane) substrates. J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater 2012, 6, 128–138. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  21. Pasinli, A.; Yuksel, M.; Celik, E.; Sener, S.; Tas, C.A. A new approach in biomimetic synthesis of calcium phosphate coatings using lactic acid-Na lactate buffered body fluid solution. Acta Biomater. 2010, 6, 2282–2288. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  22. Caglayan, M.E. Hydroxyapatite Coating of Ti6A14V Alloys in Alanin-Alanine Sodium Salt Environment with Bıomimetıc Method and Observing of Some Features. Master’s Thesis, Celal Bayar University, Manisa, Turkey, 2016. [Google Scholar]
  23. Zhang, S.; Wang, Y.S.; Zeng, X.T.; Khor, K.A.; Weng, W.; Sun, D.E. Evaluation of adhesion strength and toughness of fluoridated hydroxyapatite coatings. Thin Solid Films 2008, 516, 5162–5167. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Silva, M.H.P.; Lemos, A.F.; Ferreira, J.M.F.; Santos, J.D. Mechanical characterisation of porous glass reinforced hydroxyapatite ceramics—Bonelike. Mater. Res. 2003, 6, 321–325. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Tsui, Y.C.; Doyle, C.; Clyne, T.W. Plasma sprayed hydroxyapatite coatings on titanium substrates Part 2: Optimisation of coating properties. Biomaterials 1998, 19, 2031–2043. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Li, F.; Feng, Q.L.; Cui, F.Z.; Li, H.D.; Schubert, H. A simple biomimetic method for calcium phosphate coating. Surf. Coat. Technol. 2002, 154, 88–93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Mohammadi, Z.; Ziaei-Moayyed, A.A.; Mesgar, S.M. Adhesive and cohesive properties by indentation method of plasma-sprayed hydroxyapatite coatings. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2003, 253, 4960–4965. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Bharati, S.; Soundrapandian, C.; Basu, D.; Data, S. Studies on a novel bioactive glass and composite coating with hydroxyapatite on titanium based alloys: Effect of γ-sterilization on coating. J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 2009, 29, 2527–2535. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Figure 1. The crack length that occurred in the coating (c).
Figure 1. The crack length that occurred in the coating (c).
Metals 08 00151 g001
Figure 2. The critical load average values of the coatings held in SBF for (a) 24 h (b) 48 h (c) 72 h (d) 96 h critical load values held [12].
Figure 2. The critical load average values of the coatings held in SBF for (a) 24 h (b) 48 h (c) 72 h (d) 96 h critical load values held [12].
Metals 08 00151 g002
Table 1. Human blood plasma and ion concentration of simulated body fluid (SBF) [2,3,5].
Table 1. Human blood plasma and ion concentration of simulated body fluid (SBF) [2,3,5].
IonNa+ClHCO3K+Mg2+Ca2+HPO42−SO42−
Kokubu et al. (MM) [6]142147.84.251.52.510.5
Taş (mm) [7]1421252751.52.510.5
Sepahvandi et al. (MM) [8]142147.84.251.52.510.5
Faure et al. (MM) [9]154.6120.5445.370.81.8210.8
Li et al. (MM) [10]1421032751.562.40.5
Xiaobo et al. (MM) [11]1421031051.52.510.5
Pasinli et al. (MM) [2]1421032751.52.510.5
Aydın (MM) [2]1421032751.52.510.5
Çağlayan (MM) [3]1421032751.52.510.5
Human Blood Plasma (mM)1421032751.52.510.5
Table 2. Chemical composition of Ti6Al4V alloy [2].
Table 2. Chemical composition of Ti6Al4V alloy [2].
TiNCHFeOAlVOther
Remainder0.050.080.01250.250.135.5–6.53.5–4.50.1–0.4
Table 3. Mechanical properties of Ti6Al4V alloy [2].
Table 3. Mechanical properties of Ti6Al4V alloy [2].
Tensile Strength (MPa)Tensile Strength (MPa)Elongation Rate (%)Shrink Rate (%)
8839601350
Table 4. Inorganic salts in simulated body fluid (SBF) [5,12].
Table 4. Inorganic salts in simulated body fluid (SBF) [5,12].
Chemical MatterAmount (mg/2 L)
KCl746.0
NaCl10519.2
Na2HPO4·2H2O356.0
Na2SO4142.0
NaHCO34536.6
NA-Glycinate4313.4
CaCl2·2H2O735.2
MgCl2·6H2O610.0
Glycine (75.818 g/L) 1 M-
Table 5. Average Indentation Depths of HA coating surfaces under 2 mN load applied in nano-indentation device [12].
Table 5. Average Indentation Depths of HA coating surfaces under 2 mN load applied in nano-indentation device [12].
Average Indentation Depths at Maximum Load (µm)
24 h3.10
48 h3.55
72 h4.10
96 h4.16
Table 6. Vickers hardness of HA coating surfaces and the changes in elasticity modulus by different holding periods in SBF [12].
Table 6. Vickers hardness of HA coating surfaces and the changes in elasticity modulus by different holding periods in SBF [12].
HA Coating Period (Hours)Vickers Hardness (H) (GPa)Elasticity Modulus (E) (GPa)
24 h0.01631.238
48 h0.01110.351
72 h0.00890.339
96 h0.0020.173
Table 7. The critical load average values of the HA coating depending on the holding time in SBF [12].
Table 7. The critical load average values of the HA coating depending on the holding time in SBF [12].
Critical Load (Lc) (mN)
24 h29.42
48 h37.12
72 h34.05
96 h19.04
Table 8. Fracture toughness values of HA coating held in SBF for different periods of time [12].
Table 8. Fracture toughness values of HA coating held in SBF for different periods of time [12].
Fracture Toughness (Kc) (MPa m1/2)
24 h1.02
48 h1.25
72 h1.35
96 h2.51

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Aydın, İ.; Kırman, M. Investigation of Fracturing and Adhesion Behavior of Hydroxapatite Coating Formed by Aminoacetic Acid-Sodium Aminoacetate Buffer Systems. Metals 2018, 8, 151. https://doi.org/10.3390/met8030151

AMA Style

Aydın İ, Kırman M. Investigation of Fracturing and Adhesion Behavior of Hydroxapatite Coating Formed by Aminoacetic Acid-Sodium Aminoacetate Buffer Systems. Metals. 2018; 8(3):151. https://doi.org/10.3390/met8030151

Chicago/Turabian Style

Aydın, İbrahim, and Mustafa Kırman. 2018. "Investigation of Fracturing and Adhesion Behavior of Hydroxapatite Coating Formed by Aminoacetic Acid-Sodium Aminoacetate Buffer Systems" Metals 8, no. 3: 151. https://doi.org/10.3390/met8030151

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop