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A special issue of Metals (ISSN 2075-4701). This special issue belongs to the section "Additive Manufacturing".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2019) | Viewed by 69363

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Prof. Dr. Peter Mayr

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Guest Editor

Chemnitz University of Technology, Head of Institute of Joining and Assembly Reichenhainer Strasse 70, D-09126, Chemnitz, Germany
Interests: joining of challenging materials; advanced manufacturing; structure–process–property relationships

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Over the past few years, additive manufacturing has gained enormous attention in terms of research, and also from industry. Metallic structures, especially beam-based processes, have been extensively investigated and validated, machinery has been developed, and in many cases implemented in industrial production.

On the other hand, a large variety of arc-based processes has been used for decades to join and generate structures of various metals. Already, in the past, arc welding has been used to create components consisting either partly or entirely of weld metal, for example in the repair or tooling industries. Under the rise of additive manufacturing, several newly-named processes, based on arc welding such as Wire+Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) or 3D Plasma-Metal-Deposition (3DPMD), have been introduced.

This Special Issue of Metals is devoted to the science of all arc-based additive manufacturing processes and their generated structures. These shall include wire-, strip- and powder-based variants and include topics such as design strategies, manufacturing-related issues, metallurgical details, tailored microstructures, functionally-graded structures or the investigation of properties of AM structures.

Each manuscript that contributes to form a deeper understanding of process–structure–property relationships in arc-based additive manufacturing is welcome, and we are looking forward to receiving your contributions.

Prof. Dr. Peter Mayr
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

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Keywords

Arc-based additive manufacturing
Wire+Arc Additive Manufacturing
Plasma-Powder-Metal-Deposition
process-structure-property relationships
welding strategies
tailored microstructures
functionally-graded structures

Published Papers (13 papers)

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Research

14 pages, 6700 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Material Design in Welding Arc Additive Manufacturing

by Kai Treutler, Swenja Kamper, Marcel Leicher, Tobias Bick and Volker Wesling

Metals 2019, 9(7), 809; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9070809 - 22 Jul 2019

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4052

Abstract

Due to the inherent properties of the process, arc-based generative manufacturing offers the possibility, of specifically applying different material properties locally. One possibility to realize this is the use of different materials. Three approaches are presented to illustrate this option. First, anisotropic behavior in the welding direction is generated. For this purpose, a FeNi36 is specifically combined with a low-alloy ultra-high-strength fine-grained structural steel filler metal. It will be shown that the integral component properties can be specifically adjusted in the welding direction. In addition, the metallurgical and welding characteristics will be discussed. As a second possibility, the use of well plasticizable materials to locally increase the material strength under cyclic loading with locally notched components is presented. For this purpose, an austenitic FeNi36 with good plasticizability and a good yield strength ratio for the application was applied to a fillet weld of a high-strength fine-grained structural steel in the weld seam toe. It is shown that the tolerable cyclic load can be improved by 35% by this procedure. Thirdly, it is shown that the required thickness of corrosion protection layers can be reduced by 50% through a targeted production sequence in arc-based generative manufacturing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Arc-based Additive Manufacturing)

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23 pages, 67335 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of Process Parameters to Improve the Effective Area of Deposition in GMAW-Based Additive Manufacturing and its Mechanical and Microstructural Analysis

by Ali Waqas, Xiansheng Qin, Jiangtao Xiong, Hongbo Wang and Chen Zheng

Metals 2019, 9(7), 775; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9070775 - 10 Jul 2019

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3797

Abstract

Additive manufacturing of metals using gas metal arc welding has an associated problem of variations of height in the onset and extinguishing parts of the weld bead. In this research, robot-assisted welding has been performed to investigate the problem, using AWS ER70S-6 low alloy steel welding electrode wire. After adjustment of welding parameters for a single-layer, single-pass, an optimal profile of welding energy was used to construct a thin wall which exhibited good forming characteristics with an effective area of approximately 97%. The resulting structure was ductile in nature with better tensile strength and microhardness as compared to the rolled steel available in industry with similar carbon content. The microstructure analysis revealed equiaxed grains in most parts of the structure having a fine grain size. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Arc-based Additive Manufacturing)

