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Aerospace
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Adaptive/Smart Structures and Multifunctional Materials in Aerospace
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Adaptive/Smart Structures and Multifunctional Materials in Aerospace

A special issue of Aerospace (ISSN 2226-4310). This special issue belongs to the section "Aeronautics".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2022) | Viewed by 113951

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Rafic M. Ajaj

E-Mail Website
Collection Editor
Department of Aerospace Engineering, Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi 127788, United Arab Emirates
Interests: morphing skin; morphing wings; adaptive structures; compliant structures; flexible materials
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Norman M. Wereley

E-Mail Website
Collection Editor
Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Maryland, 3179J Martin Hall, College Park, MD 20742, USA
Interests: smart materials and structures; actuators; sensors; dampers; energy absorbers; pneumatic artificial muscles; control systems; applications to aircraft, ground vehicles, and robotic systems
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Recent advances in smart structures and multifunctional materials have facilitated many novel aerospace technologies such as morphing aircraft. A morphing aircraft, bio-inspired by natural fliers, has gained a lot of interest as a potential technology to meet the ambitious goals of the Advisory Council for Aeronautics Research in Europe (ACARE) Vision 2020 and the FlightPath 2050 documents. A morphing aircraft continuously adjusts its wing geometry to enhance flight performance, control authority, and multi-mission capability.

In the last 30 years, there have been a number of international research programmes and projects on morphing wings. Many of these programmes are still active, especially in Europe. These programmes/projects have developed many adaptive/smart structures to allow large and small shape changes and they have investigated multifunctional materials to act as actuators and/or sensors. Furthermore, adaptive structures and multifunctional materials have been used to design compliant skins which are one of the main challenges of morphing wings. These skins have to be flexible in the morphing direction but rigid in other directions to maintain the aerodynamic shape of the wing and withstand the aerodynamic loads. The other main challenge facing morphing aircraft is the ability to design light weight, stiff, and robust adaptive structures that require minimal actuation power.

The use of adaptive/smart structures and multifunctional materials is not limited to morphing aircraft but has been used extensively in other fields, such as structural health monitoring, energy harvesting, suspension systems, wind-turbine blades, and many others. Therefore, we invite papers either addressing the research opportunities outlined here, or in the general topic area of adaptive/smart structures and multifunctional materials that will make a substantive contribution to the state of the art in aerospace area.

Dr. Rafic Ajaj
Prof. Dr. Norman M. Wereley
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Aerospace is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • adaptive structures
  • multifunctional materials
  • morphing aircraft
  • actuators
  • sensors
  • energy harvesting
  • structural health monitoring
  • suspension systems
  • wind-turbine blades
  • compliant skins

Related Special Issues

Published Papers (17 papers)

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Research

30 pages, 15800 KiB  
Article
On the Aeroelasticity of the Active Span and Passive Pitching Polymorphing Wing: A Parametric Study
by Zawar Haider, Rafic M. Ajaj and Lakmal Seneviratne
Aerospace 2022, 9(9), 483; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9090483 - 30 Aug 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1622
Abstract
This paper presents an aeroelastic analysis of a polymorphing wing capable of active span extension and passive pitch variation. The wing is split into two segments: an inboard segment responsible for span extension/retraction and an outboard segment capable of pitch variation. The two [...] Read more.
This paper presents an aeroelastic analysis of a polymorphing wing capable of active span extension and passive pitch variation. The wing is split into two segments: an inboard segment responsible for span extension/retraction and an outboard segment capable of pitch variation. The two segments are connected through an overlapping spar and a torsional spring. A finite element aeroelastic model is developed where the wing structure is discretized into Euler–Bernoulli beam elements and the aerodynamic loads are calculated using Theodorsen’s unsteady model. A comprehensive parametric analysis is carried out with and without span extension to analyze the effect of varying critical design parameters, such as elastic axis position of outboard section and torsional spring rigidity, and conditions for aeroelastic phenomena of flutter and divergence are studied. A gust load analysis is carried out to quantify the capability of the outboard wing passive twist mechanism to alleviate loads. Finally, a nonlinear analysis is carried out by replacing the linear torsional spring with a nonlinear cubic spring to study the effects of cubic hardening and softening on the aeroelasticity of the polymorphing wing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adaptive/Smart Structures and Multifunctional Materials in Aerospace)
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25 pages, 17902 KiB  
Article
A Polymorphing Wing Capable of Span Extension and Variable Pitch
by Muhammed S. Parancheerivilakkathil, Zawar Haider, Rafic M. Ajaj and Mohammadreza Amoozgar
Aerospace 2022, 9(4), 205; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9040205 - 09 Apr 2022
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2976
Abstract
This paper presents the development of a novel polymorphing wing capable of Active Span morphing And Passive Pitching (ASAPP) for small UAVs. The span of an ASAPP wing can be actively extended by up to 25% to enhance aerodynamic efficiency, whilst its pitch [...] Read more.
