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Mathematics, Volume 6, Issue 6 (June 2018) – 19 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): We conducted a Monte Carlo simulation study to find the formula able to retrieve the p-value associated with Anderson–Darling statistics as a function of both the statistic and the sample size. The obtained formula had 25 coefficients, fit to the range of p from 0.5000 to 0.9999, and assured the minimum values for the estimation error when p was closer to 1. The regular half-circle shape pattern shown in the figure suggests that an even more precise formula could be obtained using a periodic function. View this paper
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15 pages, 310 KiB  
Article
F-Convex Contraction via Admissible Mapping and Related Fixed Point Theorems with an Application
by Y. Mahendra Singh, Mohammad Saeed Khan and Shin Min Kang
Mathematics 2018, 6(6), 105; https://doi.org/10.3390/math6060105 - 20 Jun 2018
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3251 | Correction
Abstract
In this paper, we introduce F-convex contraction via admissible mapping in the sense of Wardowski [Fixed points of a new type of contractive mappings in complete metric spaces. Fixed Point Theory Appl., 94 (2012), 6 pages] which extends convex contraction mapping of [...] Read more.
In this paper, we introduce F-convex contraction via admissible mapping in the sense of Wardowski [Fixed points of a new type of contractive mappings in complete metric spaces. Fixed Point Theory Appl., 94 (2012), 6 pages] which extends convex contraction mapping of type-2 of Istrǎţescu [Some fixed point theorems for convex contraction mappings and convex non-expansive mappings (I), Libertas Mathematica, 1(1981), 151–163] and establish a fixed point theorem in the setting of metric space. Our result extends and generalizes some other similar results in the literature. As an application of our main result, we establish an existence theorem for the non-linear Fredholm integral equation and give a numerical example to validate the application of our obtained result. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Operators of Fractional Calculus and Their Applications)
20 pages, 16699 KiB  
Article
Forecast-Triggered Model Predictive Control of Constrained Nonlinear Processes with Control Actuator Faults
by Da Xue and Nael H. El-Farra
Mathematics 2018, 6(6), 104; https://doi.org/10.3390/math6060104 - 19 Jun 2018
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2785
Abstract
This paper addresses the problem of fault-tolerant stabilization of nonlinear processes subject to input constraints, control actuator faults and limited sensor–controller communication. A fault-tolerant Lyapunov-based model predictive control (MPC) formulation that enforces the fault-tolerant stabilization objective with reduced sensor–controller communication needs is developed. [...] Read more.
This paper addresses the problem of fault-tolerant stabilization of nonlinear processes subject to input constraints, control actuator faults and limited sensor–controller communication. A fault-tolerant Lyapunov-based model predictive control (MPC) formulation that enforces the fault-tolerant stabilization objective with reduced sensor–controller communication needs is developed. In the proposed formulation, the control action is obtained through the online solution of a finite-horizon optimal control problem based on an uncertain model of the plant. The optimization problem is solved in a receding horizon fashion subject to appropriate Lyapunov-based stability constraints which are designed to ensure that the desired stability and performance properties of the closed-loop system are met in the presence of faults. The state-space region where fault-tolerant stabilization is guaranteed is explicitly characterized in terms of the fault magnitude, the size of the plant-model mismatch and the choice of controller design parameters. To achieve the control objective with minimal sensor–controller communication, a forecast-triggered communication strategy is developed to determine when sensor–controller communication can be suspended and when it should be restored. In this strategy, transmission of the sensor measurement at a given sampling time over the sensor–controller communication channel to update the model state in the predictive controller is triggered only when the Lyapunov function or its time-derivative are forecasted to breach certain thresholds over the next sampling interval. The communication-triggering thresholds are derived from a Lyapunov stability analysis and are explicitly parameterized in terms of the fault size and a suitable fault accommodation parameter. Based on this characterization, fault accommodation strategies that guarantee closed-loop stability while simultaneously optimizing control and communication system resources are devised. Finally, a simulation case study involving a chemical process example is presented to illustrate the implementation and evaluate the efficacy of the developed fault-tolerant MPC formulation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Directions on Model Predictive Control)
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15 pages, 2320 KiB  
Article
Bifurcation Analysis of a Certain Hodgkin-Huxley Model Depending on Multiple Bifurcation Parameters
by André H. Erhardt
Mathematics 2018, 6(6), 103; https://doi.org/10.3390/math6060103 - 18 Jun 2018
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4889
Abstract
In this paper, we study the dynamics of a certain Hodgkin-Huxley model describing the action potential (AP) of a cardiac muscle cell for a better understanding of the occurrence of a special type of cardiac arrhythmia, the so-called early afterdepolarisations (EADs). EADs are [...] Read more.
