Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

A special issue of Journal of Clinical Medicine (ISSN 2077-0383). This special issue belongs to the section "Mental Health".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 August 2016) | Viewed by 117146

Special Issue Editors

1. NHMRC Centre for Research Excellence in Mental Health and Substance Use, Australia
2. National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Australia
3. Priority Research Centre for Brain and Mental Health, University of Newcastle, Australia
Interests: digital therapy; comorbidity; clinical trials; integrated treatment; mental health; physical health; addictions
Fulbright Fellow, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA
Interests: co-occurring mental health disorders; substance use prevention and early intervention; treatments for adolescents exposed to trauma; links between trauma and aggression; mental health treatment in forensic settings

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a pervasive and often debilitating psychological disorder that develops from exposure to traumatic events. It results in wide ranging and substantial impairments.  This presents people experiencing PTSD, the families, friends, and peers supporting them, and treating professionals with a range of challenges in the management of trauma, including treatment engagement, retention, comorbidity, relationships, and related issues. Much has been achieved in the field already, with exciting and new opportunities to overcome these challenges emerging via new technologies, new understandings about the disorder, and new pharmacological, psychological, and behavioral strategies.  This Special Issue presents an opportunity for us to bring this latest evidence together and showcase the state of the art in managing PTSD.  We invite you to be part of this important publication.

Assoc. Prof. Frances Kay-Lambkin
Dr. Emma Barrett
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Keywords

  • trauma
  • post traumatic stress disorder
  • treatment engagement
  • comorbidity
  • technology
  • pharmacological treatment
  • psychological treatment
  • behavioural treatment

