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Focus on Exosome-Based Cell-Cell Communication in Health and Disease

A special issue of International Journal of Molecular Sciences (ISSN 1422-0067). This special issue belongs to the section "Biochemistry".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2019) | Viewed by 132343

Special Issue Editors

Department of Biomedicine, Neuroscience and Advanced Diagnostics (Bi.N.D), Section of Biology and Genetics, University of Palermo, 90133 Palermo, Italy
Interests: cancer biology; exosomes; cancer cells; cell migration; cell adhesion; endothelial cells; cell biology; angiogenesis; signal transduction; cancer research; metastasis; tumor invasion
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Department of Pathology, College of Medicine, Roseman University of Health Sciences, Las Vegas, NV, USA
Interests: cancer biology; exosomes; cancer cells; cell migration; cell adhesion; cell biology; Prominin-1; signal transduction; cancer research; metastasis; tumor invasion
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Over the last few years, a new and sophisticated mechanism of cell–cell communication, based on exosomes, has been described.

Exosomes are specialized vesicles of endosomal origin, released in the extracellular space by most cell types under physiological and pathological conditions. It has been widely described that these vesicles contain mRNAs, microRNAs, long non-coding RNAs, lipids, and proteins and that they can deliver these molecules among different cell types, thus affecting the phenotype of target cells.

Several studies have highlighted the role of exosomes in modulating cancer development and metastatic niche formation as well as in contributing to neurological, cardiological and rheumatological diseases. Due to their specific cell tropism, a peculiar property of these vesicles is the possibility of being engineered in order to modify their content, through the introduction of siRNAs, shRNAs, proteins, and drugs.

This Special Issue will discuss the recent advances in the field of exosomes as messengers of intercellular communication in both physiological and pathological conditions, pointing out the potential use of these nanovesicles for the delivery of therapeutic agents.

Prof. Dr. Riccardo Alessandro
Dr. Aurelio Lorico
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Keywords

  • exosomes
  • extracellular vesicles
  • cell-cell signalling
  • cancer
  • biomarkers
  • metastatic niche
  • cardiovascular diseases
  • neurological diseases

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Published Papers (21 papers)

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Research

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15 pages, 3253 KiB  
Article
WNT3a and WNT5a Transported by Exosomes Activate WNT Signaling Pathways in Human Cardiac Fibroblasts
by Edyta Działo, Michał Rudnik, Roman I. Koning, Marcin Czepiel, Karolina Tkacz, Monika Baj-Krzyworzeka, Oliver Distler, Maciej Siedlar, Gabriela Kania and Przemysław Błyszczuk
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20(6), 1436; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20061436 - 21 Mar 2019
Cited by 53 | Viewed by 5751
Abstract
WNT signaling plays an important role in fibrotic processes in the heart. Recently, exosomes have been proposed as novel extracellular transporters for WNT proteins. In this study, we analyzed whether WNT3a and WNT5a carried by exosomes could activate downstream molecular pathways in human [...] Read more.
WNT signaling plays an important role in fibrotic processes in the heart. Recently, exosomes have been proposed as novel extracellular transporters for WNT proteins. In this study, we analyzed whether WNT3a and WNT5a carried by exosomes could activate downstream molecular pathways in human cardiac fibroblasts. Exosomes were isolated from conditioned medium of control, WNT3a- and WNT5a-producing L cells by differential ultracentrifugations. Obtained exosomes showed size ranging between 20–150 nm and expressed exosomal markers ALG-2-interacting protein X (ALIX) and CD63. Treatment with WNT3a-rich exosomes inhibited activity of glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β), induced nuclear translocation of β-catenin, and activated T-cell factor (TCF)/lymphoid enhancer factor (LEF) transcription factors as well as expression of WNT/β-catenin responsive genes in cardiac fibroblasts, but did not coactivate extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), and activator protein 1 (AP-1) signaling pathways. In contrast, exosomes produced by WNT5a-producing L cells failed to activate β-catenin-dependent response, but successfully triggered phosphorylation of ERK1/2 and JNK and stimulated IL-6 production. In conclusion, exosomes containing WNT proteins can functionally contribute to cardiac fibrosis by activating profibrotic WNT pathways on cardiac fibroblasts and may represent a novel mechanism of spreading profibrotic signals in the heart. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Focus on Exosome-Based Cell-Cell Communication in Health and Disease)
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18 pages, 4215 KiB  
Article
Human Heart Explant-Derived Extracellular Vesicles: Characterization and Effects on the In Vitro Recellularization of Decellularized Heart Valves
by Amanda Leitolis, Paula Hansen Suss, João Gabriel Roderjan, Addeli Bez Batti Angulski, Francisco Diniz Affonso da Costa, Marco Augusto Stimamiglio and Alejandro Correa
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20(6), 1279; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20061279 - 14 Mar 2019
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4737
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are particles released from different cell types and represent key components of paracrine secretion. Accumulating evidence supports the beneficial effects of EVs for tissue regeneration. In this study, discarded human heart tissues were used to isolate human heart-derived extracellular vesicles [...] Read more.
