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Design of Alloy Metals for Low-Mass Structures

A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 July 2018) | Viewed by 111931

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Laszlo S. Toth

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
1. Laboratory of Excellence on Design of Alloy Metals for Low-Mass Structures, Lorraine University, Metz-Nancy, France
2. Institute of Physical Metallurgy, Metalforming and Nanotechnology, University of Miskolc, Miskolc, Hungary
Interests: mechanics of materials; polycrystal plasticity; crystallographic texture; strain hardening; nanomaterials by severe plastic deformation; multilevel modeling
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Sabine Denis

E-Mail
Co-Guest Editor
Université de Lorraine Nancy
Interests: couplings between phase transformations; modelling, numerical simulation and experimental validation; prediction of internal stresses and deformations during heat treatment of metallic alloys; metal matrix and ceramic matrix composites

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

These days, 25% of all materials used are metals and this percentage is not expected to decrease as they are indispensable for many applications due to their high resistance to temperature. The only handicap of metals is their relatively higher density with respect to modern composites. It is possible to lighten metallic structures in three ways: (1) employ low-density metals; (2) develop new ones; (3) increase the yield strength of existing high-density metals. The Laboratory of Excellence of the Lorraine University in France, called ‘Design of Alloy Metals for Low-Mass Structures’ is working towards lightening metallic structures by metallurgical means. Two leading research laboratories compose this Laboratory of Excellence within the Lorraine University: the Laboratory of Microstructure Studies and Mechanics of Materials (LEM3), based in Metz and the Jean Lamoure Institute (IJL) located in Nancy.  In this Special Issue, they report some of their significant progress in different fields of metallurgy and mechanics of metallic materials. There are articles in the three major fields of metallurgy; physical, chemical and mechanical metallurgy. All scales are covered: from atomistic studies to real-scale metallic structures.

Prof. Laszlo S. Toth
Guest Editor

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Keywords

  • metal
  • metallurgy
  • light-weighting
  • alloy design
  • microstructure control
  • process design
  • mechanical behavior
  • multi-scale modeling
  • simulation

Published Papers (27 papers)

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Research

16 pages, 4076 KiB  
Article
Detailed Modeling of the Direct Reduction of Iron Ore in a Shaft Furnace
by Hamzeh Hamadeh, Olivier Mirgaux and Fabrice Patisson
Materials 2018, 11(10), 1865; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11101865 - 01 Oct 2018
Cited by 64 | Viewed by 11397
Abstract
This paper addresses the modeling of the iron ore direct reduction process, a process likely to reduce CO2 emissions from the steel industry. The shaft furnace is divided into three sections (reduction, transition, and cooling), and the model is two-dimensional (cylindrical geometry [...] Read more.
This paper addresses the modeling of the iron ore direct reduction process, a process likely to reduce CO2 emissions from the steel industry. The shaft furnace is divided into three sections (reduction, transition, and cooling), and the model is two-dimensional (cylindrical geometry for the upper sections and conical geometry for the lower one), to correctly describe the lateral gas feed and cooling gas outlet. This model relies on a detailed description of the main physical–chemical and thermal phenomena, using a multi-scale approach. The moving bed is assumed to be comprised of pellets of grains and crystallites. We also take into account eight heterogeneous and two homogeneous chemical reactions. The local mass, energy, and momentum balances are numerically solved, using the finite volume method. This model was successfully validated by simulating the shaft furnaces of two direct reduction plants of different capacities. The calculated results reveal the detailed interior behavior of the shaft furnace operation. Eight different zones can be distinguished, according to their predominant thermal and reaction characteristics. An important finding is the presence of a central zone of lesser temperature and conversion. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design of Alloy Metals for Low-Mass Structures)
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17 pages, 6910 KiB  
Article
Crystal Plasticity Modeling of Anisotropic Hardening and Texture Due to Dislocation Transmutation in Twinning
by Robert M. Allen, Laszlo S. Toth, Andrew L. Oppedal and Haitham El Kadiri
Materials 2018, 11(10), 1855; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11101855 - 28 Sep 2018
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2813
Abstract
In crystalline materials, dislocations are three-dimensional lattice distortions that systematically distort twin interfaces that they encounter. This results in dislocation dissociation events and changes in the atomic structure of the interface. The manner in which the interface distorts drive the product of the [...] Read more.
In crystalline materials, dislocations are three-dimensional lattice distortions that systematically distort twin interfaces that they encounter. This results in dislocation dissociation events and changes in the atomic structure of the interface. The manner in which the interface distorts drive the product of the dissociation event, and consequently, the incident dislocation core and the magnitude and relative direction of the Burgers vector govern these slip-twin interaction phenomena. Recent characterization studies using transmission electron microscopy as well as advanced molecular dynamic simulations have shown that slip dislocations, whether striking or struck by a {10 1 ¯ 2} twin boundary, dissociate into a combination of twinning disconnections, interfacial disclinations (facets), jogs, and other types of dislocations engulfed inside the twin domains, called transmuted dislocations. While twinning disconnections were found to promote twin propagation, the dislocations incorporated inside the twin are of considerable importance to hardening and damage initiation as they more significantly obstruct slip dislocations accommodating plasticity of the twins. In this work, the dislocation transmutation event and its effect on hardening is captured using a dislocation density based hardening model contained in a visco-plastic self-consistent mean-field model. This is done by allowing the twins to increase their dislocation densities, not only by virtue of slip inside the twin, but also through dislocations that transmute from the parents as the twin volume fraction increases. A correspondence matrix rule is used to determine the type of converted dislocations while tracking and parameterizing their evolution. This hypothesis provides a modeling framework for capturing slip-twin interactions. The model is used to simulate the mechanical response of pure Mg and provides a more physically based approach for modeling stress-strain behavior. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design of Alloy Metals for Low-Mass Structures)
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13 pages, 3049 KiB  
Article
Key Parameters to Promote Granularization of Lath-Like Bainite/Martensite in FeNiC Alloys during Isothermal Holding
by Meriem Ben Haj Slama, Nathalie Gey, Lionel Germain, Kangying Zhu and Sébastien Allain
Materials 2018, 11(10), 1808; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11101808 - 24 Sep 2018
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3039
Abstract
The stability of lath-like microstructures during low-temperature isothermal ageing was analyzed in a Fe5Ni0.33C (in wt %) steel. The microstructures were characterized using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) coupled with Electron Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD). Advanced orientation data processing was applied to quantify the hierarchical [...] Read more.