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14 pages, 4302 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Plasma Multiwire Technology with Alternating Wire Feed for Tailor-Made Material Properties in Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing

by Uwe Reisgen, Rahul Sharma and Lukas Oster

Metals 2019, 9(7), 745; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9070745 - 02 Jul 2019

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 5586

Abstract

Wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) is one of the most promising technologies for large-scale 3D printing of metal parts. Besides the high deposition rates, one of the advantages of WAAM is the possibility of using in situ alloying to modify the chemical composition and therefore the material properties of the fabricated workpiece. This can be achieved by feeding multiple wires of different chemical compositions into the molten pool of the welding process and generating a new alloy during the manufacturing process itself. At present, the chemical composition is changed stepwise by keeping the wire feed speeds per layer constant. This article describes the possibilities of generating chemically graded structures by constantly alternating the wire feed speeds of a multiwire WAAM process. This enables the chemical composition to be smoothly changed during the printing process, and generating structures with highly complex material properties. Several material combinations for different possible applications were successfully tested. Furthermore, grading strategies to avoid negative influences of low-ductility intermetallic phases were examined. The results show that low-ductility phases may even have a beneficial influence on the fracture behavior if they are combined with ductile phases. Moreover, prospective possible applications are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Arc-based Additive Manufacturing)

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14 pages, 7746 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Medium Carbon Steel Deposits Obtained via Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing Using Metal-Cored Wire

by Zidong Lin, Constantinos Goulas, Wei Ya and Marcel J.M. Hermans

Metals 2019, 9(6), 673; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9060673 - 10 Jun 2019

Cited by 42 | Viewed by 6214

Abstract

Wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) is a 3D metal printing technique based on the arc welding process. WAAM is considered to be suitable to produce large-scale metallic components by combining high deposition rate and low cost. WAAM uses conventional welding consumable wires as feedstock. In some applications of steel components, one-off spare parts need to be made on demand from steel grades that do not exist as commercial welding wire. In this research, a specifically produced medium carbon steel (Grade XC-45), metal-cored wire, equivalent to a composition of XC-45 forged material, was deposited with WAAM to produce a thin wall. The specific composition was chosen because it is of particular interest for the on-demand production of heavily loaded aerospace components. The microstructure, hardness, and tensile strength of the deposited part were studied. Fractography studies were conducted on the tested specimens. Due to the multiple thermal cycles during the building process, local variations in microstructural features were evident. Nevertheless, the hardness of the part was relatively uniform from the top to the bottom of the construct. The mean yield/ultimate tensile strength was 620 MPa/817 MPa in the horizontal (deposition) direction and 580 MPa/615 MPa in the vertical (build) direction, respectively. The elongation in both directions showed a significant difference, i.e., 6.4% in the horizontal direction and 11% in the vertical direction. Finally, from the dimple-like structures observed in the fractography study, a ductile fracture mode was determined. Furthermore, a comparison of mechanical properties between WAAM and traditionally processed XC-45, such as casting, forging, and cold rolling was conducted. The results show a more uniform hardness distribution and higher tensile strength of the WAAM deposit using the designed metal-cored wires. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Arc-based Additive Manufacturing)

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14 pages, 6760 KiB

Open AccessArticle

CMT Additive Manufacturing of a High Strength Steel Alloy for Application in Crane Construction

by Josef Plangger, Peter Schabhüttl, Tomaž Vuherer and Norbert Enzinger

Metals 2019, 9(6), 650; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9060650 - 04 Jun 2019