In this paper, we study the dynamics of a certain Hodgkin-Huxley model describing the action potential (AP) of a cardiac muscle cell for a better understanding of the occurrence of a special type of cardiac arrhythmia, the so-called early afterdepolarisations (EADs). EADs are pathological voltage oscillations during the repolarisation or plateau phase of cardiac APs. They are considered as potential precursors to cardiac arrhythmia and are often associated with deficiencies in potassium currents or enhancements in the calcium or sodium currents, e.g., induced by ion channel diseases, drugs or stress. Our study is focused on the enhancement in the calcium current to identify regions, where EADs related to enhanced calcium current appear. To this aim, we study the dynamics of the model using bifurcation theory and numerical bifurcation analysis. Furthermore, we investigate the interaction of the potassium and calcium current. It turns out that a suitable increasing of the potassium current adjusted the EADs related to an enhanced calcium current. Thus, one can use our result to balance the EADs in the sense that an enhancement in the potassium currents may compensate the effect of enhanced calcium currents. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applied Analysis of Ordinary Differential Equations 2018)
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12 pages, 1116 KiB  
Article
Prey–Predator Models with Variable Carrying Capacity
by Mariam K. A. Al-Moqbali, Nasser S. Al-Salti and Ibrahim M. Elmojtaba
Mathematics 2018, 6(6), 102; https://doi.org/10.3390/math6060102 - 15 Jun 2018
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5604
Abstract
Prey–predator models with variable carrying capacity are proposed. These models are more realistic in modeling population dynamics in an environment that undergoes changes. In particular, prey–predator models with Holling type I and type II functional responses, incorporating the idea of a variable carrying [...] Read more.
Prey–predator models with variable carrying capacity are proposed. These models are more realistic in modeling population dynamics in an environment that undergoes changes. In particular, prey–predator models with Holling type I and type II functional responses, incorporating the idea of a variable carrying capacity, are considered. The carrying capacity is modeled by a logistic equation that increases sigmoidally between an initial value κ0>κ1 (a lower bound for the carrying capacity) and a final value κ1+κ2 (an upper bound for the carrying capacity). In order to examine the effect of the variable carrying capacity on the prey–predator dynamics, the two models were analyzed qualitatively using stability analysis and numerical solutions for the prey, and the predator population densities were obtained. Results on global stability and Hopf bifurcation of certain equilibrium points have been also presented. Additionally, the effect of other model parameters on the prey–predator dynamics has been examined. In particular, results on the effect of the handling parameter and the predator’s death rate, which has been taken to be the bifurcation parameter, are presented. Full article
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18 pages, 357 KiB  
Article
An M[X]/G(a,b)/1 Queueing System with Breakdown and Repair, Stand-By Server, Multiple Vacation and Control Policy on Request for Re-Service
by G. Ayyappan and S. Karpagam
Mathematics 2018, 6(6), 101; https://doi.org/10.3390/math6060101 - 14 Jun 2018
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 5168
Abstract
In this paper, we discuss a non-Markovian batch arrival general bulk service single-server queueing system with server breakdown and repair, a stand-by server, multiple vacation and re-service. The main server’s regular service time, re-service time, vacation time and stand-by server’s service time are [...] Read more.
