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A special issue of Geosciences (ISSN 2076-3263).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2017) | Viewed by 85919

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Prof. Dr. Ulrich Kamp

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Earth and Environment Discipline, Department of Natural Sciences, University of Michigan-Dearborn, 4901 Evergreen Rd., 211 Science Faculty Center, Dearborn, MI 48128, USA
Interests: cryosphere; environmental change; environmental hazards; human-environment interactions; mountain geography; quaternary geology
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue, “Cryosphere”, of Geosciences aims to present the diversity within the field and state-of-the-art research on glaciers, ice sheets, permafrost, sea ice, and snow cover. It also seeks to display a wide range of regional studies and methodological approaches such as laboratory experiments, field measurements and observations, numerical modeling, and remote sensing. Contributions on the interactions between the cryosphere and other elements of the geosystem (atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere) are of particular interest, as are applied aspects related to the cryosphere, for example, natural hazards, hydropower, water resources, and artificial glaciation. Last, but not least, the Special Issue allows for stretching our imagination beyond Earth, and welcomes new insights into the cryospheres of other planets.

Prof. Dr. Ulrich Kamp
Guest Editor

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Keywords

glaciers
ice sheets
permafrost
sea ice
snow cover
cryosphere and natural hazards
cryosphere and hydropower
cryosphere and water resources
planetary ice

Published Papers (13 papers)

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Research

16 pages, 5986 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Regional Geomorphological Conditions Related to Recent Changes of Glacial Lakes in the Issyk-Kul Basin, Northern Tien Shan

by Mirlan Daiyrov, Chiyuki Narama, Tsutomu Yamanokuchi, Takeo Tadono, Andreas Kääb and Jinro Ukita

Geosciences 2018, 8(3), 99; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences8030099 - 14 Mar 2018

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5210

Abstract

To assess the current state of glacial lakes, we examine the seasonal lake-area changes of 339 glacial lakes in the Teskey and Kungoy Ranges of the Issyk-Kul Basin, Kyrgyzstan, during 2013–2016 based on optical satellite images (Landsat7/ETM+ and 8/OLI). The glacial lakes are classified into six types based on their seasonal variations in area: stable, increasing, decreasing, appearing, vanishing, and short-lived. We then track the number of each type in a given year and examine how each number changes from one year to the next. We find that many appearing, vanishing, and short-lived types occurred in both mountain ranges, having a large variability in number that is not directly related to the local short-term summer temperature anomaly, nor to precipitation or glacier recession. However, those in the Teskey Range vary significantly more than those in the Kungoy Range. To determine if the changing number and distribution of the various lake types may be due to changes in ground ice, we apply differential interferometric synthetic aperture radar (DInSAR) analysis using ALOS-2/PALSAR-2 for the debris landforms behind which glacial lakes appear. In the Teskey Range, ground ice occurs in 413 out of a total of 930 debris landforms, whereas in the Kungoy Range, ground ice occurs in 71 out of 180. In zones with predominant glacier-retreat during 1971–2010 (from Corona KH-4B and ALOS/PRISM), the Teskey Range had 180 new lake depressions as potential lake-basins, whereas the Kungoy Range had just 22. Existing depressions also expanded when melting ice produced subsidence. Such subsidence, together with debris landforms containing ground ice and ice tunnels, appear to cause the observed large number variability. In particular, the deposition of ice and debris by tunnel collapse or the freezing of storage water in a debris landform may close-off an ice tunnel, causing a lake to appear. Subsequent re-opening via melting of such blockage would produce either a vanishing or a short-lived type. In this way, the large variability in the number of each lake type and the distribution of types over this four-year period arises from regional geomorphological conditions and not directly from the local short-term summer temperature anomaly and precipitation or glacier recession. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cryosphere)

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65027 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Present Glaciers and Their Dynamics in the Arid Parts of the Altai Mountains

by Dmitry A. Ganyushkin, Kirill V. Chistyakov, Ilya V. Volkov, Dmitry V. Bantcev, Elena P. Kunaeva and Anton V. Terekhov

Geosciences 2017, 7(4), 117; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences7040117 - 17 Nov 2017