This paper presents the development of a novel polymorphing wing capable of Active Span morphing And Passive Pitching (ASAPP) for small UAVs. The span of an ASAPP wing can be actively extended by up to 25% to enhance aerodynamic efficiency, whilst its pitch near the wingtip can be passively adjusted to alleviate gust loads. To integrate these two morphing mechanisms into one single wing design, each side of the wing is split into two segments (e.g., inboard and outboard segments). The inboard segment is used for span extension whilst the outboard segment is used for passive pitch. The inboard segment consists of a main spar that can translate in the spanwise direction. Flexible skin is used to cover the inboard segment and maintain its aerodynamic shape. The skin transfers the aerodynamic loads to the main spar through a number of ribs that can slide on the main spar through linear plain bearings. A linear actuator located within the fuselage is used for span morphing. The inboard and outboard segments are connected by an overlapping spar surrounded by a torsional spring. The overlapping spar is located ahead of the aerodynamic center of the outboard segment to facilitate passive pitch. The aero-structural design, analysis, and sizing of the ASAPP wing are detailed here. The study shows that the ASAPP wing can be superior to the baseline wing (without morphing) in terms of aerodynamic efficiency, especially when the deformation of the flexible skin is minimal. Moreover, the passive pitching near the wingtip can reduce the root loads significantly, minimizing the weight penalty usually associated with morphing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adaptive/Smart Structures and Multifunctional Materials in Aerospace)
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12 pages, 8651 KiB  
Article
Enhancing the Interlaminar Fracture Toughness and AO Resistance of CFRPs by Using Phosphorus-Containing Polymer/PEC-K Bifunctional Film
by Miaocai Guo
Aerospace 2021, 8(12), 365; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8120365 - 26 Nov 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1918
Abstract
A new attempt to use a bifunctional interleaf for developing a novel structure–function-integrated composite with simultaneously improved interlaminar fracture toughness and atomic oxygen resistance was studied. The toughening mechanism and the atomic oxygen erosion property of the delaminated surfaces of the composites were [...] Read more.
A new attempt to use a bifunctional interleaf for developing a novel structure–function-integrated composite with simultaneously improved interlaminar fracture toughness and atomic oxygen resistance was studied. The toughening mechanism and the atomic oxygen erosion property of the delaminated surfaces of the composites were examined. The bifunctional interleaf was prepared by blending a phosphorus-containing polymer and a thermoplastic polymer. After being interleaved, the mode I and mode II fracture toughness increased by 8.2% and 23.7% compared to the control sample, respectively. The toughness gains are much smaller than that of the only thermoplastic film-toughened composite because of the relative brittleness of the blend film. The atomic oxygen erosion rates of the mode I and mode II delamination surfaces decreased by 45.3% and 31.3% compared with the control, respectively. The carbon fibers on the irradiation surfaces are protected by a layer of phosphine oxide to prevent further erosion, and they were much less eroded, particularly for the mode I surface. In comparison, the erosion rates of the mode I and mode II surfaces of the toughened-only composite significantly increased by 83.6% and 107.2%, respectively, and the carbon fibers are seriously eroded. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adaptive/Smart Structures and Multifunctional Materials in Aerospace)
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21 pages, 4770 KiB  
Article
Transient Dynamic System Behavior of Pressure Actuated Cellular Structures in a Morphing Wing
by Patrick Meyer, Sebastian Lück, Tobias Spuhler, Christoph Bode, Christian Hühne, Jens Friedrichs and Michael Sinapius
Aerospace 2021, 8(3), 89; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8030089 - 20 Mar 2021
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3770
Abstract
High aspect ratio aircraft have a significantly reduced induced drag, but have only limited installation space for control surfaces near the wingtip. This paper describes a multidisciplinary design methodology for a morphing aileron that is based on pressure-actuated cellular structures (PACS). The focus [...] Read more.