In this paper, we discuss a non-Markovian batch arrival general bulk service single-server queueing system with server breakdown and repair, a stand-by server, multiple vacation and re-service. The main server’s regular service time, re-service time, vacation time and stand-by server’s service time are followed by general distributions and breakdown and repair times of the main server with exponential distributions. There is a stand-by server which is employed during the period in which the regular server remains under repair. The probability generating function of the queue size at an arbitrary time and some performance measures of the system are derived. Extensive numerical results are also illustrated. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stochastic Processes with Applications)
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17 pages, 1009 KiB  
Article
Model Predictive Control of Mineral Column Flotation Process
by Yahui Tian, Xiaoli Luan, Fei Liu and Stevan Dubljevic
Mathematics 2018, 6(6), 100; https://doi.org/10.3390/math6060100 - 13 Jun 2018
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3836
Abstract
Column flotation is an efficient method commonly used in the mineral industry to separate useful minerals from ores of low grade and complex mineral composition. Its main purpose is to achieve maximum recovery while ensuring desired product grade. This work addresses a model [...] Read more.
Column flotation is an efficient method commonly used in the mineral industry to separate useful minerals from ores of low grade and complex mineral composition. Its main purpose is to achieve maximum recovery while ensuring desired product grade. This work addresses a model predictive control design for a mineral column flotation process modeled by a set of nonlinear coupled heterodirectional hyperbolic partial differential equations (PDEs) and ordinary differential equations (ODEs), which accounts for the interconnection of well-stirred regions represented by continuous stirred tank reactors (CSTRs) and transport systems given by heterodirectional hyperbolic PDEs, with these two regions combined through the PDEs’ boundaries. The model predictive control considers both optimality of the process operations and naturally present input and state/output constraints. For the discrete controller design, spatially varying steady-state profiles are obtained by linearizing the coupled ODE–PDE model, and then the discrete system is obtained by using the Cayley–Tustin time discretization transformation without any spatial discretization and/or without model reduction. The model predictive controller is designed by solving an optimization problem with input and state/output constraints as well as input disturbance to minimize the objective function, which leads to an online-solvable finite constrained quadratic regulator problem. Finally, the controller performance to keep the output at the steady state within the constraint range is demonstrated by simulation studies, and it is concluded that the optimal control scheme presented in this work makes this flotation process more efficient. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Directions on Model Predictive Control)
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14 pages, 260 KiB  
Article
Convergence in Total Variation to a Mixture of Gaussian Laws
by Luca Pratelli and Pietro Rigo
Mathematics 2018, 6(6), 99; https://doi.org/10.3390/math6060099 - 11 Jun 2018
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2638
Abstract
It is not unusual that XndistVZ where Xn, V, Z are real random variables, V is independent of Z and ZN(0,1). An intriguing feature [...] Read more.
It is not unusual that XndistVZ where Xn, V, Z are real random variables, V is independent of Z and ZN(0,1). An intriguing feature is that PVZA=EN(0,V2)(A) for each Borel set AR, namely, the probability distribution of the limit VZ is a mixture of centered Gaussian laws with (random) variance V2. In this paper, conditions for dTV(Xn,VZ)0 are given, where dTV(Xn,VZ) is the total variation distance between the probability distributions of Xn and VZ. To estimate the rate of convergence, a few upper bounds for dTV(Xn,VZ) are given as well. Special attention is paid to the following two cases: (i) Xn is a linear combination of the squares of Gaussian random variables; and (ii) Xn is related to the weighted quadratic variations of two independent Brownian motions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stochastic Processes with Applications)
16 pages, 480 KiB  
Article
Gray Codes Generation Algorithm and Theoretical Evaluation of Random Walks in N-Cubes
by Sylvain Contassot-Vivier, Jean-François Couchot and Pierre-Cyrille Héam
Mathematics 2018, 6(6), 98; https://doi.org/10.3390/math6060098 - 08 Jun 2018
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3566
Abstract
In previous works, some of the authors have proposed a canonical form of Gray Codes (GCs) in N-cubes (hypercubes of dimension N). This form allowed them to draw an algorithm that theoretically provides exactly all the GCs for a given dimension N [...] Read more.