Cited by 47 | Viewed by 5383

Abstract

This work investigates the feasibility of manufacturing a near net shape structural part directly on a subassembly for application in crane construction without post-machining. Single- and multi-pass welding experiments, using the Cold Metal Transfer process (CMT), were executed to identify and verify suitable process parameters. The obtained parameters were then used to manufacture a wall structure and an optical measurement of the resulting geometry was performed. Mechanical properties of the all-weld metal in the as-built condition in different directions were determined. The results for tensile testing showed similar values to the filler material specifications and fracture toughness matched literature values, but a decrease of impact toughness was obtained. Although mechanical testing showed no significant anisotropy, hardness measurements showed the influence of the local temperature profile. Finally, strategies to manufacture a complex structural part were investigated. It was possible to establish a stable process to manufacture a section of the specified geometry in a first attempt. However, results indicate that there is still further work necessary to optimize this process and to investigate the influences on the mechanical properties of the final component. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Arc-based Additive Manufacturing)

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19 pages, 9471 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Functionally Graded SS 316L to Ni-Based Structures Produced by 3D Plasma Metal Deposition

by Johnnatan Rodriguez, Kevin Hoefer, Andre Haelsig and Peter Mayr

Metals 2019, 9(6), 620; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9060620 - 28 May 2019

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 4870

Abstract

In this investigation, the fabrication of functionally graded structures of SS316L to Ni-based alloys were studied, using the novel technique 3D plasma metal deposition. Two Ni-based alloys were used, a heat resistance alloy Ni80-20 and the solid-solution strengthened Ni625. Different configurations were analyzed, for the Ni80-20 a hard transition and a smooth transition with a region of 50% SS316L/50% Ni80-20. Regarding the structures with Ni625, a smooth transition configuration and variations in the heat input were applied. The effect of the process parameters on the geometry of the structures and the microstructures was studied. Microstructure examinations were carried out using optical and scanning electron microscopy. In addition, microhardness analysis were made on the interfaces. In general, the smooth transition of both systems showed a gradual change in the properties. The microstructural results for the SS316L (both systems) showed an austenite matrix with δ-phase. For the mixed zone and the Ni80-20 an austenite (γ) matrix with some M₇C₃ precipitates and laves phase were recognized. The as-built Ni625 microstructure was composed of an austenite (γ) matrix with secondary phases laves and δ-Ni3Nb, and precipitates M₇C₃. The mixed zone exhibited the same phases but with changes in the morphology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Arc-based Additive Manufacturing)

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9 pages, 2926 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing of Aluminum Components

by Markus Köhler, Sierk Fiebig, Jonas Hensel and Klaus Dilger

Metals 2019, 9(5), 608; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9050608 - 24 May 2019

Cited by 95 | Viewed by 10444

Abstract

An increasing demand for flexibility and product integration, combined with reduced product development cycles, leads to continuous development of new manufacturing technologies such as additive manufacturing. Wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) provides promising technology for the near net-shape production of large structures with complex geometry, using cost efficient production resources such as arc welding technology and wire materials. Compared to powder-based additive manufacturing processes, WAAM offers high deposition rates as well as enhanced material utilization. Because of the layer-by-layer built up approach, process conditions such as energy input, arc characteristics, and material composition result in a different processability during the additive manufacturing process. This experimental study aims to describe the effects of the welding process on buildup accuracy and material properties during wire arc additive manufacturing of aluminum structures. Following a process development using pulse cold metal transfer (CMT-P), linear wall samples were manufactured with variations of the filler metal. The samples were analyzed in terms of surface finishing, hardness, and residual stress. Furthermore, mechanical properties were determined in different building directions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Arc-based Additive Manufacturing)

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13 pages, 3778 KiB

Open AccessArticle

In Situ Production of Titanium Aluminides during Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing with Hot-Wire Assisted GMAW Process

by Philipp Henckell, Yarop Ali, Andreas Metz, Jean Pierre Bergmann and Jan Reimann

Metals 2019, 9(5), 578; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9050578 - 18 May 2019