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 5342

Abstract

This research is based on multiyear in-situ observations, analysis of satellite and aerial imagery, meteorological data, and mass balance index calculations. Presently, 659 glaciers cover a total area of 322.1 km². We identified four favorable, two neutral, and five unfavorable longer intervals of glacier development since 1940. A decelerating of glacial retreat took place in the 1960s and in the late 1980s/early 1990s. The strong decline in glacial mass between 1995 and 2009 resulted in a fast reduction of the glacial area (0.9% year⁻¹ on the northern slope of Tavan Bogd, 1.5% year⁻¹ at Mongun-Taiga), mostly due to the degradation of small glaciers; after 2009, the glacial loss slowed down. Large valley glaciers behaved asynchronously until recently, when their retreat accelerated rapidly reaching in some cases over 40 m∙year⁻¹. Degradation of the accumulation zone and separation of the debris-covered parts of the glaciers are characteristic for the glacial retreat in the region of research. The time of reaction of the fronts of four valley glaciers of Mongun-Taiga and the northern slope of Tavan Bogd on climatic fluctuations is estimated between 11 and 20 years. Over the next decade, high rates of glacial degradation are expected. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cryosphere)

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3981 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating the Scale and Potential of GLOF in the Bhutan Himalayas Using a Satellite-Based Integral Glacier–Glacial Lake Inventory

by Hiroto Nagai, Jinro Ukita, Chiyuki Narama, Koji Fujita, Akiko Sakai, Takeo Tadono, Tsutomu Yamanokuchi and Nobuhiro Tomiyama

Geosciences 2017, 7(3), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences7030077 - 01 Sep 2017

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 7006

Abstract

A comprehensive glacier–glacial lake inventory was developed for the Bhutan Himalayas based on satellite observations between 1987–1990 and 2006–2011. In total, 733 lakes (covering 82.6 km²) were delineated between 4000 and 6000 m a.s.l. and their relationships to associated glaciers were documented. Using this new inventory, the scale and potential for glacial lake outburst flooding (GLOF) based on multiple criteria was examined. This included a history of connectivity characteristics of glacial lakes to mother glaciers, potential flood volumes, and debris-cover of mother glaciers in addition to the conventional criteria of expansion rate and lake size. The majority of the lakes with high expansion rates (more than double in size) and large areas (>0.1 km²) met the conditions of being continuously in contact with a mother debris-covered glacier for nearly 20 years. Based on these multiple criteria, two lakes were identified as having potential for large-scale GLOF. Potentially dangerous glacial lakes listed in the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) study were re-visited, and some overlaps with the glacier–glacial lake inventory were found. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cryosphere)

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12303 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Glaciers, Permafrost and Lake Levels at the Tsengel Khairkhan Massif, Mongolian Altai, During the Late Pleistocene and Holocene

by Michael Walther, Avirmed Dashtseren, Ulrich Kamp, Khurelbaatar Temujin, Franz Meixner, Caleb G. Pan and Yadamsuren Gansukh

Geosciences 2017, 7(3), 73; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences7030073 - 16 Aug 2017

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 6783

Abstract

Understanding paleo—and recent environmental changes and the dynamics of individual drivers of water availability is essential for water resources management in the Mongolian Altai. Here, we follow a holistic approach to uncover changes in glaciers, permafrost, lake levels and climate at the Tsengel Khairkhan massif. Our general approach to describe glacier and lake level changes is to combine traditional geomorphological field mapping with bathymetric measurements, satellite imagery interpretation, and GIS analyses. We also analysed climate data from two nearby stations, and measured permafrost temperature conditions at five boreholes located at different elevations. We identified four glacial moraine systems (M4-M1) and attribute them to the period from the penultimate glaciation (MIS 4/5) until the Little Ice Age (MIS 1). During the Local Last Glacial Maximum (LLGM; MIS 2), a glacier reached down into the western Kharganat Valley and blocked it, resulting in the formation of the endorheic Khar Lake basin. Subsequently, the lake was fed mainly by precipitation and permafrost meltwater. In recent years, glaciers have been in strong recession, yet Khar Lake levels have remained relatively stable, which is in contrast to mainly decreasing lake levels in other regions throughout Mongolia. While temperatures in the Altai are increasing (leading to increasing evaporation), precipitation in higher elevations has increased, which—in addition to increased glacier and permafrost melting—would counteract the increasing aridity effects. A systematic and holistic monitoring of glaciers, permafrost, lake levels and climate in the Mongolian Altai is necessary, and results from (sub-)disciplines need to be correlated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cryosphere)