In previous works, some of the authors have proposed a canonical form of Gray Codes (GCs) in N-cubes (hypercubes of dimension N). This form allowed them to draw an algorithm that theoretically provides exactly all the GCs for a given dimension N. In another work, we first have shown that any of these GC can be used to build the transition function of a Pseudorandom Number Generator (PRNG). Also, we have found a theoretical quadratic upper bound of the mixing time, i.e., the number of iterations that are required to provide a PRNG whose output is uniform. This article, extends these two previous works both practically and theoretically. On the one hand, another algorithm for generating GCs is proposed that provides an efficient generation of subsets of the entire set of GCs related to a given dimension N. This offers a large choice of GC to be used in the construction of Choatic Iterations based PRNGs (CI-PRNGs), leading to a large class of possible PRNGs. On the other hand, the mixing time has been theoretically shown to be in Nlog(N), which was anticipated in the previous article, but not proven. Full article
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19 pages, 282 KiB  
Article
Several Results of Fractional Differential and Integral Equations in Distribution
by Chenkuan Li, Changpin Li and Kyle Clarkson
Mathematics 2018, 6(6), 97; https://doi.org/10.3390/math6060097 - 08 Jun 2018
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2564
Abstract
This paper is to study certain types of fractional differential and integral equations, such as [...] Read more.
This paper is to study certain types of fractional differential and integral equations, such as θ ( x x 0 ) g ( x ) = 1 Γ ( α ) 0 x ( x ζ ) α 1 f ( ζ ) d ζ , y ( x ) + 0 x y ( τ ) x τ d τ = x + 2 + δ ( x ) , and x + k 0 x y ( τ ) ( x τ ) α 1 d τ = δ ( m ) ( x ) in the distributional sense by Babenko’s approach and fractional calculus. Applying convolutions and products of distributions in the Schwartz sense, we obtain generalized solutions for integral and differential equations of fractional order by using the Mittag-Leffler function, which cannot be achieved in the classical sense including numerical analysis methods, or by the Laplace transform. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Operators of Fractional Calculus and Their Applications)
12 pages, 242 KiB  
Article
Existence, Uniqueness and Ulam’s Stability of Solutions for a Coupled System of Fractional Differential Equations with Integral Boundary Conditions
by Dimplekumar Chalishajar and Avadhesh Kumar
Mathematics 2018, 6(6), 96; https://doi.org/10.3390/math6060096 - 07 Jun 2018
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 3464
Abstract
In this paper, the existence and uniqueness of the solutions to a fractional order nonlinear coupled system with integral boundary conditions is investigated. Furthermore, Ulam’s type stability of the proposed coupled system is studied. Banach’s fixed point theorem is used to obtain the [...] Read more.
In this paper, the existence and uniqueness of the solutions to a fractional order nonlinear coupled system with integral boundary conditions is investigated. Furthermore, Ulam’s type stability of the proposed coupled system is studied. Banach’s fixed point theorem is used to obtain the existence and uniqueness of the solutions. Finally, an example is provided to illustrate the analytical findings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applied Analysis of Ordinary Differential Equations 2018)
28 pages, 521 KiB  
Article
A Novel Approach to Decision-Making with Pythagorean Fuzzy Information
by Sumera Naz, Samina Ashraf and Muhammad Akram
Mathematics 2018, 6(6), 95; https://doi.org/10.3390/math6060095 - 07 Jun 2018
Cited by 110 | Viewed by 4975
Abstract
A Pythagorean fuzzy set (PFS) is a powerful tool for depicting fuzziness and uncertainty. This model is more flexible and practical as compared to an intuitionistic fuzzy model. This paper proposes a new graph, called Pythagorean fuzzy graph (PFG). We investigate some properties [...] Read more.
A Pythagorean fuzzy set (PFS) is a powerful tool for depicting fuzziness and uncertainty. This model is more flexible and practical as compared to an intuitionistic fuzzy model. This paper proposes a new graph, called Pythagorean fuzzy graph (PFG). We investigate some properties of our proposed graphs. We determine the degree and total degree of a vertex of PFGs. Furthermore, we present the concept of Pythagorean fuzzy preference relations (PFPRs). In particular, we solve decision-making problems, including evaluation of hospitals, partner selection in supply chain management, and electronic learning main factors evaluation by using PFGs. Full article
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13 pages, 271 KiB  
Article
Stability of λ-Harmonic Maps
by Zahra Pirbodaghi, Morteza Mirmohammad Rezaii and Seyed Mehdi Kazemi Torbaghan
Mathematics 2018, 6(6), 94; https://doi.org/10.3390/math6060094 - 07 Jun 2018
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2612
Abstract
In this paper, λ -harmonic maps from a Finsler manifold to a Riemannian manifold are studied. Then, some properties of this kind of harmonic maps are presented and some examples are given. Finally, the stability of the λ -harmonic maps from a Finsler [...] Read more.