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4043

Abstract

As part of a feasibility study, an alternative production process for titanium aluminides was investigated. This process is based on in situ alloying by means of a multi-wire technique in the layer-wise additive manufacturing process. Thereby, gas metal arc welding (GMAW) was combined with additional hot-wire feeding. By using two separate wires made of titanium and aluminum, it is possible to implement the alloy formation of titanium aluminides directly in the weld bead of the welding process. In this study, wall structures were built layer-by-layer with alloy compositions between 10 at% and 55 at% aluminum by changing the feeding rates. During this investigation, the macroscopic characteristics, microstructural formation, and the change of the microhardness values were analyzed. A close examination of the influence of welding speed and post-process heat treatment on the Ti–47Al alloy was performed; this being particularly relevant due to its economically wide spread applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Arc-based Additive Manufacturing)

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19 pages, 5782 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Additive Manufacturing of Complex Components through 3D Plasma Metal Deposition—A Simulative Approach

by Khaled Alaluss and Peter Mayr

Metals 2019, 9(5), 574; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9050574 - 17 May 2019

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3556

Abstract

This study examines simulative experimental investigations on the additive manufacturing of complex component geometries using 3D plasma metal deposition (3DPMD). Here, complex contour surfaces for a cross-rolling tool were produced from weld metals in multilayer technology through 3DPMD. As a consequence of the special features of 3DPMD with large-weld metal volumes, greatly differing properties between base material/deposited material and asymmetrical heat input, the resulting shrinkage, deformation and residual stresses are particularly critical. These lead to dimensional and form deviations as well as the formation of cracks, which has a negative influence on the quality of the plasma deposition-welded component structures. By means of the thermo-elastic-plastic simulation model, the temperature field distribution, deformation, and residual stresses occurring during additive 3DPMD of tool contours were predicted and analyzed. The temperature field distribution and its gradients were determined using the ellipsoid heat-source model for the 3DPMD process. On this basis, a coupled thermo-elastic-plastic structural–mechanical analysis was performed. Accordingly, the results achieved were used for the production of almost-net-shaped tool contour surfaces with predefined layer properties. The acquired simulation results of the temperature fields, deformation, and residual stress condition show good alignment with the experimental results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Arc-based Additive Manufacturing)

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13 pages, 1909 KiB

Open AccessArticle

GMAW Cold Wire Technology for Adjusting the Ferrite–Austenite Ratio of Wire and Arc Additive Manufactured Duplex Stainless Steel Components

by Juliane Stützer, Tom Totzauer, Benjamin Wittig, Manuela Zinke and Sven Jüttner

Metals 2019, 9(5), 564; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9050564 - 14 May 2019

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 5021

Abstract

The use of commercially available filler metals for wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) of duplex stainless steel components results in a microstructure with a very low ferrite content. The ferrite–austenite ratio in the duplex stainless steel weld metal depends on both the cooling rate and particularly on the chemical composition. However, the research and testing of special filler metals for additive deposition welding using wire and arc processes is time-consuming and expensive. This paper describes a method that uses an additional cold wire feed in the gas metal arc welding (GMAW) process to selectively vary the alloy composition and thus the microstructure of duplex stainless steel weld metal. By mixing different filler metals, a reduction of the nickel equivalent and hence an increase in the ferrite content in additively manufactured duplex stainless steel specimens was achieved. The homogeneous mixing of electrode and cold wire was verified by energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). Furthermore, the addition of cold wire resulted in a significant increase in sample height while the sample width remained approximately the same. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Arc-based Additive Manufacturing)

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8 pages, 6013 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Manufacturing of Titanium Components with 3DPMD

by Kevin Hoefer, Alexander Nitsche, André Haelsig and Peter Mayr

Metals 2019, 9(5), 562; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9050562 - 14 May 2019