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are particles released from different cell types and represent key components of paracrine secretion. Accumulating evidence supports the beneficial effects of EVs for tissue regeneration. In this study, discarded human heart tissues were used to isolate human heart-derived extracellular vesicles (hH-EVs). We used nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to physically characterize hH-EVs and mass spectrometry (MS) to profile the protein content in these particles. The MS analysis identified a total of 1248 proteins. Gene ontology (GO) enrichment analysis in hH-EVs revealed the proteins involved in processes, such as the regulation of cell death and response to wounding. The potential of hH-EVs to induce proliferation, adhesion, angiogenesis and wound healing was investigated in vitro. Our findings demonstrate that hH-EVs have the potential to induce proliferation and angiogenesis in endothelial cells, improve wound healing and reduce mesenchymal stem-cell adhesion. Last, we showed that hH-EVs were able to significantly promote mesenchymal stem-cell recellularization of decellularized porcine heart valve leaflets. Altogether our data confirmed that hH-EVs modulate cellular processes, shedding light on the potential of these particles for tissue regeneration and for scaffold recellularization. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Focus on Exosome-Based Cell-Cell Communication in Health and Disease)
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14 pages, 4126 KiB  
Article
Detection of Inflammation-Related Melanoma Small Extracellular Vesicle (sEV) mRNA Content Using Primary Melanocyte sEVs as a Reference
by Gina T. Bardi, Numan Al-Rayan, Jamaal L. Richie, Kavitha Yaddanapudi and Joshua L. Hood
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20(5), 1235; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20051235 - 12 Mar 2019
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4098
Abstract
Melanoma-derived small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) participate in tumor pathogenesis. Tumor pathogenesis is highly dependent on inflammatory processes. Given the potential for melanoma sEVs to carry tumor biomarkers, we explored the hypothesis that they may contain inflammation-related mRNA content. Biophysical characterization showed that human [...] Read more.
Melanoma-derived small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) participate in tumor pathogenesis. Tumor pathogenesis is highly dependent on inflammatory processes. Given the potential for melanoma sEVs to carry tumor biomarkers, we explored the hypothesis that they may contain inflammation-related mRNA content. Biophysical characterization showed that human primary melanocyte-derived sEVs trended toward being smaller and having less negative (more neutral) zeta potential than human melanoma sEVs (A-375, SKMEL-28, and C-32). Using primary melanocyte sEVs as the control population, RT-qPCR array results demonstrated similarities and differences in gene expression between melanoma sEV types. Upregulation of pro-angiogenic chemokine ligand CXCL1, CXCL2, and CXCL8 mRNAs in A-375 and SKMEL-28 melanoma sEVs was the most consistent finding. This paralleled increased production of CXCL1, CXCL2, and CXCL8 proteins by A-375 and SKMEL-28 sEV source cells. Overall, the use of primary melanocyte sEVs as a control sEV reference population facilitated the detection of inflammation-related melanoma sEV mRNA content. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Focus on Exosome-Based Cell-Cell Communication in Health and Disease)
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22 pages, 14751 KiB  
Article
Isolation and Characterization of Functionally Active Extracellular Vesicles from Culture Medium Conditioned by Bovine Embryos In Vitro
by Krishna Chaitanya Pavani, An Hendrix, Wim Van Den Broeck, Liesbeth Couck, Katarzyna Szymanska, Xiaoyuan Lin, Jenne De Koster, Ann Van Soom and Bart Leemans
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20(1), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20010038 - 21 Dec 2018
Cited by 45 | Viewed by 7880
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) play a possible role in cell–cell communication and are found in various body fluids and cell conditioned culture media. The aim of this study was to isolate and characterize EVs in culture medium conditioned by bovine embryos in group and [...] Read more.
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) play a possible role in cell–cell communication and are found in various body fluids and cell conditioned culture media. The aim of this study was to isolate and characterize EVs in culture medium conditioned by bovine embryos in group and to verify if these EVs are functionally active. Initially, ultracentrifuged bovine serum albumin (BSA) containing medium was selected as suitable EV-free embryo culture medium. Next, EVs were isolated from embryo conditioned culture medium by OptiPrepTM density gradient ultracentrifugation. Isolated EVs were characterized by nanoparticle tracking analysis, western blotting, transmission, and immunoelectron microscopy. Bovine embryo-derived EVs were sizing between 25–230 nm with an average concentration of 236.5 ± 1.27 × 108 particles/mL. Moreover, PKH67 EV pre-labeling showed that embryo-secreted EVs were uptaken by zona-intact bovine embryos. Since BSA did not appear to be a contaminating EV source in culture medium, EV functionality was tested in BSA containing medium. Individual embryo culture in BSA medium enriched with EVs derived from conditioned embryo culture medium showed significantly higher blastocyst rates at day 7 and 8 together with a significantly lower apoptotic cell ratio. In conclusion, our study shows that EVs play an important role in inter embryo communication during bovine embryo culture in group. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Focus on Exosome-Based Cell-Cell Communication in Health and Disease)
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15 pages, 439 KiB  
Article
Searching for the Novel Specific Predictors of Prostate Cancer in Urine: The Analysis of 84 miRNA Expression
by Evgeniy A. Lekchnov, Evgeniya V. Amelina, Olga E. Bryzgunova, Ivan A. Zaporozhchenko, Mariya Yu. Konoshenko, Sergey V. Yarmoschuk, Ivan S. Murashov, Oxana A. Pashkovskaya, Anton M. Gorizkii, Aleksandr A. Zheravin and Pavel P. Laktionov
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19(12), 4088; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19124088 - 17 Dec 2018
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 3764
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate miRNA profiles of clarified urine supernatant and combined urine vesicle fractions of healthy donors and patients with benign prostatic hyperplasia and prostate cancer (PCa). The comparative analysis of miRNA expression was conducted with a custom [...] Read more.