The stability of lath-like microstructures during low-temperature isothermal ageing was analyzed in a Fe5Ni0.33C (in wt %) steel. The microstructures were characterized using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) coupled with Electron Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD). Advanced orientation data processing was applied to quantify the hierarchical and multiscale organization of crystallographic variants subdividing Prior Austenite Grains (PAG) into packets/blocks/sub-blocks. The result shows that ferrite laths of martensite or lower bainite are stable, whatever the ageing temperature (up to 380 °C). On the contrary, a granularization process is triggered when microstructures contain a fraction of upper bainite. This metallurgical evolution corresponds to a rapid and significant change of the ferrite matrix involving a disappearance of 60° disoriented blocks. The phenomenon affects in turn the mechanical properties. The final microstructures obtained after isothermal holding look like granular bainite, which raises some questions about the classification of bainite. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design of Alloy Metals for Low-Mass Structures)
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19 pages, 3948 KiB  
Article
A Multiscale Analysis on the Superelasticity Behavior of Architected Shape Memory Alloy Materials
by Rui Xu, Céline Bouby, Hamid Zahrouni, Tarak Ben Zineb, Heng Hu and Michel Potier-Ferry
Materials 2018, 11(9), 1746; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11091746 - 17 Sep 2018
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3677
Abstract
In this paper, the superelasticity effects of architected shape memory alloys (SMAs) are focused on by using a multiscale approach. Firstly, a parametric analysis at the cellular level with a series of representative volume elements (RVEs) is carried out to predict the relations [...] Read more.
In this paper, the superelasticity effects of architected shape memory alloys (SMAs) are focused on by using a multiscale approach. Firstly, a parametric analysis at the cellular level with a series of representative volume elements (RVEs) is carried out to predict the relations between the void fraction, the total stiffness, the hysteresis effect and the mass of the SMAs. The superelasticity effects of the architected SMAs are modeled by the thermomechanical constitutive model proposed by Chemisky et al. 2011. Secondly, the structural responses of the architected SMAs are studied by the multilevel finite element method (FE 2 ), which uses the effective constitutive behavior of the RVE to represent the behavior of the macroscopic structure. This approach can truly couple the responses of both the RVE level and structural level by the real-time information interactions between two levels. Through a three point bending test, it is observed that the structure inherits the strong nonlinear responses—both the hysteresis effect and the superelasticity—of the architected SMAs at the cellular level. Furthermore, the influence of the void fraction at the RVE level to the materials’ structural responses can be more specifically and directly described, instead of using an RVE to predict at the microscopic level. Thus, this work could be referred to for optimizing the stiffness, the hysteresis effect and the mass of architected SMA structures and extended for possible advanced applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design of Alloy Metals for Low-Mass Structures)
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14 pages, 3340 KiB  
Article
The Effect of Crystal Defects on 3D High-Resolution Diffraction Peaks: A FFT-Based Method
by Komlavi Senyo Eloh, Alain Jacques, Gabor Ribarik and Stéphane Berbenni
Materials 2018, 11(9), 1669; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11091669 - 09 Sep 2018
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2817
Abstract
Forward modeling of diffraction peaks is a potential way to compare the results of theoretical mechanical simulations and experimental X-ray diffraction (XRD) data recorded during in situ experiments. As the input data are the strain or displacement field within a representative volume of [...] Read more.
Forward modeling of diffraction peaks is a potential way to compare the results of theoretical mechanical simulations and experimental X-ray diffraction (XRD) data recorded during in situ experiments. As the input data are the strain or displacement field within a representative volume of the material containing dislocations, a computer-aided efficient and accurate method to generate these fields is necessary. With this aim, a current and promising numerical method is based on the use of the fast Fourier transform (FFT)-based method. However, classic FFT-based methods present some numerical artifacts due to the Gibbs phenomenon or “aliasing” and to “voxelization” effects. Here, we propose several improvements: first, a consistent discrete Green operator to remove “aliasing” effects; and second, a method to minimize the voxelization artifacts generated by dislocation loops inclined with respect to the computational grid. Then, we show the effect of these improvements on theoretical diffraction peaks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design of Alloy Metals for Low-Mass Structures)
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19 pages, 5919 KiB  
Article
Dislocation Densities and Velocities within the γ Channels of an SX Superalloy during In Situ High-Temperature Creep Tests
by Thomas Schenk, Roxane Trehorel, Laura Dirand and Alain Jacques
Materials 2018, 11(9), 1527; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11091527 - 24 Aug 2018
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2701
Abstract
The high-temperature creep behavior of a rafted [001] oriented AM1 Ni-based single crystal superalloy was investigated during in situ creep tests on synchrotrons. Experiments were performed at constant temperatures under variable applied stress in order to study the response (plastic strain, load transfer) [...] Read more.