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

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530 KiB  
Article
Impact of Cannabis Use on Treatment Outcomes among Adults Receiving Cognitive-Behavioral Treatment for PTSD and Substance Use Disorders
by Lesia M. Ruglass, Alina Shevorykin, Vanja Radoncic, Kathryn M. Z. Smith, Philip H. Smith, Isaac R. Galatzer-Levy, Santiago Papini and Denise A. Hien
J. Clin. Med. 2017, 6(2), 14; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm6020014 - 07 Feb 2017
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 9581
Abstract
Background: Research has demonstrated a strong link between trauma, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and substance use disorders (SUDs) in general and cannabis use disorders in particular. Yet, few studies have examined the impact of cannabis use on treatment outcomes for individuals with co-occurring [...] Read more.
Background: Research has demonstrated a strong link between trauma, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and substance use disorders (SUDs) in general and cannabis use disorders in particular. Yet, few studies have examined the impact of cannabis use on treatment outcomes for individuals with co-occurring PTSD and SUDs. Methods: Participants were 136 individuals who received cognitive-behavioral therapies for co-occurring PTSD and SUD. Multivariate regressions were utilized to examine the associations between baseline cannabis use and end-of-treatment outcomes. Multilevel linear growth models were fit to the data to examine the cross-lagged associations between weekly cannabis use and weekly PTSD symptom severity and primary substance use during treatment. Results: There were no significant positive nor negative associations between baseline cannabis use and end-of-treatment PTSD symptom severity and days of primary substance use. Cross-lagged models revealed that as cannabis use increased, subsequent primary substance use decreased and vice versa. Moreover, results revealed a crossover lagged effect, whereby higher cannabis use was associated with greater PTSD symptom severity early in treatment, but lower weekly PTSD symptom severity later in treatment. Conclusion: Cannabis use was not associated with adverse outcomes in end-of-treatment PTSD and primary substance use, suggesting independent pathways of change. The theoretical and clinical implications of the reciprocal associations between weekly cannabis use and subsequent PTSD and primary substance use symptoms during treatment are discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder)
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Article
Integrated Treatment of PTSD and Substance Use Disorders: The Mediating Role of PTSD Improvement in the Reduction of Depression
by Kristina J. Korte, Kaitlin E. Bountress, Rachel L. Tomko, Therese Killeen, Megan Moran-Santa Maria and Sudie E. Back
J. Clin. Med. 2017, 6(1), 9; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm6010009 - 13 Jan 2017
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 8222
Abstract
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) represents one of the most common mental health disorders, particularly among veterans, and is associated with significant distress and impairment. This highly debilitating disorder is further complicated by common comorbid psychiatric disorders, such as substance use disorders (SUD). Individuals [...] Read more.
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) represents one of the most common mental health disorders, particularly among veterans, and is associated with significant distress and impairment. This highly debilitating disorder is further complicated by common comorbid psychiatric disorders, such as substance use disorders (SUD). Individuals with PTSD and co-occurring SUD also commonly present with secondary symptoms, such as elevated depression. Little is known, however, about how these secondary symptoms are related to treatment outcome. The aim of the present study, therefore, was to examine (1) the effects of treatment of comorbid PTSD/SUD on depressive symptoms; and (2) whether this effect was mediated by changes in PTSD severity or changes in SUD severity. Participants were 81 U.S. military veterans (90.1% male) with PTSD and SUD enrolled in a randomized controlled trial examining the efficacy of an integrated, exposure-based treatment (Concurrent Treatment of PTSD and Substance Use Disorders Using Prolonged Exposure; n = 54) versus relapse prevention (n = 27). Results revealed significantly lower depressive symptoms at post-treatment in the COPE group, as compared to the relapse prevention group. Examination of the mechanisms associated with change in depression revealed that reduction in PTSD severity, but not substance use severity, mediated the association between the treatment group and post-treatment depression. The findings underscore the importance of treating PTSD symptoms in order to help reduce co-occurring symptoms of depression in individuals with PTSD/SUD. Clinical implications and avenues for future research are discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder)
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Article
Treatment of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Nightmares at a Veterans Affairs Medical Center
by Mark B. Detweiler, Bhuvaneshwar Pagadala, Joseph Candelario, Jennifer S. Boyle, Jonna G. Detweiler and Brian W. Lutgens
J. Clin. Med. 2016, 5(12), 117; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm5120117 - 16 Dec 2016
Cited by 33 | Viewed by 11556
Abstract
The effectiveness of medications for PTSD in general has been well studied, but the effectiveness of medicatio.ns prescribed specifically for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) nightmares is less well known. This retrospective chart review examined the efficacy of various medications used in actual treatment [...] Read more.
The effectiveness of medications for PTSD in general has been well studied, but the effectiveness of medicatio.ns prescribed specifically for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) nightmares is less well known. This retrospective chart review examined the efficacy of various medications used in actual treatment of PTSD nightmares at one Veteran Affairs Hospital. Records at the Salem, VA Veterans Affairs Medical Center (VAMC) were examined from 2009 to 2013 to check for the efficacy of actual treatments used in comparis.on with treatments suggested in three main review articles. The final sample consisted of 327 patients and 478 separate medication trials involving 21 individual medications plus 13 different medication combinations. The three most frequently utilized medications were prazosin (107 trials), risperidone (81 trials), and quetiapine (72 trials). Five medications had 20 or more trials with successful results (partial to full nightmare cessation) in >50% of trials: risperidone (77%, 1.0–6.0 mg), clonidine (63%, 0.1–2.0 mg), quetiapine (50%, 12.5–800.0 mg), mirtazapine (50%; 7.5–30.0 mg), and terazosin (64%, 50.0–300.0 mg). Notably, olanzapine (2.5–10.0) was successful (full remission) in all five prescription trials in five separate patients. Based on the clinical results, the use of risperidone, clonidine, terazosin, and olanzapine warrants additional investigation in clinically controlled trials as medications prescribed specifically for PTSD nightmares. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder)
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Article
Case Formulation in Young People with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and First-Episode Psychosis
by Emma Halpin, Vanessa Kugathasan, Carol Hulbert, Mario Alvarez-Jimenez and Sarah Bendall
J. Clin. Med. 2016, 5(11), 106; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm5110106 - 23 Nov 2016