The aim of this study was to investigate miRNA profiles of clarified urine supernatant and combined urine vesicle fractions of healthy donors and patients with benign prostatic hyperplasia and prostate cancer (PCa). The comparative analysis of miRNA expression was conducted with a custom miRCURY LNA miRNA qPCR panel. Significant combinations of miRNA pairs were selected by the RandomForest-based feature selection algorithm Boruta; the difference of the medians between the groups and a 95% confidence interval was built using the bootstrap approach. The Asymptotic Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney Test was performed for miRNA combinations to compare different groups of donors. Benjamini-Hochberg correction was used to adjust the statistical significance for multiple comparisons. The most diagnostically significant miRNAs pairs were miR-107-miR-26b.5p and miR-375.3p-miR-26b.5p in the urine supernatant fraction that discriminated the group of healthy patients and PCa patients, as well as miR-31.5p-miR-16.5p, miR-31.5p-miR-200b, miR-31.5p-miR-30e.3p and miR-31.5p-miR-660.5p in the fraction extracellular vesicles that were different between healthy men and benign prostate hyperplasia patients. Such statistical criteria as the occurrence of individual significant miRNA pairs in the total number of comparisons, median ΔCt difference, and confidence interval can be useful tools for determining reliable markers of PCa. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Focus on Exosome-Based Cell-Cell Communication in Health and Disease)
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15 pages, 4759 KiB  
Article
Lipopolysaccharide-Preconditioned Periodontal Ligament Stem Cells Induce M1 Polarization of Macrophages through Extracellular Vesicles
by Hyejong Kang, Myung-Ju Lee, Sang June Park and Myung-Shin Lee
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19(12), 3843; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19123843 - 03 Dec 2018
Cited by 43 | Viewed by 5636
Abstract
Periodontitis is a common disease characterized by chronic inflammation and tissue destruction of gums. Human periodontal ligament stem cells (PDLSCs), derived from the periodontium, have stem cell properties similar to those of mesenchymal stem cells. PDLSCs possess not only the potential to differentiate [...] Read more.
Periodontitis is a common disease characterized by chronic inflammation and tissue destruction of gums. Human periodontal ligament stem cells (PDLSCs), derived from the periodontium, have stem cell properties similar to those of mesenchymal stem cells. PDLSCs possess not only the potential to differentiate into other tissues, but also immunomodulatory abilities. Macrophages play a critical role in periodontal disease, but little is known regarding the role of PDLSCs in macrophage modulation during inflammation. In this study, we investigated the effect of PDLSCs on the macrophage cell line. While the conditioned media from PDLSCs under normal culture conditions did not affect macrophage polarization, the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-preconditioned PDLSCs induced significant changes in M1 polarization. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) isolated from the conditioned media of LPS-preconditioned PDLSCs induced strong M1 polarization of macrophages. Additionally, the M1 polarization was abolished by DNase I treatment of EVs. Therefore, the LPS-stimulated PDLSCs induce M1 polarization of macrophages through EVs, suggesting that the EVs from PDLSCs might be a potential therapeutic target for inflammation in the periodontium. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Focus on Exosome-Based Cell-Cell Communication in Health and Disease)
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11 pages, 2256 KiB  
Communication
Fetal Bovine Serum-Derived Extracellular Vesicles Persist within Vesicle-Depleted Culture Media
by Brandon M. Lehrich, Yaxuan Liang, Pooya Khosravi, Howard J. Federoff and Massimo S. Fiandaca
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19(11), 3538; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19113538 - 09 Nov 2018
Cited by 68 | Viewed by 8323
Abstract
It is known that culture media (CM) promotes cellular growth, adhesion, and protects explanted primary brain cells from in vitro stresses. The fetal bovine serum (FBS) supplement used in most CM, however, contains significant quantities of extracellular vesicles (EVs) that confound quantitative and [...] Read more.
It is known that culture media (CM) promotes cellular growth, adhesion, and protects explanted primary brain cells from in vitro stresses. The fetal bovine serum (FBS) supplement used in most CM, however, contains significant quantities of extracellular vesicles (EVs) that confound quantitative and qualitative analyses from the EVs produced by the cultured cells. We quantitatively tested the ability of common FBS EV-depletion protocols to remove exogenous EVs from FBS-supplemented CM and evaluated the influence such methods have on primary astrocyte culture growth and viability. We assessed two methodologies utilized for FBS EV removal prior to adding to CM: (1) an 18-h ultracentrifugation (UC); and (2) a commercial EV-depleted FBS (Exo-FBS™). Our analysis demonstrated that Exo-FBS™ CM provided the largest depletion (75%) of total FBS EVs, while still providing 6.92 × 109 ± 1.39 × 108 EVs/mL. In addition, both UC and Exo-FBS™ CM resulted in poor primary astrocyte cell growth and viability in culture. The two common FBS EV-depletion methods investigated, therefore, not only contaminate in vitro primary cell-derived EV analyses, but also provide a suboptimal environment for primary astrocyte cell growth and viability. It appears likely that future CM optimization, using a serum-free alternative, might be required to advance analyses of cell-specific EVs isolated in vitro. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Focus on Exosome-Based Cell-Cell Communication in Health and Disease)
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16 pages, 1605 KiB  
Article
Antibody Light Chains Dictate the Specificity of Contact Hypersensitivity Effector Cell Suppression Mediated by Exosomes
by Katarzyna Nazimek, Philip W. Askenase and Krzysztof Bryniarski
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19(9), 2656; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19092656 - 07 Sep 2018
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3543
Abstract
Antibody light chains (LCs), formerly considered a waste product of immunoglobulin synthesis, are currently recognized as important players in the activation of the immune response. However, very little is known about the possible immune regulatory functions of LCs. Recently, we reported that hapten-specific [...] Read more.