The high-temperature creep behavior of a rafted [001] oriented AM1 Ni-based single crystal superalloy was investigated during in situ creep tests on synchrotrons. Experiments were performed at constant temperatures under variable applied stress in order to study the response (plastic strain, load transfer) to stress jumps. Using two different diffraction techniques in transmission (Laue) geometry, it was possible to measure the average lattice parameters of both the γ matrix and the γ ′ rafts in the [100] direction at intervals shorter than 300 s. The absolute precision with both diffraction techniques of the constrained transverse mismatch (in the rafts’ plane) is about 10−5. After stress jumps, special attention is given to the evolution of plastic strain within the γ channels. The relaxation of the Von Mises stress at leveled applied stress shows evidence of dislocation multiplication within the γ channels. From the analysis, we showed an interaction between plastic stress and dislocation density of the γ phase. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design of Alloy Metals for Low-Mass Structures)
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19 pages, 4112 KiB  
Article
In Situ Stress Tensor Determination during Phase Transformation of a Metal Matrix Composite by High-Energy X-ray Diffraction
by Guillaume Geandier, Lilian Vautrot, Benoît Denand and Sabine Denis
Materials 2018, 11(8), 1415; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11081415 - 12 Aug 2018
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3156
Abstract
In situ high-energy X-ray diffraction using a synchrotron source performed on a steel metal matrix composite reinforced by TiC allows the evolutions of internal stresses during cooling to be followed thanks to the development of a new original experimental device (a transportable radiation [...] Read more.
In situ high-energy X-ray diffraction using a synchrotron source performed on a steel metal matrix composite reinforced by TiC allows the evolutions of internal stresses during cooling to be followed thanks to the development of a new original experimental device (a transportable radiation furnace with controlled rotation of the specimen). Using the device on a high-energy beamline during in situ thermal treatment, we were able to extract the evolution of the stress tensor components in all phases: austenite, TiC, and even during the martensitic phase transformation of the matrix. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design of Alloy Metals for Low-Mass Structures)
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19 pages, 7689 KiB  
Article
Contribution of Local Analysis Techniques for the Characterization of Iron and Alloying Elements in Nitrides: Consequences on the Precipitation Process in Fe–Si and Fe–Cr Nitrided Alloys
by Hugo P. Van Landeghem, Raphaële Danoix, Mohamed Gouné, Sylvie Bordère, Andrius Martinavičius, Peter Jessner, Thierry Epicier, Béatrice Hannoyer, Frédéric Danoix and Abdelkrim Redjaïmia
Materials 2018, 11(8), 1409; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11081409 - 11 Aug 2018
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3739
Abstract
Atom Probe Tomography (APT), Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), and 3D mechanical calculations in complex geometry and anisotropic strain fields were employed to study the role of minor elements in the precipitation process of silicon and chromium nitrides in nitrided Fe–Si and Fe–Cr alloys, [...] Read more.
Atom Probe Tomography (APT), Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), and 3D mechanical calculations in complex geometry and anisotropic strain fields were employed to study the role of minor elements in the precipitation process of silicon and chromium nitrides in nitrided Fe–Si and Fe–Cr alloys, respectively. In nitrided Fe–Si alloys, an original sequence of Si3N4 precipitation was highlighted. Al–N clusters form first and act as nucleation sites for amorphous Si3N4 nitrides. This novel example of particle-simulated nucleation opens a new way to control Si3N4 precipitation in Fe–Si alloys. In nitrided Fe–Cr alloys, both the presence of iron in chromium nitrides and excess nitrogen in the ferritic matrix are unquestionably proved. Only a certain part of the so-called excess nitrogen is shown to be explained by the elastic accommodation of the misfit between nitride and the ferritic matrix. The presence of immobile excess nitrogen trapped at interfaces can be highly suspected. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design of Alloy Metals for Low-Mass Structures)
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16 pages, 1711 KiB  
Article
Influence of the Non-Schmid Effects on the Ductility Limit of Polycrystalline Sheet Metals
by Mohamed Ben Bettaieb and Farid Abed-Meraim
Materials 2018, 11(8), 1386; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11081386 - 08 Aug 2018
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2799
Abstract
The yield criterion in rate-independent single crystal plasticity is most often defined by the classical Schmid law. However, various experimental studies have shown that the plastic flow of several single crystals (especially with Body Centered Cubic crystallographic structure) often exhibits some non-Schmid effects. [...] Read more.
The yield criterion in rate-independent single crystal plasticity is most often defined by the classical Schmid law. However, various experimental studies have shown that the plastic flow of several single crystals (especially with Body Centered Cubic crystallographic structure) often exhibits some non-Schmid effects. The main objective of the current contribution is to study the impact of these non-Schmid effects on the ductility limit of polycrystalline sheet metals. To this end, the Taylor multiscale scheme is used to determine the mechanical behavior of a volume element that is assumed to be representative of the sheet metal. The mechanical behavior of the single crystals is described by a finite strain rate-independent constitutive theory, where some non-Schmid effects are accounted for in the modeling of the plastic flow. The bifurcation theory is coupled with the Taylor multiscale scheme to predict the onset of localized necking in the polycrystalline aggregate. The impact of the considered non-Schmid effects on both the single crystal behavior and the polycrystal behavior is carefully analyzed. It is shown, in particular, that non-Schmid effects tend to precipitate the occurrence of localized necking in polycrystalline aggregates and they slightly influence the orientation of the localization band. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design of Alloy Metals for Low-Mass Structures)
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14 pages, 12144 KiB  
Article
Variations of the Elastic Properties of the CoCrFeMnNi High Entropy Alloy Deformed by Groove Cold Rolling
by Paul Lohmuller, Laurent Peltier, Alain Hazotte, Julien Zollinger, Pascal Laheurte and Eric Fleury
Materials 2018, 11(8), 1337; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11081337 - 02 Aug 2018
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4558
Abstract
The variations of the mechanical properties of the CoCrFeMnNi high entropy alloy (HEA) during groove cold rolling process were investigated with the aim of understanding their correlation relationships with the crystallographic texture. Our study revealed divergences in the variations of the microhardness and [...] Read more.