High aspect ratio aircraft have a significantly reduced induced drag, but have only limited installation space for control surfaces near the wingtip. This paper describes a multidisciplinary design methodology for a morphing aileron that is based on pressure-actuated cellular structures (PACS). The focus of this work is on the transient dynamic system behavior of the multi-functional aileron. Decisive design aspects are the actuation speed, the resistance against external loads, and constraints preparing for a future wind tunnel test. The structural stiffness under varying aerodynamic loads is examined while using a reduced-order truss model and a high-fidelity finite element analysis. The simulations of the internal flow investigate the transient pressurization process that limits the dynamic actuator response. The authors present a reduced-order model based on the Pseudo Bond Graph methodology enabling time-efficient flow simulation and compare the results to computational fluid dynamic simulations. The findings of this work demonstrate high structural resistance against external forces and the feasibility of high actuation speeds over the entire operating envelope. Future research will incorporate the fluid–structure interaction and the assessment of load alleviation capability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adaptive/Smart Structures and Multifunctional Materials in Aerospace)
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20 pages, 8170 KiB  
Article
Tribology in Space Robotic Actuators: Experimental Method for Evaluation and Analysis of Gearboxes
by Erik Nyberg, Dídac Llopart i Cervelló and Ichiro Minami
Aerospace 2021, 8(3), 75; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8030075 - 13 Mar 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3633
Abstract
Liquid lubricants are critical to enable long-life operation of high-performance machinery, such as geared actuators employed in robotics. In space applications, actuator gearboxes must operate in low temperatures, where liquid lubricants face inherent problems related to low temperature rheology. Heaters are relied upon [...] Read more.
Liquid lubricants are critical to enable long-life operation of high-performance machinery, such as geared actuators employed in robotics. In space applications, actuator gearboxes must operate in low temperatures, where liquid lubricants face inherent problems related to low temperature rheology. Heaters are relied upon to provide acceptable gearbox temperatures. Unfortunately, heating is energy-intense and does not scale well with increasing mechanism mass and performance. Effective boundary lubrication (BL), on the other hand, can minimize problems of low temperature rheology. BL relies on tribofilm formation over conventional fluid film separation. Effective space grade boundary lubricants can potentially allow for drastically reduced amounts of oil and the accompanying rheological problems. In this work, we describe the design of a methodology to evaluate and analyze tribology of actuator gearboxes operated under cryogenic oil-starved conditions in N2 atmosphere. The devised methodology enables research pertinent to space actuator tribology by accelerated testing and advanced analysis, as demonstrated by a lubricant candidate case study. Complementary microscopy techniques are discussed, and a novel methodology devised for gear internal microstructure analysis by X-ray microtomography (XMT) is presented. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adaptive/Smart Structures and Multifunctional Materials in Aerospace)
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22 pages, 11972 KiB  
Article
Development of a Morphing Landing Gear Composite Door for High Speed Compound Rotorcraft
by Antonio Chiariello, Salvatore Orlando, Pasquale Vitale, Mauro Linari, Raffaele Longobardi and Luigi Di Palma
Aerospace 2020, 7(7), 88; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace7070088 - 30 Jun 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 7976
Abstract
In the framework of fast rotorcraft, smoothness and flushness of external aerodynamic surfaces present challenges for high-speed conditions, where aerodynamics is the driver of helicopter performance. For AIRBUS-RACER helicopter the main landing gear trap doors are parts of the lower wing skins (in [...] Read more.