Antibody light chains (LCs), formerly considered a waste product of immunoglobulin synthesis, are currently recognized as important players in the activation of the immune response. However, very little is known about the possible immune regulatory functions of LCs. Recently, we reported that hapten-specific LCs coat miRNA-150-carrying exosomes produced by CD8+ suppressor T cells downregulating the contact hypersensitivity (CHS) reaction in an antigen-specific manner, in mice tolerized by intravenous administration of a high dose of hapten-coupled syngeneic erythrocytes. Thus, the current studies aimed at investigating the role of hapten-specific LCs in antigen-specific, exosome-mediated suppression of CHS effector cells. Suppressor T cell-derived exosomes from tolerized B-cell-deficient µMT−/−, NKT-cell-deficient Jα18−/−, and immunoglobulin-deficient JH−/− mice were nonsuppressive, unless supplemented with LCs of specificity strictly respective to the hapten used for sensitization and CHS elicitation in mice. Thus, these observations demonstrate that B1-cell-derived LCs, coating exosomes in vivo and in vitro, actually ensure the specificity of CHS suppression. Our research findings substantially expand current understanding of the newly discovered, suppressor T cell-dependent tolerance mechanism by uncovering the function of antigen-specific LCs in exosome-mediated, cell–cell communication. This express great translational potential in designing nanocarriers for specific targeting of desired cells. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Focus on Exosome-Based Cell-Cell Communication in Health and Disease)
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12 pages, 1575 KiB  
Article
The First Dose of Fingolimod Affects Circulating Extracellular Vesicles in Multiple Sclerosis Patients
by Matías Sáenz-Cuesta, Ainhoa Alberro, Maider Muñoz-Culla, Iñaki Osorio-Querejeta, Marta Fernandez-Mercado, Itziar Lopetegui, Mikel Tainta, Álvaro Prada, Tamara Castillo-Triviño, Juan Manuel Falcón-Pérez, Javier Olascoaga and David Otaegui
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19(8), 2448; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19082448 - 19 Aug 2018
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 8336
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membrane-bound particles involved in intercellular communication. They carry proteins, lipids, and nucleotides such as microRNAs (miRNAs) from the secreting cell that can modulate target cells. We and others have previously described the presence of EVs in peripheral blood of [...] Read more.
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membrane-bound particles involved in intercellular communication. They carry proteins, lipids, and nucleotides such as microRNAs (miRNAs) from the secreting cell that can modulate target cells. We and others have previously described the presence of EVs in peripheral blood of multiple sclerosis (MS) patients and postulated them as novel biomarkers. However, their immune function in MS pathogenesis and the effect during the onset of new immunomodulatory therapies on EVs remain elusive. Here, we isolated plasma EVs from fingolimod-treated MS patients in order to assess whether EVs are affected by the first dose of the treatment. We quantified EVs, analyzed their miRNA cargo, and checked their immune regulatory function. Results showed an elevated EV concentration with a dramatic change in their miRNA cargo 5 h after the first dose of fingolimod. Besides, EVs obtained prior to fingolimod treatment showed an increased immune regulatory activity compared to EVs obtained 5 h post-treatment. This work suggests that EVs are implicated in the mechanism of action of immunomodulatory treatments from the initial hours and opens a new avenue to explore a potential use of EVs for early treatment monitoring. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Focus on Exosome-Based Cell-Cell Communication in Health and Disease)
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Review

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16 pages, 1221 KiB  
Review
Signal Exchange through Extracellular Vesicles in Neuromuscular Junction Establishment and Maintenance: From Physiology to Pathology
by Serena Maggio, Paola Ceccaroli, Emanuela Polidori, Andrea Cioccoloni, Vilberto Stocchi and Michele Guescini
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20(11), 2804; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20112804 - 08 Jun 2019
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 7060
Abstract
Neuromuscular junction (NMJ) formation involves morphological changes both in motor terminals and muscle membrane. The molecular mechanisms leading to NMJ formation and maintenance have not yet been fully elucidated. During the last decade, it has become clear that virtually all cells release different [...] Read more.
