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Rare Earth Deposits and Challenges of World REE Demand for High-Tech and Green-Tech at the Beginning of the 3^rd Millennium

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A special issue of Minerals (ISSN 2075-163X). This special issue belongs to the section "Mineral Deposits".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2019) | Viewed by 79286

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Jindřich Kynický

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Guest Editor

Department of Geology and Pedology, Mendel University in Brno, 61300 Brno, Czech Republic
Interests: economic geology; formation of critical metals deposits; rare earth elements; carbonatites; alkaline rocks; economic mining; fair play mining and sustainability in developing countries; REE mineralization and economic deposits of Mongolia, Siberia, Africa

Dr. Martin Smith

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Guest Editor

School of Environment and Technology, University of Brighton, Lewes Road, Brighton, UK
Interests: ore genesis; fluid inclusions; aqueous geochemistry; applied mineralogy; corrosion; rare earth elements; REE mineralization; carbonatites; alkaline rocks; metasomatic, hydrothermal and late stage magmatic processes; hydrogeology

Dr. Stefano Salvi

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Guest Editor

Géosciences Environnement Toulouse (GET), University of Toulouse, 31400 Toulouse, France
Interests: economic geology; formation of high-tech metal deposits; alkaline rocks; hydrothermal transport of REE and HFSE; fluid inclusions; orogenic gold deposits

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The rapid development of environmentally-friendly and other innovative technologies in the past century have greatly increased the demand for rare earth elements (REE) and, most recently, neodymium (Nd), dysprosium (Dy), niobium (Nb) and other critical materials in particular. The need for new sources of these materials has been amplified by the current situation in their supply markets, with a growing public concern about unlawful, unethical (e.g., “conflict coltan” in the Democratic Republic of the Congo) or environmentally harmful extraction (REEs sourced from the “South China clays”) of some rare-metal resources. Critical materials are, and will likely remain, indispensable for the implementation and further advancement of low-carbon energy and transportation technologies, such as wind farms and electric vehicles. An increased interest in these resources in the exploration, government and public sectors, stimulated by the need to secure new sources of critical and rare materials resilient to politically driven fluctuations in the global supply market, requires a much better understanding of critical-metal deposits than that which is currently available.

Rare metals, such as REE are initially concentrated early in the evolution of carbonatitic and other REE rich magma to form primary mineralization. The behavior of these metals during metamorphism, deformation and metasomatic reworking is one significant aspect of carbonatite and other REE-rich rocks’ petrogenesis that has direct implications for the economic potential of these rocks, but has not been studied in much detail.

Rare Earth Deposits and challenges of world REE demand for High-Tech and Green-Tech at the beginning of 3^rd millennium gives us the chance to recognize expertise in mineralogy, petrology and geochemistry of REE deposits.

The proposed “REE deposits issue” will cover the geology and exploration of the major REE deposit types and their tectonic settings, as well as address the key economic and political issues related to REE mining, extraction problems in the case of individual deposit and mineralization types, economic mineral associations and recent versus future mining and mineral processing development, challenge of silicate REE ores, emergence of REE as a distinct resource type and the evolution of society's perception of these commodities over the past 100 years.

We are inviting you to contribute a paper on this subject to the proposed Special Issue. This Special Issue will contribute to a better understanding of REE deposits and REE mineralization that may be key for future exploration. It will also impact on the development of socially and environmentally responsible mining in developing countries where the most REE deposits exist.

We look forward to hearing from you.

Best wishes,

Dr. Jindřich Kynický
Dr. Martin Smith
Dr. Stefano Salvi
Guest Editors

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Keywords

Rare earth elements
REE deposits
REE ores
Primary REE mineralization
Metasomatic reworking
REE dissolution and reprecipitation
Carbonatites
Alkaline rocks
Economic potential
Economic mining
REE processing

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Editorial

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3 pages, 201 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Editorial for Special Issue “Rare Earth Deposits and Challenges of World REE Demand for High-Tech and Green-Tech at the Beginning of the 3rd Millennium”

by Jindřich Kynický, Martin Smith and Stefano Salvi

Minerals 2021, 11(4), 378; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11040378 - 02 Apr 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1746

Abstract

We are living in a time of unprecedented technological innovation [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Earth Deposits and Challenges of World REE Demand for High-Tech and Green-Tech at the Beginning of the 3^rd Millennium)

Research

Jump to: Editorial

36 pages, 19999 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Petyayan-Vara Carbonatite-Hosted Rare Earth Deposit (Vuoriyarvi, NW Russia): Mineralogy and Geochemistry

by Evgeniy Kozlov, Ekaterina Fomina, Mikhail Sidorov, Vladimir Shilovskikh, Vladimir Bocharov, Alexey Chernyavsky and Miłosz Huber