In the framework of fast rotorcraft, smoothness and flushness of external aerodynamic surfaces present challenges for high-speed conditions, where aerodynamics is the driver of helicopter performance. For AIRBUS-RACER helicopter the main landing gear trap doors are parts of the lower wing skins (in retracted configuration) affecting helicopter performance by minimizing the drag. Flushness requirements must not be in contrast with the functionally of the Landing gear system that must open and close the doors during the landing gear retraction-extension phases at moderately low velocity. To manage these goals, a novel design logic has been identified to support the trap doors development phase. The identified way to proceed needs of relevant numerical method and tool as well. This method is aimed at identifying the main landing gear composite compartment doors in pre-shaped configuration to match the smoothness and door-stopper engagements over each aerodynamic conditions. The authors propose a detailed non-linear Finite Element method, based on MSC Nastran (MSC Software, Newport Beach, US) SOL-400 solver in which the structure is modelled with deformable contact bodies in a multiple load step sequence, open door condition and pre-shaped, deformed under actuator pre-load, under flight load conditions. The method includes the entire pre-stressed field due to the preload and the actual door stiffness, considering the achieved large displacement to verify the most representative strain field during loads application. The paper defines a robust methodology to predict the deformation and ensure the most appropriate door “pre-bow” and pre-load, in order to achieve the desiderated structural shape that matches aerodynamic requirements. The main result is the identification of a pre-shaped doors configuration for the Airbus RACER Fast Rotorcraft. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adaptive/Smart Structures and Multifunctional Materials in Aerospace)
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19 pages, 5966 KiB  
Article
Aeroelastic Assessments and Functional Hazard Analysis of a Regional Aircraft Equipped with Morphing Winglets
by Maria Chiara Noviello, Ignazio Dimino, Antonio Concilio, Francesco Amoroso and Rosario Pecora
Aerospace 2019, 6(10), 104; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace6100104 - 20 Sep 2019
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 6051
Abstract
The application of morphing wing devices can bring several benefits in terms of aircraft performance, as the current literature shows. Within the scope of Clean Sky 2 AirGreen 2 European project, the authors provided a safety-driven design of an adaptive winglet, through the [...] Read more.
The application of morphing wing devices can bring several benefits in terms of aircraft performance, as the current literature shows. Within the scope of Clean Sky 2 AirGreen 2 European project, the authors provided a safety-driven design of an adaptive winglet, through the examination of potential hazards resulting from operational faults, such as actuation chain jamming or links structural fails. The main goal of this study was to verify whether the morphing winglet systems could comply with the standard civil flight safety regulations and airworthiness requirements (EASA CS25). Systems functions were firstly performed from a quality point of view at both aircraft and subsystem levels to detect potential design, crew and maintenance faults, as well as risks due to the external environment. The severity of the hazard effects was thus identified and then sorted in specific classes, representative of the maximum acceptable probability of occurrence for a single event, in association with safety design objectives. Fault trees were finally developed to assess the compliance of the system structures to the quantitative safety requirements deriving from the Fault and Hazard Analyses (FHAs). The same failure scenarios studied through FHAs have been simulated in flutter analyses performed to verify the aeroelastic effects due to the loss of the actuators or structural links at aircraft level. Obtained results were used to suggest a design solution to be implemented in the next loop of design of the morphing winglet. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adaptive/Smart Structures and Multifunctional Materials in Aerospace)
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19 pages, 9149 KiB  
Article
Simplified 2D Skin Lattice Models for Multi-Axial Camber Morphing Wing Aircraft
by Bashir Alsaidi, Woong Yeol Joe and Muhammad Akbar
Aerospace 2019, 6(8), 90; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace6080090 - 13 Aug 2019
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 6776
Abstract
Conventional fixed wing aircraft require a selection of certain thickness of skin material that guarantees structural strength for aerodynamic loadings in various flight modes. However, skin structures of morphing wings are expected to be flexible as well as stiff to structural and coupled [...] Read more.