Neuromuscular junction (NMJ) formation involves morphological changes both in motor terminals and muscle membrane. The molecular mechanisms leading to NMJ formation and maintenance have not yet been fully elucidated. During the last decade, it has become clear that virtually all cells release different types of extracellular vesicles (EVs), which can be taken up by nearby or distant cells modulating their activity. Initially, EVs were associated to a mechanism involved in the elimination of unwanted material; subsequent evidence demonstrated that exosomes, and more in general EVs, play a key role in intercellular communication by transferring proteins, lipids, DNA and RNA to target cells. Recently, EVs have emerged as potent carriers for Wnt, bone morphogenetic protein, miRNA secretion and extracellular traveling. Convincing evidence demonstrates that presynaptic terminals release exosomes that are taken up by muscle cells, and these exosomes can modulate synaptic plasticity in the recipient muscle cell in vivo. Furthermore, recent data highlighted that EVs could also be a potential cause of neurodegenerative disorders. Indeed, mutant SOD1, TDP-43 and FUS/TLS can be secreted by neural cells packaged into EVs and enter in neighboring neural cells, contributing to the onset and severity of the disease. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Focus on Exosome-Based Cell-Cell Communication in Health and Disease)
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15 pages, 1032 KiB  
Review
The Role of Extracellular Vesicles in Cutaneous Remodeling and Hair Follicle Dynamics
by Elisa Carrasco, Gonzalo Soto-Heredero and María Mittelbrunn
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20(11), 2758; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20112758 - 05 Jun 2019
Cited by 39 | Viewed by 7691
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs), including exosomes, microvesicles, and apoptotic bodies, are cell-derived membranous structures that were originally catalogued as a way of releasing cellular waste products. Since the discovery of their function in intercellular communication as carriers of proteins, lipids, and DNA and RNA [...] Read more.
Extracellular vesicles (EVs), including exosomes, microvesicles, and apoptotic bodies, are cell-derived membranous structures that were originally catalogued as a way of releasing cellular waste products. Since the discovery of their function in intercellular communication as carriers of proteins, lipids, and DNA and RNA molecules, numerous therapeutic approaches have focused on the use of EVs, in part because of their minimized risk compared to cell-based therapies. The skin is the organ with the largest surface in the body. Besides the importance of its body barrier function, much attention has been paid to the skin in regenerative medicine because of its cosmetic aspect, which is closely related to disorders affecting pigmentation and the presence or absence of hair follicles. The use of exosomes in therapeutic approaches for cutaneous wound healing has been reported and is briefly reviewed here. However, less attention has been paid to emerging interest in the potential capacity of EVs as modulators of hair follicle dynamics. Hair follicles are skin appendices that mainly comprise an epidermal and a mesenchymal component, with the former including a major reservoir of epithelial stem cells but also melanocytes and other cell types. Hair follicles continuously cycle, undergoing consecutive phases of resting, growing, and regression. Many biomolecules carried by EVs have been involved in the control of the hair follicle cycle and stem cell function. Thus, investigating the role of either naturally produced or therapeutically delivered EVs as signaling vehicles potentially involved in skin homeostasis and hair cycling may be an important step in the attempt to design future strategies towards the efficient treatment of several skin disorders. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Focus on Exosome-Based Cell-Cell Communication in Health and Disease)
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17 pages, 2924 KiB  
Review
Exosomes as Emerging Pro-Tumorigenic Mediators of the Senescence-Associated Secretory Phenotype
by Rekha Jakhar and Karen Crasta
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20(10), 2547; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20102547 - 24 May 2019
Cited by 49 | Viewed by 7766
Abstract
Communication between cells is quintessential for biological function and cellular homeostasis. Membrane-bound extracellular vesicles known as exosomes play pivotal roles in mediating intercellular communication in tumor microenvironments. These vesicles and exosomes carry and transfer biomolecules such as proteins, lipids and nucleic acids. Here [...] Read more.
Communication between cells is quintessential for biological function and cellular homeostasis. Membrane-bound extracellular vesicles known as exosomes play pivotal roles in mediating intercellular communication in tumor microenvironments. These vesicles and exosomes carry and transfer biomolecules such as proteins, lipids and nucleic acids. Here we focus on exosomes secreted from senescent cells. Cellular senescence can alter the microenvironment and influence neighbouring cells via the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP), which consists of factors such as cytokines, chemokines, matrix proteases and growth factors. This review focuses on exosomes as emerging SASP components that can confer pro-tumorigenic effects in pre-malignant recipient cells. This is in addition to their role in carrying SASP factors. Transfer of such exosomal components may potentially lead to cell proliferation, inflammation and chromosomal instability, and consequently cancer initiation. Senescent cells are known to gather in various tissues with age; eliminating senescent cells or blocking the detrimental effects of the SASP has been shown to alleviate multiple age-related phenotypes. Hence, we speculate that a better understanding of the role of exosomes released from senescent cells in the context of cancer biology may have implications for elucidating mechanisms by which aging promotes cancer and other age-related diseases, and how therapeutic resistance is exacerbated with age. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Focus on Exosome-Based Cell-Cell Communication in Health and Disease)
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11 pages, 1926 KiB  
Review
Extracellular Vesicles in Human Oogenesis and Implantation
by Francesca Andronico, Rosalia Battaglia, Marco Ragusa, Davide Barbagallo, Michele Purrello and Cinzia Di Pietro
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20(9), 2162; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20092162 - 01 May 2019
Cited by 43 | Viewed by 7020
Abstract
Reproduction, the ability to generate offspring, represents one of the most important biological processes, being essential for the conservation of the species. In mammals, it involves different cell types, tissues and organs, which, by several signaling molecules, coordinate the different events such as [...] Read more.