The variations of the mechanical properties of the CoCrFeMnNi high entropy alloy (HEA) during groove cold rolling process were investigated with the aim of understanding their correlation relationships with the crystallographic texture. Our study revealed divergences in the variations of the microhardness and yield strength measured from samples deformed by groove cold rolling and conventional cold rolling processes. The crystallographic texture analyzed by electron back scattered diffraction (EBSD) revealed a hybrid texture between those obtained by conventional rolling and drawing processes. Though the groove cold rolling process induced a marked strengthening effect in the CoCrFeMnNi HEA, the mechanical properties were also characterized by an unusual decrease of the Young’s modulus as the applied groove cold rolled deformation increased up to about 0.5 before reaching a stabilized value. This decrease of the Young’s modulus was attributed to the increased density of mobile dislocations induced by work hardening during groove cold rolling processing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design of Alloy Metals for Low-Mass Structures)
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19 pages, 25050 KiB  
Article
Effect of Strain Heterogeneities on Microstructure, Texture, Hardness, and H-Activation of High-Pressure Torsion Mg Consolidated from Different Powders
by Subrata Panda, Laszlo S. Toth, Jianxin Zou and Thierry Grosdidier
Materials 2018, 11(8), 1335; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11081335 - 01 Aug 2018
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3494
Abstract
Severe plastic deformation techniques, such as high-pressure torsion (HPT), have been increasingly applied on powder materials to consolidate bulk nanostructured materials. In this context, the aim of the present study is to compare the plastic deformation characteristics during HPT of two distinct Mg-based [...] Read more.
Severe plastic deformation techniques, such as high-pressure torsion (HPT), have been increasingly applied on powder materials to consolidate bulk nanostructured materials. In this context, the aim of the present study is to compare the plastic deformation characteristics during HPT of two distinct Mg-based powder precursors: (i) atomized micro-sized powder and (ii) condensed and passivated nanopowder. Dynamic recrystallization could take place during HPT consolidation of the atomized powder particles while the oxide pinning of the grain boundaries restricted it for the condensed powder. Consequently, there have been substantial differences in the development of the microstructure, texture, local strain heterogeneities, and hardness in the two types of consolidated products. Different types of local strain heterogeneities were also revealed in the consolidated products. The associated diversity in microstructure within the same consolidated product has been demonstrated to have an effect on the hydrogen activation kinetics to form hydrides for these Mg-based materials that could be suitable for solid state H-storage applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design of Alloy Metals for Low-Mass Structures)
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23 pages, 13638 KiB  
Article
Effects of Processing Conditions on Texture and Microstructure Evolution in Extra-Low Carbon Steel during Multi-Pass Asymmetric Rolling
by Satyaveer Singh Dhinwal, Laszlo S. Toth, Peter Damian Hodgson and Arunansu Haldar
Materials 2018, 11(8), 1327; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11081327 - 31 Jul 2018
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3213
Abstract
Multi-pass rolling was carried out on extra-low carbon steel at room temperature by imposing different ratios of asymmetry in the roll-diameters as well as by conventional mode. The aim of this study is to understand the effect of shear deformation due to the [...] Read more.
Multi-pass rolling was carried out on extra-low carbon steel at room temperature by imposing different ratios of asymmetry in the roll-diameters as well as by conventional mode. The aim of this study is to understand the effect of shear deformation due to the asymmetric conditions on the development of the rolling texture and the possibilities of propagating the shear deformation into the mid-thickness area of the sheet. The trends of the measured texture developments in both symmetric and asymmetric rolling indicate their dependence primarily on the stability and fraction of the Goss {110}<001> and the rotated cube {001}<111> orientations. The effects of asymmetry conditions were further examined on the microstructure evolution and were correlated to the increased orientation inhomogeneity and grain fragmentation. Both texture and microstructure development showed their dependence on the applied thickness reduction per pass, on the total thickness reduction of the sheet as well as on the degree of the imposed asymmetry. It was found that shear textures can be obtained by asymmetric rolling at conditions where all three parameters—asymmetry ratio, strain in one pass, and the total accumulated strain—are as large as possible. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design of Alloy Metals for Low-Mass Structures)
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15 pages, 3336 KiB  
Article
Microsegregation Model Including Convection and Tip Undercooling: Application to Directional Solidification and Welding
by Thomas Billotte, Dominique Daloz, Bernard Rouat, Guillaume Tirand, Jacob R. Kennedy, Vincent Robin and Julien Zollinger
Materials 2018, 11(7), 1252; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11071252 - 20 Jul 2018
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4168
Abstract
The microsegregation behavior of alloy filler metal 52 (FM 52) was studied using microprobe analysis on two different solidification processes. First, microsegregation was characterized in samples manufactured by directional solidification, and then by gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW). The experimental results were compared [...] Read more.
The microsegregation behavior of alloy filler metal 52 (FM 52) was studied using microprobe analysis on two different solidification processes. First, microsegregation was characterized in samples manufactured by directional solidification, and then by gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW). The experimental results were compared with Thermo-Calc calculations to verify their accuracy. It was confirmed that the thermodynamic database predicts most alloying elements well. Once this data had been determined, several tip undercooling calculations were carried out for different solidification conditions in terms of fluid flow and thermal gradient values. These calculations allowed the authors to develop a parametrization card for the constants of the microsegregation model, according to the process parameters (e.g., convection in melt pool, thermal gradient, and growth velocity). A new model of microsegregation, including convection and tip undercooling, is also proposed. The Tong–Beckermann microsegregation model was used individually and coupled with a modified Kurz-Giovanola-Trivedi (KGT) tip undercooling model, in order to take into account the convection in the fluid flow at the dendrite tip. Model predictions were compared to experimental results and showed the microsegregation evolution accurately. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design of Alloy Metals for Low-Mass Structures)
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12 pages, 2993 KiB  
Article
Micromechanical Modeling of the Elasto-Viscoplastic Behavior and Incompatibility Stresses of β-Ti Alloys
by Safaa Lhadi, Maria-Rita Chini, Thiebaud Richeton, Nathalie Gey, Lionel Germain and Stéphane Berbenni
Materials 2018, 11(7), 1227; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11071227 - 17 Jul 2018
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3116
Abstract
Near β titanium alloys can now compete with quasi-α or α/β titanium alloys for airframe forging applications. The body-centered cubic β-phase can represent up to 40% of the volume. However, the way that its elastic anisotropy impacts the mechanical behavior remains an open [...] Read more.