Conventional fixed wing aircraft require a selection of certain thickness of skin material that guarantees structural strength for aerodynamic loadings in various flight modes. However, skin structures of morphing wings are expected to be flexible as well as stiff to structural and coupled aerodynamic loadings from geometry change. Many works in the design of skin structures for morphing wings consider only geometric compliance. Among many morphing classifications, we consider camber rate change as airfoil morphing that changes its rate of the airfoil that induces warping, twisting, and bending in multi-axial directions, which makes compliant skin design for morphing a challenging task. It is desired to design a 3D skin structure for a morphing wing; however, it is a computationally challenging task in the design stage to optimize the design parameters. Therefore, it is of interest to establish the structure design process in rapid approaches. As a first step, the main theme of this study is to numerically validate and suggest simplified 2D plate models that fully represents multi-axial 3D camber morphing. In addition to that, the authors show the usage of lattice structures for the 2D plate models’ skin that will lead to on-demand design of advanced structure through the modification of selected structure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adaptive/Smart Structures and Multifunctional Materials in Aerospace)
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15 pages, 9818 KiB  
Article
Computational Analysis of 3D Lattice Structures for Skin in Real-Scale Camber Morphing Aircraft
by Bashir Alsaidi, Woong Yeol Joe and Muhammad Akbar
Aerospace 2019, 6(7), 79; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace6070079 - 07 Jul 2019
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 8252
Abstract
Conventional or fixed wings require a certain thickness of skin material selection that guarantees structurally reliable strength under expected aerodynamic loadings. However, skin structures of morphing wings need to be flexible as well as stiff enough to deal with multi-axial structural stresses from [...] Read more.
Conventional or fixed wings require a certain thickness of skin material selection that guarantees structurally reliable strength under expected aerodynamic loadings. However, skin structures of morphing wings need to be flexible as well as stiff enough to deal with multi-axial structural stresses from changed geometry and the coupled aerodynamic loadings. Many works in the design of skin structures for morphing wings take the approach either of only geometric compliance or a simplified model that does not fully represent 3D real-scale wing models. Thus, the main theme of this study is (1) to numerically identify the multi-axial stress, strain, and deformation of skin in a camber morphing wing aircraft under both structure and aerodynamic loadings, and then (2) to show the effectiveness of a direct approach that uses 3D lattice structures for skin. Various lattice structures and their direct 3D wing models have been numerically analyzed for advanced skin design. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adaptive/Smart Structures and Multifunctional Materials in Aerospace)
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14 pages, 1037 KiB  
Article
Comparison of Constrained Parameterisation Strategies for Aerodynamic Optimisation of Morphing Leading Edge Airfoil
by Andrea Magrini, Ernesto Benini, Rita Ponza, Chen Wang, Hamed Haddad Khodaparast, Michael I. Friswell, Volker Landersheim, Dominik Laveuve and Conchin Contell Asins
Aerospace 2019, 6(3), 31; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace6030031 - 06 Mar 2019
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 6255
Abstract
In the context of ambitious targets for reducing environmental impact in the aviation sector, dictated by international institutions, morphing aircraft are expected to have potential for achieving the required efficiency increases. However, there are still open issues related to the design and implementation [...] Read more.
In the context of ambitious targets for reducing environmental impact in the aviation sector, dictated by international institutions, morphing aircraft are expected to have potential for achieving the required efficiency increases. However, there are still open issues related to the design and implementation of deformable structures. In this paper, we compare three constrained parameterisation strategies for the aerodynamic design of a morphing leading edge, representing a potential substitute for traditional high-lift systems. In order to facilitate the structural design and promote the feasibility of solutions, we solve a multi-objective optimisation problem, including constraints on axial and bending strain introduced by morphing. A parameterisation method, inherently producing constant arc length curves, is employed in three variants, representing different morphing strategies which provide an increasing level of deformability, by allowing the lower edge of the flexible skin to slide and the gap formed with the fixed spar to be closed by a hatch. The results for the optimisation of a baseline airfoil show that the geometric constraints are effectively handled in the optimisation and the solutions are smooth, with a continuous variation along the Pareto frontier. The larger shape modification allowed by more flexible parameterisation variants enables an increase of the maximum lift coefficient up to 8.35%, and efficiency at 70% of stall incidence up to 4.26%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adaptive/Smart Structures and Multifunctional Materials in Aerospace)
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22 pages, 7496 KiB  
Article
Static and Dynamic Performance of a Morphing Trailing Edge Concept with High-Damping Elastomeric Skin
by Maurizio Arena, Christof Nagel, Rosario Pecora, Oliver Schorsch, Antonio Concilio and Ignazio Dimino
Aerospace 2019, 6(2), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace6020022 - 19 Feb 2019
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 6883
Abstract
Nature has many striking examples of adaptive structures: the emulation of birds’ flight is the true challenge of a morphing wing. The integration of increasingly innovative technologies, such as reliable kinematic mechanisms, embedded servo-actuation and smart materials systems, enables us to realize new [...] Read more.