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 5559
Abstract
Background: Evidence based treatment interventions for young people with first-episode psychosis (FEP) and trauma histories is lacking. Although case formulation (CF) has been widely regarded in cognitive behavioural therapy manuals as beneficial, there is limited empirical research examining how clients and therapists experience [...] Read more.
Background: Evidence based treatment interventions for young people with first-episode psychosis (FEP) and trauma histories is lacking. Although case formulation (CF) has been widely regarded in cognitive behavioural therapy manuals as beneficial, there is limited empirical research examining how clients and therapists experience the process. Aim: This study aimed to explore young people’s reactions to CF in treatment for PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder) and FEP. Method: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with three participants (aged 19–20) with FEP and PTSD and their therapists, after they had completed a trauma-focused treatment program with a CF component. Transcripts were analysed using an interpretative phenomenological approach and themes were derived. Results: Two themes related to participants’ experiences were identified from the analysis: (1) Developing Insight; (2) A challenging experience; and two themes from the therapists: (1) Doing the case formulation; (2) Value of case formulation. Participants and therapists reported benefits in making connections between current symptoms and past trauma. Participants viewed the process as challenging. Conclusion: Results suggest a potential discrepancy between the experience of the case formulation process for clients and therapists. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder)
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Article
The Benefit of Conserving and Gaining Resources after Trauma: A Systematic Review
by Michael Hollifield, Andrea Gory, Jennifer Siedjak, Linda Nguyen, Lucie Holmgreen and Stevan Hobfoll
J. Clin. Med. 2016, 5(11), 104; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm5110104 - 18 Nov 2016
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 5952
Abstract
Background: Traumatic events involve loss of resources, which has consistently been found to be associated with developing stress-related illness such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Objective: The purpose of this systematic literature review was to determine if there is evidence for the salutatory [...] Read more.
Background: Traumatic events involve loss of resources, which has consistently been found to be associated with developing stress-related illness such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Objective: The purpose of this systematic literature review was to determine if there is evidence for the salutatory effect of resource gain on PTSD, and if there are intervention models that utilize and assess gain in PTSD. Data Sources: All relevant online databases were systematically searched using key terms and a method, detailed in Figure 1. Results: Of 22 relevant articles, there were three intervention studies, one longitudinal naturalistic study, eleven non-intervention association studies focusing on PTSD, and eight non-intervention association studies not focusing on PTSD. The intervention and naturalistic studies showed a significant positive effect on PTSD by specifically targeting the gain of resources during an intervention. Other non-intervention research supports the notion that resource loss is pathogenic and resource gain is beneficial after traumatic exposure. Conclusions: Interventions that develop and assess effects of gain of various types of resources on stress-related illness should be encouraged. Interventions that already have proven efficacy for PTSD might include standardized assessment of resource loss and gain to further understand mechanisms of action. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder)
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Article
Integrated Exposure-Based Therapy for Co-Occurring Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and Substance Dependence: Predictors of Change in PTSD Symptom Severity
by Katherine L. Mills, Emma L. Barrett, Sabine Merz, Julia Rosenfeld, Philippa L. Ewer, Claudia Sannibale, Amanda L. Baker, Sally Hopwood, Sudie E. Back, Kathleen T. Brady and Maree Teesson
J. Clin. Med. 2016, 5(11), 101; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm5110101 - 15 Nov 2016
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 7290
Abstract
This paper examines factors associated with change in PTSD symptom severity among individuals randomised to receive an integrated exposure-based psychotherapy for PTSD and substance dependence–Concurrent Treatment of PTSD and Substance Use Disorders Using Prolonged Exposure (COPE). Outcomes examined include change in PTSD symptom [...] Read more.
This paper examines factors associated with change in PTSD symptom severity among individuals randomised to receive an integrated exposure-based psychotherapy for PTSD and substance dependence–Concurrent Treatment of PTSD and Substance Use Disorders Using Prolonged Exposure (COPE). Outcomes examined include change in PTSD symptom severity as measured by the Clinician Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS), and the reliability and clinical significance of change in PTSD symptom severity. Factors examined include patient baseline characteristics, treatment characteristics, and events over follow-up. The mean difference in CAPS score was 38.24 (SE 4.81). Approximately half (49.1%) demonstrated a reliable and clinically significant improvement in PTSD symptom severity. No one was classified as having demonstrated clinically significant worsening of symptoms. Three independent predictors of reductions in PTSD symptom severity were identified: baseline PTSD symptom severity (β 0.77, SE 0.23, p = 0.001), number of traumas experienced prior to baseline (β −0.30, SE 0.15, p = 0.049), and number of sessions attended (β 2.05, SE 0.87, p = 0.024). The present study provides further evidence regarding the safety of the COPE treatment and factors associated with improvement in PTSD symptom severity. The identification of only a small number of predictors of the outcome points to the broad applicability of the COPE treatment to PTSD and substance use disorder (SUD) patients. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder)
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Article
Guilt, Shame and Compassionate Imagery in War: Traumatized German Soldiers with PTSD, a Pilot Study
by Christina Alliger-Horn, Peter Lutz Zimmermann and Mervyn Schmucker
J. Clin. Med. 2016, 5(10), 90; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm5100090 - 20 Oct 2016
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 6209
Abstract
Background: The consideration of specific trauma-associated emotions poses a challenge for the differential treatment planning in trauma therapy. Soldiers experiencing deployment-related posttraumatic stress disorder often struggle with emotions of guilt and shame as a central component of their PTSD. Objective: The purpose of [...] Read more.