In this paper, λ -harmonic maps from a Finsler manifold to a Riemannian manifold are studied. Then, some properties of this kind of harmonic maps are presented and some examples are given. Finally, the stability of the λ -harmonic maps from a Finsler manifold to the standard unit sphere S n ( n > 2 ) is investigated. Full article
14 pages, 316 KiB  
Article
Ekeland’s Variational Principle and Minimization Takahashi’s Theorem in Generalized Metric Spaces
by Eshagh Hashemi and Reza Saadati
Mathematics 2018, 6(6), 93; https://doi.org/10.3390/math6060093 - 05 Jun 2018
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3168
Abstract
We consider a distance function on generalized metric spaces and we get a generalization of Ekeland Variational Principle (EVP). Next, we prove that EVP is equivalent to Caristi–Kirk fixed point theorem and minimization Takahashi’s theorem. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fixed Point Theory)
19 pages, 318 KiB  
Article
A Novel (R,S)-Norm Entropy Measure of Intuitionistic Fuzzy Sets and Its Applications in Multi-Attribute Decision-Making
by Harish Garg and Jaspreet Kaur
Mathematics 2018, 6(6), 92; https://doi.org/10.3390/math6060092 - 30 May 2018
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3306
Abstract
The objective of this manuscript is to present a novel information measure for measuring the degree of fuzziness in intuitionistic fuzzy sets (IFSs). To achieve it, we define an ( R , S ) -norm-based information measure called the entropy to measure the [...] Read more.
The objective of this manuscript is to present a novel information measure for measuring the degree of fuzziness in intuitionistic fuzzy sets (IFSs). To achieve it, we define an ( R , S ) -norm-based information measure called the entropy to measure the degree of fuzziness of the set. Then, we prove that the proposed entropy measure is a valid measure and satisfies certain properties. An illustrative example related to a linguistic variable is given to demonstrate it. Then, we utilized it to propose two decision-making approaches to solve the multi-attribute decision-making (MADM) problem in the IFS environment by considering the attribute weights as either partially known or completely unknown. Finally, a practical example is provided to illustrate the decision-making process. The results corresponding to different pairs of ( R , S ) give different choices to the decision-maker to assess their results. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fuzzy Mathematics)
10 pages, 259 KiB  
Article
The Randomized First-Hitting Problem of Continuously Time-Changed Brownian Motion
by Mario Abundo
Mathematics 2018, 6(6), 91; https://doi.org/10.3390/math6060091 - 28 May 2018
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2714
Abstract
Let X ( t ) be a continuously time-changed Brownian motion starting from a random position η , S ( t ) a given continuous, increasing boundary, with S ( 0 ) 0 , [...] Read more.
Let X ( t ) be a continuously time-changed Brownian motion starting from a random position η , S ( t ) a given continuous, increasing boundary, with S ( 0 ) 0 , P ( η S ( 0 ) ) = 1 , and F an assigned distribution function. We study the inverse first-passage time problem for X ( t ) , which consists in finding the distribution of η such that the first-passage time of X ( t ) below S ( t ) has distribution F , generalizing the results, valid in the case when S ( t ) is a straight line. Some explicit examples are reported. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stochastic Processes with Applications)
15 pages, 267 KiB  
Article
Near Fixed Point Theorems in Hyperspaces
by Hsien-Chung Wu
Mathematics 2018, 6(6), 90; https://doi.org/10.3390/math6060090 - 28 May 2018
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2802
Abstract
The hyperspace consists of all the subsets of a vector space. It is well-known that the hyperspace is not a vector space because it lacks the concept of inverse element. This also says that we cannot consider its normed structure, and some kinds [...] Read more.