Reproduction, the ability to generate offspring, represents one of the most important biological processes, being essential for the conservation of the species. In mammals, it involves different cell types, tissues and organs, which, by several signaling molecules, coordinate the different events such as gametogenesis, fertilization and embryo development. In the last few years, the role of Extracellular Vesicles, as mediators of cell communication, has been investigated in every phase of these complex processes. Microvesicles and exosomes, identified in the fluid of ovarian follicles during egg maturation, are involved in communication between the developing oocyte and the somatic follicular cells. More recently, it has been demonstrated that, during implantation, Extracellular Vesicles could participate in the complex dialog between the embryo and maternal tissues. In this review, we will focus our attention on extracellular vesicles and their cargo in human female reproduction, mainly underlining the involvement of microRNAs in intercellular communication during the several phases of the reproductive process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Focus on Exosome-Based Cell-Cell Communication in Health and Disease)
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18 pages, 742 KiB  
Review
Extracellular Vesicles as Biological Shuttles for Targeted Therapies
by Stefania Raimondo, Gianluca Giavaresi, Aurelio Lorico and Riccardo Alessandro
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20(8), 1848; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20081848 - 15 Apr 2019
Cited by 56 | Viewed by 5848
Abstract
The development of effective nanosystems for drug delivery represents a key challenge for the improvement of most current anticancer therapies. Recent progress in the understanding of structure and function of extracellular vesicles (EVs)—specialized membrane-bound nanocarriers for intercellular communication—suggests that they might also serve [...] Read more.
The development of effective nanosystems for drug delivery represents a key challenge for the improvement of most current anticancer therapies. Recent progress in the understanding of structure and function of extracellular vesicles (EVs)—specialized membrane-bound nanocarriers for intercellular communication—suggests that they might also serve as optimal delivery systems of therapeutics. In addition to carrying proteins, lipids, DNA and different forms of RNAs, EVs can be engineered to deliver specific bioactive molecules to target cells. Exploitation of their molecular composition and physical properties, together with improvement in bio-techniques to modify their content are critical issues to target them to specific cells/tissues/organs. Here, we will discuss the current developments in the field of animal and plant-derived EVs toward their potential use for delivery of therapeutic agents in different pathological conditions, with a special focus on cancer. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Focus on Exosome-Based Cell-Cell Communication in Health and Disease)
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22 pages, 977 KiB  
Review
Navigating the Landscape of Tumor Extracellular Vesicle Heterogeneity
by Sabrina Roy, Hsing-Ying Lin, Chung-Yu Chou, Chen-Han Huang, Julia Small, Noah Sadik, Caroline M. Ayinon, Elizabeth Lansbury, Lilian Cruz, Anudeep Yekula, Pamela S. Jones, Leonora Balaj and Bob S. Carter
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20(6), 1349; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20061349 - 18 Mar 2019
Cited by 30 | Viewed by 5131
Abstract
The last decade has seen a rapid expansion of interest in extracellular vesicles (EVs) released by cells and proposed to mediate intercellular communication in physiological and pathological conditions. Considering that the genetic content of EVs reflects that of their respective parent cell, many [...] Read more.
The last decade has seen a rapid expansion of interest in extracellular vesicles (EVs) released by cells and proposed to mediate intercellular communication in physiological and pathological conditions. Considering that the genetic content of EVs reflects that of their respective parent cell, many researchers have proposed EVs as a source of biomarkers in various diseases. So far, the question of heterogeneity in given EV samples is rarely addressed at the experimental level. Because of their relatively small size, EVs are difficult to reliably isolate and detect within a given sample. Consequently, standardized protocols that have been optimized for accurate characterization of EVs are lacking despite recent advancements in the field. Continuous improvements in pre-analytical parameters permit more efficient assessment of EVs, however, methods to more objectively distinguish EVs from background, and to interpret multiple single-EV parameters are lacking. Here, we review EV heterogeneity according to their origin, mode of release, membrane composition, organelle and biochemical content, and other factors. In doing so, we also provide an overview of currently available and potentially applicable methods for single EV analysis. Finally, we examine the latest findings from experiments that have analyzed the issue at the single EV level and discuss potential implications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Focus on Exosome-Based Cell-Cell Communication in Health and Disease)
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13 pages, 585 KiB  
Review
Extracellular Vesicles from Thyroid Carcinoma: The New Frontier of Liquid Biopsy
by Germana Rappa, Caterina Puglisi, Mark F. Santos, Stefano Forte, Lorenzo Memeo and Aurelio Lorico
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20(5), 1114; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20051114 - 05 Mar 2019
Cited by 34 | Viewed by 5135
Abstract
The diagnostic approach to thyroid cancer is one of the most challenging issues in oncology of the endocrine system because of its high incidence (3.8% of all new cancer cases in the US) and the difficulty to distinguish benign from malignant non-functional thyroid [...] Read more.