Near β titanium alloys can now compete with quasi-α or α/β titanium alloys for airframe forging applications. The body-centered cubic β-phase can represent up to 40% of the volume. However, the way that its elastic anisotropy impacts the mechanical behavior remains an open question. In the present work, an advanced elasto-viscoplastic self-consistent model is used to investigate the tensile behavior at different applied strain rates of a fully β-phase Ti alloy taken as a model material. The model considers crystalline anisotropic elasticity and plasticity. It is first shown that two sets of elastic constants taken from the literature can be used to well reproduce the experimental elasto-viscoplastic transition, but lead to scattered mechanical behaviors at the grain scale. Incompatibility stresses and strains are found to increase in magnitude with the elastic anisotropy factor. The highest local stresses are obtained toward the end of the elastic regime for grains oriented with their <111> direction parallel to the tensile axis. Finally, as a major result, it is shown that the elastic anisotropy of the β-phase can affect the distribution of slip activities. In contrast with the isotropic elastic case, it is predicted that {112} <111> slip systems become predominant at the onset of plastic deformation when elastic anisotropy is considered in the micromechanical model. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design of Alloy Metals for Low-Mass Structures)
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21 pages, 2447 KiB  
Article
Mechanical Modelling of the Plastic Flow Machining Process
by Viet Q. Vu, Yan Beygelzimer, Roman Kulagin and Laszlo S. Toth
Materials 2018, 11(7), 1218; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11071218 - 16 Jul 2018
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3208
Abstract
A new severe plastic deformation process, plastic flow machining (PFM), was introduced recently to produce sheet materials with ultrafine and gradient structures from bulk samples in one single deformation step. During the PFM process, a part of a rectangular sample is transformed into [...] Read more.
A new severe plastic deformation process, plastic flow machining (PFM), was introduced recently to produce sheet materials with ultrafine and gradient structures from bulk samples in one single deformation step. During the PFM process, a part of a rectangular sample is transformed into a thin sheet or fin under high hydrostatic pressure. The obtained fin is heavily deformed and presents a strain gradient across its thickness. The present paper aims to provide better understanding about this new process via analytical modelling accompanied by finite element simulations. PFM experiments were carried out on square commercially pure aluminum (CP Al) billets. Under pressing, the material flowed from the horizontal channel into a narrow 90° oriented lateral channel to form a fin sheet product, and the remaining part of the sample continued to move along the horizontal channel. At the opposite end of the bulk sample, a back-pressure was applied to increase the hydrostatic pressure in the material. The experiments were set at different width sizes of the lateral channel under two conditions; with or without applying back-pressure. A factor called the lateral extrusion ratio was defined as the ratio between the volume of the produced fin and the incoming volume. This ratio characterizes the efficiency of the PFM process. The experimental results showed that this ratio was greater when back-pressure was applied and further, it increased with the rise of the lateral channel width size. Finite element simulations were conducted in the same boundary conditions as the experiments using DEFORM-2D/3D software, V11.0. Two analytical models were also established. The first one used the variational principle to predict the lateral extrusion ratio belonging to the minimum total plastic power. The second one employed an upper-bound approach on a kinematically admissible velocity field to describe the deformation gradient in the fin. The numerical simulations and the analytical modelling successfully predicted the experimental tendencies, including the deformation gradient across the fin thickness. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design of Alloy Metals for Low-Mass Structures)
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14 pages, 3724 KiB  
Article
Toward Better Control of Inclusion Cleanliness in a Gas Stirred Ladle Using Multiscale Numerical Modeling
by Jean-Pierre Bellot, Jean-Sebastien Kroll-Rabotin, Matthieu Gisselbrecht, Manoj Joishi, Akash Saxena, Sean Sanders and Alain Jardy
Materials 2018, 11(7), 1179; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11071179 - 10 Jul 2018
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3492
Abstract
The industrial objective of lowering the mass of mechanical structures requires continuous improvement in controlling the mechanical properties of metallic materials. Steel cleanliness and especially control of inclusion size distribution have, therefore, become major challenges. Inclusions have a detrimental effect on fatigue that [...] Read more.
The industrial objective of lowering the mass of mechanical structures requires continuous improvement in controlling the mechanical properties of metallic materials. Steel cleanliness and especially control of inclusion size distribution have, therefore, become major challenges. Inclusions have a detrimental effect on fatigue that strongly depends both on inclusion content and on the size of the largest inclusions. Ladle treatment of liquid steel has long been recognized as the processing stage responsible for the inclusion of cleanliness. A multiscale modeling has been proposed to investigate the inclusion behavior. The evolution of the inclusion size distribution is simulated at the process scale due to coupling a computational fluid dynamics calculation with a population balance method integrating all mechanisms, i.e., flotation, aggregation, settling, and capture at the top layer. Particular attention has been paid to the aggregation mechanism and the simulations at an inclusion scale with fully resolved inclusions that represent hydrodynamic conditions of the ladle, which have been specifically developed. Simulations of an industrial-type ladle highlight that inclusion cleanliness is mainly ruled by aggregation. Quantitative knowledge of aggregation kinetics has been extracted and captured from mesoscale simulations. Aggregation efficiency has been observed to drop drastically when increasing the particle size ratio. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design of Alloy Metals for Low-Mass Structures)
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12 pages, 3134 KiB  
Article
Stress Concentration and Mechanical Strength of Cubic Lattice Architectures
by Paul Lohmuller, Julien Favre, Boris Piotrowski, Samuel Kenzari and Pascal Laheurte
Materials 2018, 11(7), 1146; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11071146 - 05 Jul 2018
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4793
Abstract
The continuous design of cubic lattice architecture materials provides a wide range of mechanical properties. It makes possible to control the stress magnitude and the local maxima in the structure. This study reveals some architectures specifically designed to reach a good compromise between [...] Read more.