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10729 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Late Holocene Glacier Dynamics in the Miyar Basin, Lahaul Himalaya, India

by Sanjay Deswal, Milap Chand Sharma, Rakesh Saini, Pritam Chand, Navin Juyal, Ishwar Singh, Pradeep Srivastava, Ajai and I.M. Bahuguna

Geosciences 2017, 7(3), 64; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences7030064 - 04 Aug 2017

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 8625

Abstract

Detailed field mapping of glacial and paraglacial landforms and optical dating from these landforms are used to reconstruct the early Holocene glaciation in the semi-arid region of Miyar basin, Lahaul Himalaya. The study identifies three stages of glaciation, of decreasing magnitude and termed, from oldest to youngest, the Miyar stage (MR-I), Khanjar stage (KH-II), and Menthosa advance (M-III). The oldest glacial stage (MR-I) has been established on the basis of detailed geomorphological evidence such as U-shaped valley morphology, trimlines, and truncated spurs. It is speculated to be older than the global Last Glacial Maximum (gLGM) based on the magnitude of ΔELA (Equilibrium-Line Altitude, 606m). No evidence of glacier expansion recorded from the basin correlates with the period of the gLGM. The second stage (KH-II) is well represented by extensive depositional features such as lateral and terminal moraines, drumlins, and lacustrine fills that have been constrained within 10 ± 1 to 6.6 ± 1.0 ka (Optically stimulated luminescence—OSL—ages), dating it to the early Holocene advance following the Younger Dryas cooling event. Exceptionally young glacial records of expansion are limited within a few hundred meters of the present termini of tributary glaciers and correlates with the 18th-century cooling event. Records of this glacial advance, termed the Menthosa advance, are clearly noticed in some tributary valleys. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cryosphere)

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22163 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Surface State across Scales; Temporal and Spatial Patterns in Land Surface Freeze/Thaw Dynamics

by Helena Bergstedt and Annett Bartsch

Geosciences 2017, 7(3), 65; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences7030065 - 03 Aug 2017

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4812

Abstract

Freezing and thawing of the land surface affects ecosystem and hydrological processes, the geotechnical properties of soil and slope stability. Currently, available datasets on land surface state lack either sufficient temporal or spatial resolution to adequately characterize the complexity of freeze/thaw transition period dynamics. Surface state changes can be detected using microwave remote sensing methods. Data available from scatterometer and Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) sensors have been used in the past in regional- to continental-scale approaches to monitor freeze/thaw transitions. This study aims to identify temporal and spatial patterns in freeze/thaw dynamics associated with the issue of differing temporal and spatial resolutions. For this purpose, two datasets representing the timing of freeze/thaw cycles at different resolutions and spatial extents were chosen. The used Advanced SCATterometer (ASCAT) Surface State Product offers daily circumpolar information from 2007–2013 for a 12.5-km grid. The SAR freeze/thaw product offers information of day of thawing and freezing for the years 2005–2010 with a nominal resolution of 500 m and a temporal resolution of up to twice per week. In order to assess the importance of scale when describing temporal and spatial patterns of freeze/thaw processes, the two datasets were compared for spring and autumn periods for the maximum number of overlapping years 2007–2010. The analysis revealed non-linear landscape specific relationships between the two scales, as well as distinct differences between the results for thawing and re-freezing periods. The results suggest that the integration of globally available high temporal resolution scatterometer data and higher spatial resolution SAR data could be a promising step towards monitoring surface state changes on a seasonal, as well as daily and circumpolar, as well as local scale. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cryosphere)

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14085 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Glacier Snowline Determination from Terrestrial Laser Scanning Intensity Data

by Hannah Prantl, Lindsey Nicholson, Rudolf Sailer, Florian Hanzer, Irmgard F. Juen and Philipp Rastner

Geosciences 2017, 7(3), 60; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences7030060 - 17 Jul 2017

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 6559

Abstract

Accurately identifying the extent of surface snow cover on glaciers is important for extrapolating end of year mass balance measurements, constraining the glacier surface radiative energy balance and evaluating model simulations of snow cover. Here, we use auxiliary information from Riegl VZ-6000 Terrestrial Laser Scanner (TLS) return signals to accurately map the snow cover over a glacier throughout an ablation season. Three classification systems were compared, and we find that supervised classification based on TLS signal intensity alone is outperformed by a rule-based classification employing intensity, surface roughness and an associated optical image, which achieves classification accuracy of 68–100%. The TLS intensity signal shows no meaningful relationship with surface or bulk snow density. Finally, we have also compared our Snow Line Altitude (SLA) derived from TLS with SLA derived from the model output, as well as one Landsat image. The results of the model output track the SLA from TLS well, however with a positive bias. In contrast, automatic Landsat-derived SLA slightly underestimates the SLA from TLS. To conclude, we demonstrate that the snow cover extent can be mapped successfully using TLS, although the snow mass remains elusive. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cryosphere)