Background: The consideration of specific trauma-associated emotions poses a challenge for the differential treatment planning in trauma therapy. Soldiers experiencing deployment-related posttraumatic stress disorder often struggle with emotions of guilt and shame as a central component of their PTSD. Objective: The purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which soldiers’ PTSD symptoms and their trauma-related guilt and shame may be affected as a function of their ability to develop compassionate imagery between their CURRENT SELF (today) and their TRAUMATIZED SELF (back then). Method: The sample comprised 24 male German soldiers diagnosed with PTSD who were examined on the Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale (PDS) and two additional measures: the Emotional Distress Inventory (EIBE) and the Quality of Interaction between the CURRENT SELF and the TRAUMATIZED SELF (QUI-HD: Qualität der Interaktion zwischen HEUTIGEN ICH und DAMALIGEN ICH) at pre- and post-treatment and again at follow-up. The treatment used was imagery rescripting and reprocessing therapy (IRRT). Results: Eighteen of the 24 soldiers showed significant improvement in their PTSD symptoms at post-treatment and at follow-up (on their reliable change index). A significant change in trauma-associated guilt and shame emerged when compassionate imagery was developed towards one’s TRAUMATIZED SELF. The degree and intensity of the guilt and shame felt at the beginning of treatment and the degree of compassionate imagery developed toward the TRAUMATIZED SELF were predictors for change on the PDS scores. Conclusions: For soldiers suffering from specific war-related trauma involving PTSD, the use of self-nurturing, compassionate imagery that fosters reconciling with the traumatized part of the self can effectively diminish trauma-related symptoms, especially when guilt and shame are central emotions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder)
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Article
The Influence of Parental Emotional Neglect on Assault Victims Seeking Treatment for Depressed Mood and Alcohol Misuse: A Pilot Study
by Kylie A. Bailey, Amanda L. Baker, Patrick McElduff and David J. Kavanagh
J. Clin. Med. 2016, 5(10), 88; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm5100088 - 09 Oct 2016
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5945
Abstract
This study explores the relationship between reported parental emotional neglect when a child, assault type experienced, posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS), depression, and alcohol consumption in treatment seekers for comorbid depressive symptoms and alcohol misuse. Participants (n = 220) with concurrent depression and [...] Read more.
This study explores the relationship between reported parental emotional neglect when a child, assault type experienced, posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS), depression, and alcohol consumption in treatment seekers for comorbid depressive symptoms and alcohol misuse. Participants (n = 220) with concurrent depression and alcohol misuse were recruited from the DAISI (Depression and Alcohol Integrated and Single-focussed Interventions) project. Assault type and PTSS were retrospectively assessed by the Posttraumatic Stress Diagnostic Scale. The Measure of Parenting Style is a self-report measure that retrospectively assessed emotional neglect experienced as a child. An exploratory factor analysis using the tetrachoric correlation matrix (applying principal factor extraction with a varimax rotation) identified the two assault factors of sexual assault (SA) and physical assault (PA). A path analysis revealed that Maternal Emotional Neglect increased the impact of PTSS and depression. Paternal Emotional Neglect increased the impact of PA on PTSS and alcohol dependence symptoms. There appears to be differential effects of assault type and Maternal/Paternal emotional neglect on depression and alcohol misuse, suggesting that parenting roles serve distinct protective functions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder)
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Article
PTSD Symptom Severities, Interpersonal Traumas, and Benzodiazepines Are Associated with Substance-Related Problems in Trauma Patients
by Jeffrey Guina, Ramzi W. Nahhas, Adam J. Goldberg and Seth Farnsworth
J. Clin. Med. 2016, 5(8), 70; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm5080070 - 10 Aug 2016
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 5755
Abstract
Background: Trauma is commonly associated with substance-related problems, yet associations between specific substances and specific posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms (PTSSs) are understudied. We hypothesized that substance-related problems are associated with PTSS severities, interpersonal traumas, and benzodiazepine prescriptions. Methods: Using a cross-sectional survey methodology [...] Read more.
Background: Trauma is commonly associated with substance-related problems, yet associations between specific substances and specific posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms (PTSSs) are understudied. We hypothesized that substance-related problems are associated with PTSS severities, interpersonal traumas, and benzodiazepine prescriptions. Methods: Using a cross-sectional survey methodology in a consecutive sample of adult outpatients with trauma histories (n = 472), we used logistic regression to examine substance-related problems in general (primary, confirmatory analysis), as well as alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drug problems specifically (secondary, exploratory analyses) in relation to demographics, trauma type, PTSSs, and benzodiazepine prescriptions. Results: After adjusting for multiple testing, several factors were significantly associated with substance-related problems, particularly benzodiazepines (AOR = 2.78; 1.99 for alcohol, 2.42 for tobacco, 8.02 for illicit drugs), DSM-5 PTSD diagnosis (AOR = 1.92; 2.38 for alcohol, 2.00 for tobacco, 2.14 for illicit drugs), most PTSSs (especially negative beliefs, recklessness, and avoidance), and interpersonal traumas (e.g., assaults and child abuse). Conclusion: In this clinical sample, there were consistent and strong associations between several trauma-related variables and substance-related problems, consistent with our hypotheses. We discuss possible explanations and implications of these findings, which we hope will stimulate further research, and improve screening and treatment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder)
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Article
Mental Health Difficulties and Help-Seeking Beliefs within a Sample of Female Partners of UK Veterans Diagnosed with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
by Dominic Murphy, Emily Palmer and Walter Busuttil
J. Clin. Med. 2016, 5(8), 68; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm5080068 - 01 Aug 2016
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 6970
Abstract
In the UK there is a paucity of research about the needs of partners who are supporting ex-service personnel with mental health difficulties. In this study, we surveyed the mental health needs and barriers to help-seeking within a sample of partners of UK [...] Read more.
In the UK there is a paucity of research about the needs of partners who are supporting ex-service personnel with mental health difficulties. In this study, we surveyed the mental health needs and barriers to help-seeking within a sample of partners of UK veterans who had been diagnosed with PTSD. Our sample included 100 participants. Forty-five percent met criteria for alcohol problems, 39% for depression, 37% for generalised anxiety disorder and 17% for symptoms of probable PTSD. Participants who met case criteria for depression, anxiety and problems with alcohol were more likely to report a greater number of help-seeking barriers. Participants who were experiencing mental health difficulties were more likely to endorse barriers connected to stigmatising beliefs than those associated with practical issues around accessing mental health services. The evidence presented suggests there may be a considerable burden of mental illness within this population. It would seem prudent to conduct further work to understand how best to address this clinical need. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder)