The continuous design of cubic lattice architecture materials provides a wide range of mechanical properties. It makes possible to control the stress magnitude and the local maxima in the structure. This study reveals some architectures specifically designed to reach a good compromise between mass reduction and mechanical strength. Decreased local stress concentration prevents the early occurrence of localized plasticity or damage, and promotes the fatigue resistance. The high performance of cubic architectures is reported extensively, and structures with the best damage resistance are identified. The fatigue resistance and S–N curves (stress magnitude versus lifetime curves) can be estimated successfully, based on the investigation of the stress concentration. The output data are represented in two-dimensional (2D) color maps to help mechanical engineers in selecting the suitable architecture with the desired stress concentration factor, and eventually with the correct fatigue lifetime. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design of Alloy Metals for Low-Mass Structures)
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18 pages, 5517 KiB  
Article
Optimization of the Iron Ore Direct Reduction Process through Multiscale Process Modeling
by Rami Béchara, Hamzeh Hamadeh, Olivier Mirgaux and Fabrice Patisson
Materials 2018, 11(7), 1094; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11071094 - 27 Jun 2018
Cited by 49 | Viewed by 8883
Abstract
Iron ore direct reduction is an attractive alternative steelmaking process in the context of greenhouse gas mitigation. To simulate the process and explore possible optimization, we developed a systemic, multiscale process model. The reduction of the iron ore pellets is described using a [...] Read more.
Iron ore direct reduction is an attractive alternative steelmaking process in the context of greenhouse gas mitigation. To simulate the process and explore possible optimization, we developed a systemic, multiscale process model. The reduction of the iron ore pellets is described using a specific grain model, reflecting the transformations from hematite to iron. The shaft furnace is modeled as a set of interconnected one-dimensional zones into which the principal chemical reactions (3-step reduction, methane reforming, Boudouard and water gas shift) are accounted for with their kinetics. The previous models are finally integrated in a global, plant-scale, model using the Aspen Plus software. The reformer, scrubber, and heat exchanger are included. Results at the shaft furnace scale enlighten the role of the different zones according to the physico-chemical phenomena occurring. At the plant scale, we demonstrate the capabilities of the model to investigate new operating conditions leading to lower CO2 emissions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design of Alloy Metals for Low-Mass Structures)
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18 pages, 3616 KiB  
Article
Combined Effects of Texture and Grain Size Distribution on the Tensile Behavior of α-Titanium
by Thiebaud Richeton, Francis Wagner, Cai Chen and Laszlo S. Toth
Materials 2018, 11(7), 1088; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11071088 - 26 Jun 2018
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3580
Abstract
This work analyzes the role of both the grain size distribution and the crystallographic texture on the tensile behavior of commercially pure titanium. Specimens with different microstructures, especially with several mean grain sizes, were specifically prepared for that purpose. It is observed that [...] Read more.
This work analyzes the role of both the grain size distribution and the crystallographic texture on the tensile behavior of commercially pure titanium. Specimens with different microstructures, especially with several mean grain sizes, were specifically prepared for that purpose. It is observed that the yield stress depends on the grain size following a Hall–Petch relationship, that the stress–strain curves have a tendency to form a plateau that becomes more and more pronounced with decreasing mean grain size and that the hardening capacity increases with the grain size. All these observations are well reproduced by an elasto-visco-plastic self-consistent model that incorporates grain size effects within a crystal plasticity framework where dislocations’ densities are the state variables. First, the critical resolved shear stresses are made dependent on the individual grain size through the addition of a Hall–Petch type term. Then, the main originality of the model comes from the fact that the multiplication of mobile dislocation densities is also made grain size dependent. The underlying assumption is that grain boundaries act mainly as barriers or sinks for dislocations. Hence, the smaller the grain size, the smaller the expansion of dislocation loops and thus the smaller the increase rate of mobile dislocation density is. As a consequence of this hypothesis, both mobile and forest dislocation densities increase with the grain size and provide an explanation for the grain size dependence of the transient low work hardening rate and hardening capacity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design of Alloy Metals for Low-Mass Structures)
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11 pages, 1490 KiB  
Article
In Situ Investigation of the Iron Carbide Precipitation Process in a Fe-C-Mn-Si Q&P Steel
by Sébastien Y. P. Allain, Samy Aoued, Angéline Quintin-Poulon, Mohamed Gouné, Frédéric Danoix, Jean-Christophe Hell, Magali Bouzat, Michel Soler and Guillaume Geandier
Materials 2018, 11(7), 1087; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11071087 - 26 Jun 2018
Cited by 31 | Viewed by 4887
Abstract
Quenching and Partitioning (Q&P) steels are promising candidates for automotive applications because of their lightweight potential. Their properties depend on carbon enrichment in austenite which, in turn, is strongly influenced by carbide precipitation in martensite during quenching and partitioning treatment. In this paper, [...] Read more.