The diagnostic approach to thyroid cancer is one of the most challenging issues in oncology of the endocrine system because of its high incidence (3.8% of all new cancer cases in the US) and the difficulty to distinguish benign from malignant non-functional thyroid nodules and establish the cervical lymph node involvement during staging. Routine diagnosis of thyroid nodules usually relies on a fine-needle aspirate biopsy, which is invasive and often inaccurate. Therefore, there is an urgent need to identify novel, accurate, and non-invasive diagnostic procedures. Liquid biopsy, as a non-invasive approach for the detection of diagnostic biomarkers for early tumor diagnosis, prognosis, and disease monitoring, may be of particular benefit in this context. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are a consistent source of tumor-derived RNA due to their prevalence in circulating bodily fluids, the well-established isolation protocols, and the fact that RNA in phospholipid bilayer-enclosed vesicles is protected from blood-borne RNases. Recent results in other types of cancer, including our recent study on plasma EVs from glioblastoma patients suggest that information derived from analysis of EVs from peripheral blood plasma can be integrated in the routine diagnostic tumor approach. In this review, we will examine the diagnostic and prognostic potential of liquid biopsy to detect tumor-derived nucleic acids in circulating EVs from patients with thyroid carcinoma. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Focus on Exosome-Based Cell-Cell Communication in Health and Disease)
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13 pages, 1137 KiB  
Review
Cancer Exosomes as Conveyors of Stress-Induced Molecules: New Players in the Modulation of NK Cell Response
by Elisabetta Vulpis, Alessandra Soriani, Cristina Cerboni, Angela Santoni and Alessandra Zingoni
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20(3), 611; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20030611 - 31 Jan 2019
Cited by 34 | Viewed by 6080
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells are innate lymphoid cells that play a pivotal role in tumor surveillance. Exosomes are nanovesicles released into the extracellular environment via the endosomal vesicle pathway and represent an important mode of intercellular communication. The ability of anticancer chemotherapy to [...] Read more.
Natural killer (NK) cells are innate lymphoid cells that play a pivotal role in tumor surveillance. Exosomes are nanovesicles released into the extracellular environment via the endosomal vesicle pathway and represent an important mode of intercellular communication. The ability of anticancer chemotherapy to enhance the immunogenic potential of malignant cells mainly relies on the establishment of the immunogenic cell death (ICD) and the release of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). Moreover, the activation of the DNA damage response (DDR) and the induction of senescence represent two crucial modalities aimed at promoting the clearance of drug-treated tumor cells by NK cells. Emerging evidence has shown that stress stimuli provoke an increased release of exosome secretion. Remarkably, tumor-derived exosomes (Tex) produced in response to stress carry distinct type of DAMPs that activate innate immune cell populations. Moreover, stress-induced ligands for the activating receptor NKG2D are transported by this class of nanovesicles. Here, we will discuss how Tex interact with NK cells and provide insight into their potential role in response to chemotherapy-induced stress stimuli. The capability of some “danger signals” carried by exosomes that indirectly affect the NK cell activity in the tumor microenvironment will be also addressed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Focus on Exosome-Based Cell-Cell Communication in Health and Disease)
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23 pages, 1913 KiB  
Review
Extracellular Vesicle-Mediated Cell–Cell Communication in the Nervous System: Focus on Neurological Diseases
by Celeste Caruso Bavisotto, Federica Scalia, Antonella Marino Gammazza, Daniela Carlisi, Fabio Bucchieri, Everly Conway de Macario, Alberto J. L. Macario, Francesco Cappello and Claudia Campanella
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20(2), 434; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20020434 - 20 Jan 2019
Cited by 103 | Viewed by 11166
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs), including exosomes, are membranous particles released by cells into the extracellular space. They are involved in cell differentiation, tissue homeostasis, and organ remodelling in virtually all tissues, including the central nervous system (CNS). They are secreted by a range of [...] Read more.
Extracellular vesicles (EVs), including exosomes, are membranous particles released by cells into the extracellular space. They are involved in cell differentiation, tissue homeostasis, and organ remodelling in virtually all tissues, including the central nervous system (CNS). They are secreted by a range of cell types and via blood reaching other cells whose functioning they can modify because they transport and deliver active molecules, such as proteins of various types and functions, lipids, DNA, and miRNAs. Since they are relatively easy to isolate, exosomes can be characterized, and their composition elucidated and manipulated by bioengineering techniques. Consequently, exosomes appear as promising theranostics elements, applicable to accurately diagnosing pathological conditions, and assessing prognosis and response to treatment in a variety of disorders. Likewise, the characteristics and manageability of exosomes make them potential candidates for delivering selected molecules, e.g., therapeutic drugs, to specific target tissues. All these possible applications are pertinent to research in neurophysiology, as well as to the study of neurological disorders, including CNS tumors, and autoimmune and neurodegenerative diseases. In this brief review, we discuss what is known about the role and potential future applications of exosomes in the nervous system and its diseases, focusing on cell–cell communication in physiology and pathology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Focus on Exosome-Based Cell-Cell Communication in Health and Disease)
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20 pages, 1264 KiB  
Review
On the Choice of the Extracellular Vesicles for Therapeutic Purposes
by Claudia Campanella, Celeste Caruso Bavisotto, Mariantonia Logozzi, Antonella Marino Gammazza, Davide Mizzoni, Francesco Cappello and Stefano Fais
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20(2), 236; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20020236 - 09 Jan 2019
Cited by 78 | Viewed by 6782
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid membrane vesicles released by all human cells and are widely recognized to be involved in many cellular processes, both in physiological and pathological conditions. They are mediators of cell-cell communication, at both paracrine and systemic levels, and therefore [...] Read more.