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3234

Abstract

Within this work, the 3D plasma metal deposition (3DPMD) process is introduced as an additive manufacturing process for titanium components. For this purpose, demonstrators were designed, manufactured and subsequently analyzed. Process-structure-property relationships are discussed. By analyzing the microstructure, the chemical composition and the mechanical-technological properties, it is shown that the production of titanium parts with 3DPMD is possible. The micro tensile tests showed that a load parallel to the build direction is the most critical case for the component. Furthermore, a brittle material behavior could be determined due to enhanced oxygen content in the component. By subsequent heat treatment, the brittle failure behavior could be increased to a fracture elongation of 4.6%. In sum, the 3DPMD process has the potential to manufacture near-net-shape titanium parts out of metal powders. Critical issues are the protection of the weldment and the lack of ductility of the titanium component. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Arc-based Additive Manufacturing)

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11 pages, 5004 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization of Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Stellite 6 Part Fabricated by Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing

by Zixiang Li, Yinan Cui, Jie Wang, Changmeng Liu, Jiachen Wang, Tianqiu Xu, Tao Lu, Haorui Zhang, Jiping Lu, Shuyuan Ma, Hongli Fan and Shuiyuan Tang

Metals 2019, 9(4), 474; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9040474 - 24 Apr 2019

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 5025

Abstract

Stellite 6 alloy has excellent wear resistance, corrosion resistance, and oxidation resistance, however the difficulties in traditional processing limit its wide application. Additive manufacturing technology that has emerged in recent years is expected to provide a new way for the processing of stellite 6 alloy. In this study, two square thin-walled stellite 6 parts were fabricated through the wire arc additive manufacturing technology. At the same time, the effect of stress relief annealing on the mechanical performance of the fabricated stellite 6 part was studied and compared with the corresponding casting part. The results indicate that the additive manufacturing stellite 6 components exhibit satisfactory quality and appearance. Moreover, the microstructure of the additive manufacturing part is much finer than that of the casting part. From the substrate to the top region of the additive manufacturing part, the morphology of the dendrites changes from columnar to equiaxed, and the hardness increases firstly and then decreases gradually. In addition, the average hardness of the additive manufacturing part is ~7–8 HRC higher than the casting part. The ultimate tensile strength and yield strength is ~150MPa higher than the casting part, while the elongation is almost the same. The stress relief annealing has no significant effect on the hardness of the AM part, but it can slightly improve the strength. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Arc-based Additive Manufacturing)

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10 pages, 4154 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermo-Mechanical Modelling of Wire-Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) of Semi-Finished Products

by Marcel Graf, Andre Hälsig, Kevin Höfer, Birgit Awiszus and Peter Mayr

Metals 2018, 8(12), 1009; https://doi.org/10.3390/met8121009 - 01 Dec 2018

Cited by 62 | Viewed by 7132

Abstract

Additive manufacturing processes have been investigated for some years, and are commonly used industrially in the field of plastics for small- and medium-sized series. The use of metallic deposition material has been intensively studied on the laboratory scale, but the numerical prediction is not yet state of the art. This paper examines numerical approaches for predicting temperature fields, distortions, and mechanical properties using the Finite Element (FE) software MSC Marc. For process mapping, the filler materials G4Si1 (1.5130) for steel, and AZ31 for magnesium, were first characterized in terms of thermo-physical and thermo-mechanical properties with process-relevant cast microstructure. These material parameters are necessary for a detailed thermo-mechanical coupled Finite Element Method (FEM). The focus of the investigations was on the numerical analysis of the influence of the wire feed (2.5–5.0 m/min) and the weld path orientation (unidirectional or continuous) on the temperature evolution for multi-layered walls of miscellaneous materials. For the calibration of the numerical model, the real welding experiments were carried out using the gas-metal arc-welding process—cold metal transfer (CMT) technology. A uniform wall geometry can be produced with a continuous welding path, because a more homogeneous temperature distribution results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Arc-based Additive Manufacturing)

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