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1191 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Strategies for the Simulation of Sea Ice Organic Chemistry: Arctic Tests and Development

by Scott Elliott, Nicole Jeffery, Elizabeth Hunke, Clara Deal, Meibing Jin, Shanlin Wang, Emma Elliott Smith and Samantha Oestreicher

Geosciences 2017, 7(3), 52; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences7030052 - 14 Jul 2017

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4663

Abstract

A numerical mechanism connecting ice algal ecodynamics with the buildup of organic macromolecules is tested within modeled pan-Arctic brine channels. The simulations take place offline in a reduced representation of sea ice geochemistry. Physical driver quantities derive from the global sea ice code CICE, including snow cover, thickness and internal temperature. The framework is averaged over ten boreal biogeographic zones. Computed nutrient-light-salt limited algal growth supports grazing, mortality and carbon flow. Vertical transport is diffusive but responds to pore structure. Simulated bottom layer chlorophyll maxima are reasonable, though delayed by about a month relative to observations due to uncertainties in snow variability. Upper level biota arise intermittently during flooding events. Macromolecular concentrations are tracked as proxy proteins, polysaccharides, lipids and refractory humics. The fresh biopolymers undergo succession and removal by bacteria. Baseline organics enter solely through cell disruption, thus the internal carbon content is initially biased low. By including exudation, agreement with dissolved organic or individual biopolymer data is achieved given strong release coupled to light intensity. Detrital carbon then reaches hundreds of micromolar, sufficient to support structural changes to the ice matrix. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cryosphere)

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7785 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Automated Webcam Monitoring of Fractional Snow Cover in Northern Boreal Conditions

by Ali Nadir Arslan, Cemal Melih Tanis, Sari Metsämäki, Mika Aurela, Kristin Böttcher, Maiju Linkosalmi and Mikko Peltoniemi

Geosciences 2017, 7(3), 55; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences7030055 - 09 Jul 2017

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 9108

Abstract

Fractional snow cover (FSC) is an important parameter to estimate snow water equivalent (SWE) and surface albedo important to climatic and hydrological applications. The presence of forest creates challenges to retrieve FSC accurately from satellite data, as forest canopy can block the sensor’s view of snow cover. In addition to the challenge related to presence of forest, in situ data of FSC—necessary for algorithm development and validation—are very limited. This paper investigates the estimation of FSC using digital imagery to overcome the obstacle caused by forest canopy, and the possibility to use this imagery in the validation of FSC derived from satellite data. FSC is calculated here using an algorithm based on defining a threshold value according to the histogram of an image, to classify a pixel as snow-covered or snow-free. Images from the MONIMET camera network, producing a continuous image series in Finland, are used in the analysis of FSC. The results obtained from automated image analysis of snow cover are compared with reference data estimated by visual inspection of same images. The results show the applicability and usefulness of digital imagery in the estimation of fractional snow cover in forested areas, with a Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE) in the range of 0.1–0.3 (with the full range of 0–1). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cryosphere)

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19235 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Laser Ultrasound Observations of Mechanical Property Variations in Ice Cores

by Thomas Dylan Mikesell, Kasper Van Wijk, Larry Thomas Otheim, Hans-Peter Marshall and Andrei Kurbatov

Geosciences 2017, 7(3), 47; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences7030047 - 24 Jun 2017

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6086

Abstract

The study of climate records in ice cores requires an accurate determination of annual layering within the cores in order to establish a depth-age relationship. Existing tools to delineate these annual layers are based on observations of changes in optical, chemical, and electromagnetic properties. In practice, no single technique captures every layer in all circumstances. Therefore, the best estimates of annual layering are produced by analyzing a combination of measurable ice properties. We present a novel and complimentary elastic wave remote sensing method based on laser ultrasonics. This method is used to measure variations in ultrasonic wave arrival times and velocity along the core with millimeter resolution. The laser ultrasound system does not require contact with the ice core and is non-destructive. Custom optical windows allow the source and receiver lasers to be located outside the cold room, while the core is scanned by moving it with a computer-controlled stage. We present results from Antarctic firn and ice cores that lack visual evidence of a layered structure, but do show travel-time and velocity variations. In the future, these new data may be used to infer stratigraphic layers from elastic parameter variations within an ice core, as well as analyze ice crystal fabrics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cryosphere)