Review

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Review
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Overview of Evidence-Based Assessment and Treatment
by Cynthia L. Lancaster, Jenni B. Teeters, Daniel F. Gros and Sudie E. Back
J. Clin. Med. 2016, 5(11), 105; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm5110105 - 22 Nov 2016
Cited by 99 | Viewed by 29210
Abstract
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a chronic psychological disorder that can develop after exposure to a traumatic event. This review summarizes the literature on the epidemiology, assessment, and treatment of PTSD. We provide a review of the characteristics of PTSD along with associated [...] Read more.
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a chronic psychological disorder that can develop after exposure to a traumatic event. This review summarizes the literature on the epidemiology, assessment, and treatment of PTSD. We provide a review of the characteristics of PTSD along with associated risk factors, and describe brief, evidence-based measures that can be used to screen for PTSD and monitor symptom changes over time. In regard to treatment, we highlight commonly used, evidence-based psychotherapies and pharmacotherapies for PTSD. Among psychotherapeutic approaches, evidence-based approaches include cognitive-behavioral therapies (e.g., Prolonged Exposure and Cognitive Processing Therapy) and Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing. A wide variety of pharmacotherapies have received some level of research support for PTSD symptom alleviation, although selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors have the largest evidence base to date. However, relapse may occur after the discontinuation of pharmacotherapy, whereas PTSD symptoms typically remain stable or continue to improve after completion of evidence-based psychotherapy. After reviewing treatment recommendations, we conclude by describing critical areas for future research. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder)
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Review
Ashamed and Afraid: A Scoping Review of the Role of Shame in Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
by Tanya Saraiya and Teresa Lopez-Castro
J. Clin. Med. 2016, 5(11), 94; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm5110094 - 01 Nov 2016
Cited by 79 | Viewed by 13874
Abstract
Background: Despite considerable progress in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a large percentage of individuals remain symptomatic following gold-standard therapies. One route to improving care is examining affective disturbances that involve other emotions beyond fear and threat. A growing body of [...] Read more.
Background: Despite considerable progress in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a large percentage of individuals remain symptomatic following gold-standard therapies. One route to improving care is examining affective disturbances that involve other emotions beyond fear and threat. A growing body of research has implicated shame in PTSD’s development and course, although to date no review of this specific literature exists. This scoping review investigated the link between shame and PTSD and sought to identify research gaps. Methods: A systematic database search of PubMed, PsycInfo, Embase, Cochrane, and CINAHL was conducted to find original quantitative research related to shame and PTSD. Results: Forty-seven studies met inclusion criteria. Review found substantial support for an association between shame and PTSD as well as preliminary evidence suggesting its utility as a treatment target. Several design limitations and under-investigated areas were recognized, including the need for a multimodal assessment of shame and more longitudinal and treatment-focused research. Conclusion: This review provides crucial synthesis of research to date, highlighting the prominence of shame in PTSD, and its likely relevance in successful treatment outcomes. The present review serves as a guide to future work into this critical area of study. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder)
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