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid membrane vesicles released by all human cells and are widely recognized to be involved in many cellular processes, both in physiological and pathological conditions. They are mediators of cell-cell communication, at both paracrine and systemic levels, and therefore they are active players in cell differentiation, tissue homeostasis, and organ remodeling. Due to their ability to serve as a cargo for proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, which often reflects the cellular source, they should be considered the future of the natural nanodelivery of bio-compounds. To date, natural nanovesicles, such as exosomes, have been shown to represent a source of disease biomarkers and have high potential benefits in regenerative medicine. Indeed, they deliver both chemical and bio-molecules in a way that within exosomes drugs are more effective that in their exosome-free form. Thus, to date, we know that exosomes are shuttle disease biomarkers and probably the most effective way to deliver therapeutic molecules within target cells. However, we do not know exactly which exosomes may be used in therapy in avoiding side effects as well. In regenerative medicine, it will be ideal to use autologous exosomes, but it seems not ideal to use plasma-derived exosomes, as they may contain potentially dangerous molecules. Here, we want to present and discuss a contradictory relatively unmet issue that is the lack of a general agreement on the choice for the source of extracellular vesicles for therapeutic use. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Focus on Exosome-Based Cell-Cell Communication in Health and Disease)
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19 pages, 2241 KiB  
Review
Extracellular Vesicles: New Players in Lymphomas
by Victor Navarro-Tableros, Yonathan Gomez, Giovanni Camussi and Maria Felice Brizzi
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20(1), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20010041 - 21 Dec 2018
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 4173
Abstract
Lymphomas are heterogeneous diseases, and the term includes a number of histological subtypes that are characterized by different clinical behavior and molecular phenotypes. Valuable information on the presence of lymphoma cell-derived extracellular vesicles (LCEVs) in the bloodstream of patients suffering from this hematological [...] Read more.
Lymphomas are heterogeneous diseases, and the term includes a number of histological subtypes that are characterized by different clinical behavior and molecular phenotypes. Valuable information on the presence of lymphoma cell-derived extracellular vesicles (LCEVs) in the bloodstream of patients suffering from this hematological cancer has recently been provided. In particular, it has been reported that the number and phenotype of LCEVs can both change as the disease progresses, as well as after treatment. Moreover, the role that LCEVs play in driving tumor immune escape has been reported. This makes LCEVs potential novel clinical tools for diagnosis, disease progression, and chemoresistance. LCEVs express surface markers and convey specific molecules in accordance with their cell of origin, which can be used as targets and thus lead to the development of specific therapeutics. This may be particularly relevant since circulating LCEVs are known to save lymphoma cells from anti-cluster of differentiation (CD)20-induced complement-dependent cytotoxicity. Therefore, effort should be directed toward investigating the feasibility of using LCEVs as predictive biomarkers of disease progression and/or response to treatment that can be translated to clinical use. The use of liquid biopsies in combination with serum EV quantification and cargo analysis have been also considered as potential approaches that can be pursued in the future. Upcoming research will also focus on the identification of specific molecular targets in order to generate vaccines and/or antibodies against LCEVs. Finally, the removal of circulating LCEVs has been proposed as a simple and non-invasive treatment approach. We herein provide an overview of the role of LCEVs in lymphoma diagnosis, immune tolerance, and drug resistance. In addition, alternative protocols that utilize LCEVs as therapeutic targets are discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Focus on Exosome-Based Cell-Cell Communication in Health and Disease)
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18 pages, 803 KiB  
Review
A Role of Tumor-Released Exosomes in Paracrine Dissemination and Metastasis
by Enrico Pierluigi Spugnini, Mariantonia Logozzi, Rossella Di Raimo, Davide Mizzoni and Stefano Fais
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19(12), 3968; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19123968 - 10 Dec 2018
Cited by 50 | Viewed by 5240
Abstract
Metastatic diffusion is thought to be a multi-step phenomenon involving the release of cells from the primary tumor and their diffusion through the body. Currently, several hypotheses have been put forward in order to explain the origin of cancer metastasis, including epithelial–mesenchymal transition, [...] Read more.
Metastatic diffusion is thought to be a multi-step phenomenon involving the release of cells from the primary tumor and their diffusion through the body. Currently, several hypotheses have been put forward in order to explain the origin of cancer metastasis, including epithelial–mesenchymal transition, mutagenesis of stem cells, and a facilitating role of macrophages, involving, for example, transformation or fusion hybridization with neoplastic cells. In this paradigm, tumor-secreted extracellular vesicles (EVs), such as exosomes, play a pivotal role in cell communications, delivering a plethora of biomolecules including proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. For their natural role in shuttling molecules, EVs have been newly considered a part of the metastatic cascade. They have a prominent role in preparing the so-called “tumor niches” in target organs. However, recent evidence has pointed out an even more interesting role of tumor EVs, consisting in their ability to induce malignant transformation in resident mesenchymal stem cells. All in all, in this review, we discuss the multiple involvements of EVs in the metastatic cascade, and how we can exploit and manipulate EVs in order to reduce the metastatic spread of malignant tumors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Focus on Exosome-Based Cell-Cell Communication in Health and Disease)
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