The hyperspace consists of all the subsets of a vector space. It is well-known that the hyperspace is not a vector space because it lacks the concept of inverse element. This also says that we cannot consider its normed structure, and some kinds of fixed point theorems cannot be established in this space. In this paper, we shall propose the concept of null set that will be used to endow a norm to the hyperspace. This normed hyperspace is clearly not a conventional normed space. Based on this norm, the concept of Cauchy sequence can be similarly defined. In addition, a Banach hyperspace can be defined according to the concept of Cauchy sequence. The main aim of this paper is to study and establish the so-called near fixed point theorems in Banach hyperspace. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fixed Point Theory)
19 pages, 1495 KiB  
Article
Closing Gaps in Geometrically Frustrated Symmetric Clusters: Local Equivalence between Discrete Curvature and Twist Transformations
by Fang Fang, Richard Clawson and Klee Irwin
Mathematics 2018, 6(6), 89; https://doi.org/10.3390/math6060089 - 25 May 2018
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4569
Abstract
In geometrically frustrated clusters of polyhedra, gaps between faces can be closed without distorting the polyhedra by the long established method of discrete curvature, which consists of curving the space into a fourth dimension, resulting in a dihedral angle at the joint between [...] Read more.
In geometrically frustrated clusters of polyhedra, gaps between faces can be closed without distorting the polyhedra by the long established method of discrete curvature, which consists of curving the space into a fourth dimension, resulting in a dihedral angle at the joint between polyhedra in 4D. An alternative method—the twist method—has been recently suggested for a particular case, whereby the gaps are closed by twisting the cluster in 3D, resulting in an angular offset of the faces at the joint between adjacent polyhedral. In this paper, we show the general applicability of the twist method, for local clusters, and present the surprising result that both the required angle of the twist transformation and the consequent angle at the joint are the same, respectively, as the angle of bending to 4D in the discrete curvature and its resulting dihedral angle. The twist is therefore not only isomorphic, but isogonic (in terms of the rotation angles) to discrete curvature. Our results apply to local clusters, but in the discussion we offer some justification for the conjecture that the isomorphism between twist and discrete curvature can be extended globally. Furthermore, we present examples for tetrahedral clusters with three-, four-, and fivefold symmetry. Full article
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17 pages, 2125 KiB  
Article
Computation of Probability Associated with Anderson–Darling Statistic
by Lorentz Jäntschi and Sorana D. Bolboacă
Mathematics 2018, 6(6), 88; https://doi.org/10.3390/math6060088 - 25 May 2018
Cited by 56 | Viewed by 9090
Abstract
The correct application of a statistical test is directly connected with information related to the distribution of data. Anderson–Darling is one alternative used to test if the distribution of experimental data follows a theoretical distribution. The conclusion of the Anderson–Darling test is usually [...] Read more.
The correct application of a statistical test is directly connected with information related to the distribution of data. Anderson–Darling is one alternative used to test if the distribution of experimental data follows a theoretical distribution. The conclusion of the Anderson–Darling test is usually drawn by comparing the obtained statistic with the available critical value, which did not give any weight to the same size. This study aimed to provide a formula for calculation of p-value associated with the Anderson–Darling statistic considering the size of the sample. A Monte Carlo simulation study was conducted for sample sizes starting from 2 to 61, and based on the obtained results, a formula able to give reliable probabilities associated to the Anderson–Darling statistic is reported. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applied and Computational Statistics)
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12 pages, 268 KiB  
Article
N-Hyper Sets
by Young Bae Jun, Seok-Zun Song and Seon Jeong Kim
Mathematics 2018, 6(6), 87; https://doi.org/10.3390/math6060087 - 23 May 2018
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3156
Abstract
To deal with the uncertainties, fuzzy set theory can be considered as one of the mathematical tools by Zadeh. As a mathematical tool to deal with negative information, Jun et al. introduced a new function, which is called a negative-valued function, and constructed [...] Read more.
To deal with the uncertainties, fuzzy set theory can be considered as one of the mathematical tools by Zadeh. As a mathematical tool to deal with negative information, Jun et al. introduced a new function, which is called a negative-valued function, and constructed N -structures in 2009. Since then, N -structures are applied to algebraic structures and soft sets, etc. Using the N -structures, the notions of (extended) N -hyper sets, N -substructures of type 1, 2, 3 and 4 are introduced, and several related properties are investigated in this research paper. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fuzzy Mathematics)
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