Nature has many striking examples of adaptive structures: the emulation of birds’ flight is the true challenge of a morphing wing. The integration of increasingly innovative technologies, such as reliable kinematic mechanisms, embedded servo-actuation and smart materials systems, enables us to realize new structural systems fully compatible with the more and more stringent airworthiness requirements. In this paper, the authors describe the characterization of an adaptive structure, representative of a wing trailing edge, consisting of a finger-like rib mechanism with a highly deformable skin, which comprises both soft and stiff parts. The morphing skin is able to follow the trailing edge movement under repeated cycles, while being stiff enough to preserve its shape under aerodynamic loads and adequately pliable to minimize the actuation power required for morphing. In order to properly characterize the system, a mock-up was manufactured whose structural properties, in particular the ability to carry out loads, were also guaranteed by the elastic skin. A numerical sensitivity analysis with respect to the mechanical properties of the multi-segment skin was performed to investigate their influence on the modal response of the whole system. Experimental dynamic tests were then carried out and the obtained results were critically analysed to prove the adequacy of the adopted design approaches as well as to quantify the dissipative (high-damping) effects induced by the rubber foam on the dynamic response of the morphing architecture. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adaptive/Smart Structures and Multifunctional Materials in Aerospace)
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20 pages, 10684 KiB  
Article
Electro-Actuation System Strategy for a Morphing Flap
by Maurizio Arena, Francesco Amoroso, Rosario Pecora and Salvatore Ameduri
Aerospace 2019, 6(1), 1; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace6010001 - 28 Dec 2018
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 8790
Abstract
Within the framework of the Clean Sky-JTI (Joint Technology Initiative) project, the design and technological demonstration of a novel wing flap architecture were addressed. Research activities were carried out to substantiate the feasibility of morphing concepts enabling flap camber variation in compliance with [...] Read more.
Within the framework of the Clean Sky-JTI (Joint Technology Initiative) project, the design and technological demonstration of a novel wing flap architecture were addressed. Research activities were carried out to substantiate the feasibility of morphing concepts enabling flap camber variation in compliance with the demanding safety requirements applicable to the next generation green regional aircraft. The driving motivation for the investigation on such a technology was found in the opportunity to replace a conventional double slotted flap with a single slotted camber-morphing flap assuring similar high lift performances—in terms of maximum attainable lift coefficient and stall angle—while lowering emitted noise and system complexity. The actuation and control logics aimed at preserving prescribed geometries of the device under variable load conditions are numerically and experimentally investigated with reference to an ‘iron-bird’ demonstrator. The actuation concept is based on load-bearing actuators acting on morphing ribs, directly and individually. The adopted un-shafted distributed electromechanical system arrangement uses brushless actuators, each rated for the torque of a single adaptive rib of the morphing structure. An encoder-based distributed sensor system generates the information for appropriate control-loop and, at the same time, monitors possible failures in the actuation mechanism. Further activities were then discussed in order to increase the TRL (Technology Readiness Level) of the validated architecture. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adaptive/Smart Structures and Multifunctional Materials in Aerospace)
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23 pages, 9078 KiB  
Article
Exploitation of a Multifunctional Twistable Wing Trailing-Edge for Performance Improvement of a Turboprop 90-Seats Regional Aircraft
by Francesco Rea, Francesco Amoroso, Rosario Pecora and Frederic Moens
Aerospace 2018, 5(4), 122; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace5040122 - 16 Nov 2018
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 11390
Abstract
Modern transport aircraft wings have reached near-peak levels of energy-efficiency and there is still margin for further relevant improvements. A promising strategy for improving aircraft efficiency is to change the shape of the aircraft wing in flight in order to maximize its aerodynamic [...] Read more.