Quenching and Partitioning (Q&P) steels are promising candidates for automotive applications because of their lightweight potential. Their properties depend on carbon enrichment in austenite which, in turn, is strongly influenced by carbide precipitation in martensite during quenching and partitioning treatment. In this paper, by coupling in situ High Energy X-Ray Diffraction (HEXRD) experiments and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), we give some clarification regarding the precipitation process of iron carbides in martensite throughout the Q&P process. For the first time, precipitation kinetics was followed in real time. It was shown that precipitation starts during the reheating sequence for the steel studied. Surprisingly, the precipitated fraction remains stable all along the partitioning step at 400 °C. Furthermore, the analyses enable the conclusion that the iron carbides are most probably eta carbides. The presence of cementite was ruled out, while the presence of several epsilon carbides cannot be strictly excluded. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design of Alloy Metals for Low-Mass Structures)
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13 pages, 2215 KiB  
Article
Complexity and Anisotropy of Plastic Flow of α-Ti Probed by Acoustic Emission and Local Extensometry
by Mikhail Lebyodkin, Kékéli Amouzou, Tatiana Lebedkina, Thiebaud Richeton and Amandine Roth
Materials 2018, 11(7), 1061; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11071061 - 22 Jun 2018
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3065
Abstract
Current progress in the prediction of mechanical behavior of solids requires understanding of spatiotemporal complexity of plastic flow caused by self-organization of crystal defects. It may be particularly important in hexagonal materials because of their strong anisotropy and combination of different mechanisms of [...] Read more.
Current progress in the prediction of mechanical behavior of solids requires understanding of spatiotemporal complexity of plastic flow caused by self-organization of crystal defects. It may be particularly important in hexagonal materials because of their strong anisotropy and combination of different mechanisms of plasticity, such as dislocation glide and twinning. These materials often display complex behavior even on the macroscopic scale of deformation curves, e.g., a peculiar three-stage elastoplastic transition, the origin of which is a matter of debates. The present work is devoted to a multiscale study of plastic flow in α-Ti, based on simultaneous recording of deformation curves, 1D local strain field, and acoustic emission (AE). It is found that the average AE activity also reveals three-stage behavior, but in a qualitatively different way depending on the crystallographic orientation of the sample axis. On the finer scale, the statistical analysis of AE events and local strain rates testifies to an avalanche-like character of dislocation processes, reflected in power-law probability distribution functions. The results are discussed from the viewpoint of collective dislocation dynamics and are confronted to predictions of a recent micromechanical model of Ti strain hardening. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design of Alloy Metals for Low-Mass Structures)
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12 pages, 25911 KiB  
Article
Three Dimensional Methodology to Characterize Large Dendritic Equiaxed Grains in Industrial Steel Ingots
by Marvin Gennesson, Julien Zollinger, Dominique Daloz, Bernard Rouat, Joëlle Demurger and Hervé Combeau
Materials 2018, 11(6), 1007; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11061007 - 13 Jun 2018
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4248
Abstract
The primary phase grain size is a key parameter to understand the formation of the macrosegregation pattern in large steel ingots. Most of the characterization techniques use two-dimensional measurements. In this paper, a characterization method has been developed for equiaxed dendritic grains in [...] Read more.
The primary phase grain size is a key parameter to understand the formation of the macrosegregation pattern in large steel ingots. Most of the characterization techniques use two-dimensional measurements. In this paper, a characterization method has been developed for equiaxed dendritic grains in industrial steel castings. A total of 383 contours were drawn two-dimensionally on twelve 6.6 cm2slices. A three-dimensional reconstruction method is performed to obtain 171 three-dimensional grains. Data regarding the size, shape and orientation of equiaxed grains is presented and thereby shows that equiaxed grains are centimeter-scale complex objects. They appear to be a poly-dispersed collection of non-isotropic objects possessing preferential orientations. In addition, the volumetric grain number density is 2.2×107 grains/m3, which compares to the 0.5×107 grains/m3 that can be obtained with estimation from 2D measurements. The 2.2×107 grains/m3 value is ten-times smaller than that previously used in the literature to simulate the macrosegregation profile in the same 6.2 ton ingot. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design of Alloy Metals for Low-Mass Structures)
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20 pages, 9468 KiB  
Article
Modeling the Effect of Primary and Secondary Twinning on Texture Evolution during Severe Plastic Deformation of a Twinning-Induced Plasticity Steel
by Laszlo S. Toth, Christian Haase, Robert Allen, Rimma Lapovok, Dmitri A. Molodov, Mohammed Cherkaoui and Haitham El Kadiri
Materials 2018, 11(5), 863; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11050863 - 22 May 2018
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3945
Abstract
Modeling the effect of deformation twinning and the ensuing twin-twin- and slip-twin-induced hardening is a long-standing problem in computational mechanical metallurgy of materials that deform by both slip and twinning. In this work, we address this effect using the twin volume transfer method, [...] Read more.
Modeling the effect of deformation twinning and the ensuing twin-twin- and slip-twin-induced hardening is a long-standing problem in computational mechanical metallurgy of materials that deform by both slip and twinning. In this work, we address this effect using the twin volume transfer method, which obviates the need of any cumbersome criterion for twin variant selection. Additionally, this method is capable of capturing, at the same time, secondary or double twinning, which is particularly important for modeling in large strain regimes. We validate our modeling methodology by simulating the behavior of an Fe-23Mn-1.5Al-0.3C twinning-induced plasticity (TWIP) steel under large strain conditions, experimentally achieved in this work through equal-channel angular pressing (ECAP) for up to two passes in a 90° die following route BC at 300 °C. Each possible twin variant, whether nucleating inside the parent grain or inside a potential primary twin variant was predefined in the initial list of orientations as possible grain of the polycrystal with zero initial volume fraction. A novelty of our approach is to take into account the loss of coherency of the twins with their parent matrix under large strains, obstructing progressively their further growth. This effect has been captured by attenuating growth rates of twins as a function of their rotation away from their perfect twin orientation, dubbed here as “disorientation” with respect to the mother grain’s lattice. The simulated textures and the hardening under tensile strain showed very good agreement with experimental characterization and mechanical testing results. Furthermore, upper-bound Taylor deformation was found to be operational for the TWIP steel deformation when all the above ingredients of twinning are captured, indicating that self-consistent schemes can be bypassed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design of Alloy Metals for Low-Mass Structures)
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15 pages, 25606 KiB  
Article
Effect of Inoculant Alloy Selection and Particle Size on Efficiency of Isomorphic Inoculation of Ti-Al
by Jacob R. Kennedy, Bernard Rouat, Dominique Daloz, Emmanuel Bouzy and Julien Zollinger
Materials 2018, 11(5), 666; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11050666 - 25 Apr 2018
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3859
Abstract
The process of isomorphic inoculation relies on precise selection of inoculant alloys for a given system. Three alloys, Ti-10Al-25Nb, Ti-25Al-10Ta, and Ti-47Ta (at %) were selected as potential isomorphic inoculants for a Ti-46Al alloy. The binary Ti-Ta alloy selected was found to be [...] Read more.