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2818 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Developing a Cloud-Reduced MODIS Surface Reflectance Product for Snow Cover Mapping in Mountainous Regions

by Amin Khoramian and Alireza B. Dariane

Geosciences 2017, 7(2), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences7020029 - 17 Apr 2017

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3989

Abstract

Cloud obscuration is a major problem for using Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) images in different applications. This issue poses serious difficulties in monitoring the snow cover in mountainous regions due to high cloudiness in such areas. To overcome this, different cloud removal methods have been developed in the past where most of them use MODIS snow cover products and spatiotemporal dependencies of snow to estimate the undercloud coverage. In this study, a new approach is adopted that uses surface reflectance data in the cloud-free pixels and estimates the surface reflectance of a cloudy pixel as if there were no cloud. This estimation is obtained by subsequently applying the k-nearest neighbor and dynamic time compositing methods. The modified surface reflectance data are then utilized as inputs of a Normalized Difference Snow Index (NDSI)-based algorithm to map snow cover in the study area. The results indicate that the suggested approach is able to appropriately estimate undercloud surface reflectance in bands 2, 4 and 6, and can map the snow cover with 97% accuracy, which is a substantial improvement over the conventional method with an accuracy of 86%. Finally, although a clear underestimation of snow cover (about 15%) is observed by applying the proposed approach, still, it is much better than the 30% underestimation obtained by the conventional method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cryosphere)

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6418 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Changes of High Altitude Glaciers in the Trans-Himalaya of Ladakh over the Past Five Decades (1969–2016)

by Susanne Schmidt and Marcus Nüsser

Geosciences 2017, 7(2), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences7020027 - 14 Apr 2017

Cited by 79 | Viewed by 11072

Abstract

Climatic differences between monsoonal and cold-arid parts of the South Asian mountain arc account for the uncertainty regarding regional variations in glacier retreat. In this context, the upper Indus Basin of Ladakh, sandwiched between the Himalayan and Karakoram ranges, is of particular interest. The aims of the present study are threefold: to map the glaciers of central and eastern Ladakh, to describe their regional distribution and characteristics in relation to size and topography, and to analyze glacier changes in the selected ranges over the past five decades. The study is based on multi-temporal remote sensing data (Corona and Landsat), supported and validated by several field campaigns carried out between 2007 and 2016. A glacier inventory was carried out for the complete study area, which was subdivided into nine sub-regions for comparison. In general, the glaciers of Ladakh are characterized by their high altitude, as 91% terminate above 5200 m, and by their relatively small size, as 79% of them are smaller than 0.75 km² and only 4% are larger than 2 km². The glaciated area of central Ladakh totaled 997 km² with more than 1800 glaciers in 2002. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cryosphere)

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3396 KiB

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The Influence of Cryogenic Mass Exchange on the Composition and Stabilization Rate of Soil Organic Matter in Cryosols of the Kolyma Lowland (North Yakutia, Russia)

by Alexey Lupachev, Evgeny Abakumov and Stanislav Gubin

Geosciences 2017, 7(2), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences7020024 - 11 Apr 2017

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4902

Abstract

Soil organic matter (SOM) was studied in different types of organo-mineral material (from surface horizons and partially isolated materials—cryoturbated or buried horizons) sampled from the surface horizons, the central parts of the Cryosol profiles, and the lower active layer. We found that the humic acids (HAs) of the cryoturbated and buried horizons showed an increased degree of oxidation and an increment of alkylaromatic and protonized aromatic fraction content. In contrast, the HAs of the surface horizons showed increased values of alkylic carbon components. The content of free radicals was essentially higher in the surface layers than in the cryoturbated and buried layers. While the bulk soil organic matter composition (total organic carbon, total nitrogen, and aromatic/aliphatic values) was not essentially different between surface, cryoturbated, and buried horizons, there were essential differences in elemental composition, carbon species, and free radical content. This indicates that the degree of humification in cryoturbated and buried organo-mineral material is higher than in surface horizons and that partial isolation results in relative stabilization of such material in soil profiles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cryosphere)

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