Modern transport aircraft wings have reached near-peak levels of energy-efficiency and there is still margin for further relevant improvements. A promising strategy for improving aircraft efficiency is to change the shape of the aircraft wing in flight in order to maximize its aerodynamic performance under all operative conditions. In the present work, this has been developed in the framework of the Clean Sky 2 (REG-IADP) European research project, where the authors focused on the design of a multifunctional twistable trailing-edge for a Natural Laminar Flow (NLF) wing. A multifunctional wing trailing-edge is used to improve aircraft performance during climb and off-design cruise conditions in response to variations in speed, altitude and other flight parameters. The investigation domain of the novel full-scale device covers 5.15 m along the wing span and the 10% of the local wing chord. Concerning the wing trailing-edge, the preliminary structural and kinematic design process of the actuation system is completely addressed: three rotary brushless motors (placed in root, central and tip sections) are required to activate the inner mechanisms enabling different trailing-edge morphing modes. The structural layout of the thin-walled closed-section composite trailing-edge represents a promising concept, meeting both the conflicting requirements of load-carrying capability and shape adaptivity. Actuation system performances and aeroelastic deformations, considering both operative aerodynamic and limit load conditions, prove the potential of the proposed structural concept to be energy efficient and lightweight for real aircraft implementation. Finally, the performance assessment of the outer natural laminar flow (NLF) wing retrofitted with the multifunctional trailing-edge is performed by high-fidelity aerodynamic analyses. For such an NLF wing, this device can improve airplane aerodynamic efficiency during high speed climb conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adaptive/Smart Structures and Multifunctional Materials in Aerospace)
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43 pages, 8537 KiB  
Article
Free and Forced Vibration of Laminated and Sandwich Plates by Zig-Zag Theories Differently Accounting for Transverse Shear and Normal Deformability
by Ugo Icardi and Andrea Urraci
Aerospace 2018, 5(4), 108; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace5040108 - 11 Oct 2018
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4648
Abstract
A number of mixed and displacement-based zig-zag theories are derived from the zig-zag adaptive theory (ZZA). As a consequence of their different assumptions on displacement, strain, and stress fields, and layerwise functions, these theories account for the transverse shear and normal deformability in [...] Read more.
A number of mixed and displacement-based zig-zag theories are derived from the zig-zag adaptive theory (ZZA). As a consequence of their different assumptions on displacement, strain, and stress fields, and layerwise functions, these theories account for the transverse shear and normal deformability in different ways, but their unknowns are independent of the number of layers. Some have features that are reminiscent of ones that have been published in the literature for the sake of comparison. Benchmarks with different length-to-thickness ratios, lay-ups, material properties, and simply supported or clamped edges are studied with the intended aim of contributing toward better understanding the influence of transverse anisotropy on free vibration and the response of blast-loaded, multilayered, and sandwich plates, as well as enhancing the existing database. The results show that only theories whose layerwise contributions identically satisfy interfacial stress constrains and whose displacement fields are redefined for each layer provide results that are in agreement with elasticity solutions and three-dimensional (3D) finite element analysis (FEA) (mixed solid elements with displacements and out-of-plane stresses as nodal degrees of freedom (d.o.f.)) with a low expansion order of polynomials in the in-plane and out-of-plane directions. The choice of their layerwise functions is shown to be immaterial, while theories with fixed kinematics are shown to be strongly case-sensitive and often inadequate (even for slender components). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adaptive/Smart Structures and Multifunctional Materials in Aerospace)
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11 pages, 4085 KiB  
Article
Pneumatically Powered Drilling of Carbon Fibre Composites Using Synthetic Biodegradable Lubricating Oil: An Experimental Study
by Corydon M. J. Morrell and Paul R. Hampson
Aerospace 2018, 5(1), 9; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace5010009 - 16 Jan 2018
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 5979
Abstract
Carbon fibre composites are a key component of aircraft structures because of their enhanced material properties such as favourable strength to weight ratios when compared to metal alloys. During the assembly process of an aircraft, carbon fibre components are joined to other structures [...] Read more.