The process of isomorphic inoculation relies on precise selection of inoculant alloys for a given system. Three alloys, Ti-10Al-25Nb, Ti-25Al-10Ta, and Ti-47Ta (at %) were selected as potential isomorphic inoculants for a Ti-46Al alloy. The binary Ti-Ta alloy selected was found to be ineffective as an inoculant due to its large density difference with the melt, causing the particles to settle. Both ternary alloys were successfully implemented as isomorphic inoculants that decreased the equiaxed grain size and increased the equiaxed fraction in their ingots. The degree of grain refinement obtained was found to be dependent on the number of particles introduced to the melt. Also, more new grains were formed than particles added to the melt. The grains/particle efficiency varied from greater than one to nearly twenty as the size of the particle increased. This is attributed to the breaking up of particles into smaller particles by dissolution in the melt. For a given particle size, Ti-Al-Ta and Ti-Al-Nb particles were found to have a roughly similar grain/particle efficiency. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design of Alloy Metals for Low-Mass Structures)
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24 pages, 4157 KiB  
Article
Geometrically Nonlinear Field Fracture Mechanics and Crack Nucleation, Application to Strain Localization Fields in Al-Cu-Li Aerospace Alloys
by Satyapriya Gupta, Vincent Taupin, Claude Fressengeas and Mohamad Jrad
Materials 2018, 11(4), 498; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11040498 - 27 Mar 2018
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4219
Abstract
The displacement discontinuity arising between crack surfaces is assigned to smooth densities of crystal defects referred to as disconnections, through the incompatibility of the distortion tensor. In a dual way, the disconnections are defined as line defects terminating surfaces where the displacement encounters [...] Read more.
The displacement discontinuity arising between crack surfaces is assigned to smooth densities of crystal defects referred to as disconnections, through the incompatibility of the distortion tensor. In a dual way, the disconnections are defined as line defects terminating surfaces where the displacement encounters a discontinuity. A conservation statement for the crack opening displacement provides a framework for disconnection dynamics in the form of transport laws. A similar methodology applied to the discontinuity of the plastic displacement due to dislocations results in the concurrent involvement of dislocation densities in the analysis. Non-linearity of the geometrical setting is assumed for defining the elastic distortion incompatibility in the presence of both dislocations and disconnections, as well as for their transport. Crack nucleation in the presence of thermally-activated fluctuations of the atomic order is shown to derive from this nonlinearity in elastic brittle materials, without any algorithmic rule or ad hoc material parameter. Digital image correlation techniques applied to the analysis of tensile tests on ductile Al-Cu-Li samples further demonstrate the ability of the disconnection density concept to capture crack nucleation and relate strain localization bands to consistent disconnection fields and to the eventual occurrence of complex and combined crack modes in these alloys. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design of Alloy Metals for Low-Mass Structures)
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7 pages, 1738 KiB  
Article
A Dislocation-Scale Characterization of the Evolution of Deformation Microstructures around Nanoindentation Imprints in a TiAl Alloy
by Antoine Guitton, Hana Kriaa, Emmanuel Bouzy, Julien Guyon and Nabila Maloufi
Materials 2018, 11(2), 305; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11020305 - 20 Feb 2018
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4099
Abstract
In this work, plastic deformation was locally introduced at room temperature by nanoindentation on a γ-TiAl-based alloy. Comprehensive analyses of microstructures were performed before and after deformation. In particular, the Burgers vectors, the line directions, and the mechanical twinning systems were studied via [...] Read more.
In this work, plastic deformation was locally introduced at room temperature by nanoindentation on a γ-TiAl-based alloy. Comprehensive analyses of microstructures were performed before and after deformation. In particular, the Burgers vectors, the line directions, and the mechanical twinning systems were studied via accurate electron channeling contrast imaging. Accommodation of the deformation are reported and a scenario is proposed. All features help to explain the poor ductility of the TiAl-based alloys at room temperature. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design of Alloy Metals for Low-Mass Structures)
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8 pages, 2516 KiB  
Article
Revealing Grain Boundary Sliding from Textures of a Deformed Nanocrystalline Pd–Au Alloy
by Laszlo S. Toth, Werner Skrotzki, Yajun Zhao, Aurimas Pukenas, Christian Braun and Rainer Birringer
Materials 2018, 11(2), 190; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11020190 - 25 Jan 2018
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3587
Abstract
Employing a recent modeling scheme for grain boundary sliding [Zhao et al. Adv. Eng. Mater. 2017, doi:10.1002/adem.201700212], crystallographic textures were simulated for nanocrystalline fcc metals deformed in shear compression. It is shown that, as grain boundary sliding increases, the texture strength decreases [...] Read more.
Employing a recent modeling scheme for grain boundary sliding [Zhao et al. Adv. Eng. Mater. 2017, doi:10.1002/adem.201700212], crystallographic textures were simulated for nanocrystalline fcc metals deformed in shear compression. It is shown that, as grain boundary sliding increases, the texture strength decreases while the signature of the texture type remains the same. Grain boundary sliding affects the texture components differently with respect to intensity and angular position. A comparison of a simulation and an experiment on a Pd–10 atom % Au alloy with a 15 nm grain size reveals that, at room temperature, the predominant deformation mode is grain boundary sliding contributing to strain by about 60%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design of Alloy Metals for Low-Mass Structures)
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