Carbon fibre composites are a key component of aircraft structures because of their enhanced material properties such as favourable strength to weight ratios when compared to metal alloys. During the assembly process of an aircraft, carbon fibre components are joined to other structures using rivets, bolts, and fasteners, and as part of the joining process, the components will need to be machined or drilled. Unlike metal alloys, composites are sensitive to heat and are vulnerable to internal structural damage from machining tools. They are also susceptible to a reduction in strength when fibres are exposed to moisture. In the machining process, carbon fibre composites may be drilled using oils to lubricate carbide machining tools. In this study, a description of the experimental apparatus is provided along with an investigation to determine the influence synthetic biodegradable lubricating oil has on drill rotational speed, drilling load, and drilling temperature when using a pneumatic drill to machine carbon fibre composite material. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adaptive/Smart Structures and Multifunctional Materials in Aerospace)
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9566 KiB  
Article
Design, Development and Testing of Shape Shifting Wing Model
by Dean Ninian and Sam M. Dakka
Aerospace 2017, 4(4), 52; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace4040052 - 01 Nov 2017
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 10636
Abstract
The design and development of morphing (shape shifting) aircraft wings—an innovative technology that has the potential to increase the aerodynamic efficiency and reduce noise signatures of aircrafts—was carried out. This research was focused on reducing lift-induced drag at the flaps of the aerofoil [...] Read more.
The design and development of morphing (shape shifting) aircraft wings—an innovative technology that has the potential to increase the aerodynamic efficiency and reduce noise signatures of aircrafts—was carried out. This research was focused on reducing lift-induced drag at the flaps of the aerofoil and to improve the design to achieve the optimum aerodynamic efficiency. Simulation revealed a 10.8% coefficient of lift increase for the initial morphing wing and 15.4% for the optimized morphing wing as compared to conventional wing design. At angles of attack of 0, 5, 10 and 15 degrees, the optimized wing has an increase in lift-to-drag ratio of 18.3%, 10.5%, 10.6% and 4% respectively when compared with the conventional wing. Simulations also showed that there is a significant improvement on pressure distribution over the lower surface of the morphing wing aerofoil. The increase in flow smoothness and reduction in vortex size reduced pressure drag along the trailing edge of the wing as a result an increase in pressure on the lower surface was experienced. A morphing wing reduced the size of the vortices and therefore the noise levels measured were reduced by up to 50%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adaptive/Smart Structures and Multifunctional Materials in Aerospace)
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4083 KiB  
Article
Numerical and Experimental Investigations of an Elasto-Flexible Membrane Wing at a Reynolds Number of 280,000
by Julie Piquee and Christian Breitsamter
Aerospace 2017, 4(3), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace4030039 - 27 Jul 2017
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 7416
Abstract
This work presents numerical and experimental investigations of an elasto-flexible membrane wing at a Reynolds number of 280,000. Such a concept has the capacity to adapt itself to the incoming flow offering a wider range of the flight envelope. This adaptation is clearly [...] Read more.
This work presents numerical and experimental investigations of an elasto-flexible membrane wing at a Reynolds number of 280,000. Such a concept has the capacity to adapt itself to the incoming flow offering a wider range of the flight envelope. This adaptation is clearly observed in the numerical study: the camber of the airfoil changes with the dynamic pressure and the angle of attack, which permits a smoother and delayed stall. The numerical results, obtained from Fluid Structure Interaction (FSI) simulations, also show that the laminar-turbulent transition influences the aerodynamic characteristics of the wing, as it directly affects the pressure distribution on the membrane and the geometry of the airfoil. Two different turbulence models were therefore tested. Furthermore, experimental investigations are considered in this paper to estimate the precision of the FSI simulations. It appears that the FSI study overestimates the lift coefficient, and the drag coefficient is undervalued, which can be explained by dynamic calibration of the model. Nevertheless, the velocity field obtained with the hot-wire anemometry system shows good agreement on the upper side of the model. The membrane deflection measurements also appear to be consistent with the expected geometry of the deformed airfoil from the FSI simulations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adaptive/Smart Structures and Multifunctional Materials in Aerospace)
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