Minerals 2020, 10(1), 73; https://doi.org/10.3390/min10010073 - 17 Jan 2020

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 6509

Abstract

The Vuoriyarvi Devonian carbonatite–ijolite–pyroxenite–olivinite complex comprises several carbonatite fields: Neske Vara, Tukhta-Vara, and Petyayan-Vara. The most common carbonatites in the Tukhta-Vara and Neske-Vara fields are calciocarbonatites, which host several P, Fe, Nb, and Ta deposits. This paper focuses on the Petyayan-Vara field, in which the primary magmatic carbonatites are magnesian. The least altered magnesiocarbonatites are composed of dolomite with burbankite and are rich in REE (up to 2.0 wt. %), Sr (up to 1.2 wt. %), and Ba (up to 0.8 wt. %). These carbonatites underwent several stages of metasomatism. Each metasomatic event produced a new rock type with specific mineralization. The introduction of K, Si, Al, Fe, Ti, and Nb by a F-rich fluid (or fluid-saturated melt) resulted in the formation of high-Ti magnesiocarbonatites and silicocarbonatites, composed of dolomite, microcline, Ti-rich phlogopite, and Fe–Ti oxides. Alteration by a phosphate–fluoride fluid caused the crystallization of apatite in the carbonatites. A sulfate-rich Ba–Sr–rare-earth elements (REE) fluid (probably brine-melt) promoted the massive precipitation of ancylite and baryte and, to a lesser extent, strontianite, bastnäsite, and synchysite. Varieties of carbonatite that contain the highest concentrations of REE are ancylite-dominant. The influence of sulfate-rich Ba-Sr-REE fluid on the apatite-bearing rocks resulted in the dissolution and reprecipitation of apatite in situ. The newly formed apatite generation is rich in HREE, Sr, and S. During late-stage transformations, breccias of magnesiocarbonatites with quartz-bastnäsite matrixes were formed. Simultaneously, strontianite, quartz, calcite, monazite, HREE-rich thorite, and Fe-hydroxides were deposited. Breccias with quartz-bastnäsite matrix are poorer in REE (up to 4.5 wt. % total REE) than the ancylite-dominant rocks (up to 11 wt. % total REE). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Earth Deposits and Challenges of World REE Demand for High-Tech and Green-Tech at the Beginning of the 3^rd Millennium)

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30 pages, 8488 KiB

Open AccessArticle

REE Enrichment during Magmatic–Hydrothermal Processes in Carbonatite-Related REE Deposits: A Case Study of the Weishan REE Deposit, China

by Yu-heng Jia and Yan Liu

Minerals 2020, 10(1), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/min10010025 - 27 Dec 2019

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 7514

Abstract

The Weishan carbonatite-related rare earth element (REE) deposit in China contains both high- and low-grade REE mineralization and is an informative case study for the investigation of magmatic–hydrothermal REE enrichment processes in such deposits. The main REE-bearing mineral is bastnäsite, with lesser parisite and monazite. REE mineralization occurred at a late stage of hydrothermal evolution and was followed by a sulfide stage. Barite, calcite, and strontianite appear homogeneous in back-scattered electron images and have high REE contents of 103–217, 146–13,120, and 194–16,412 ppm in their mineral lattices, respectively. Two enrichment processes were necessary for the formation of the Weishan deposit: Production of mineralized carbonatite and subsequent enrichment by magmatic–hydrothermal processes. The geological setting and petrographic characteristics of the Weishan deposit indicate that two main factors facilitated REE enrichment: (1) fractures that facilitated circulation of ore-forming fluids and provided space for REE precipitation and (2) high ore fluorite and barite contents resulting in high F⁻ and SO₄²⁻ concentrations in the ore-forming fluids that promoted REE transport and deposition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Earth Deposits and Challenges of World REE Demand for High-Tech and Green-Tech at the Beginning of the 3^rd Millennium)

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16 pages, 6877 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Minerals of Rare Earth Elements in High-Phosphorus Ooidal Ironstones of the Western Siberia and Turgai Depression

by Maxim Rudmin, Igor Reva, Ella Sokol, Elshan Abdullayev, Aleksey Ruban, Andrey Kudryavtsev, Oleg Tolkachev and Aleksey Mazurov

Minerals 2020, 10(1), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/min10010011 - 21 Dec 2019

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4718

Abstract

The aim of this research was to study the rare earth (REE) minerals in ooidal ironstone deposits of the West Siberian basin and the Turgai depression. Authigenic minerals (monazite and cerite) were described, and their main mineral form was identified as light rare earth element phosphate (LREE-phosphate) in this study. LREE-phosphate is included in ferruginous ooids, peloids, and oncoids and forms a consistent mineral association with Fe-hydroxides (goethite and its hydrated amorphous derivatives) and Fe-rich layered silicates (Fe-illite-smectite, chamosite, berthierine). The constancy of the mineral association in two deposits of different ages indicates a general mechanism behind the formation of these minerals. LREE-phosphates (authigenic monazite) are characterized by microscopic sizes (up to 24 μm), diverse morphology (mainly spherical or xenomorphic), and occupy spaces between the micro-cortex in ferruginous spheroids. This mineral can be found in other deposits of ooidal ironstone. According to its mineralogical and chemical characteristics, LREE-phosphate mainly belongs to the authigenic (nodular or “gray”) monazite. However, the incomplete (not 100%) correspondence of Kikuchi bands with the reference monazite does not allow its reliable identification. Based on its small size, chemical leaching or bacterial interaction is recommended to extract REE from ooidal ironstone while predicting the associated removal of phosphorus from iron ore due to its dominant phosphate mineral form. Ooidal ironstone should be considered a complex deposit and an unconventional natural type of REE ores as an example of the largest Bakchar and Lisakovsk deposits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Earth Deposits and Challenges of World REE Demand for High-Tech and Green-Tech at the Beginning of the 3^rd Millennium)

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18 pages, 3439 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Economical Feasibility of Rare Earth Mining outside China

by Marie Sophie Jaroni, Bernd Friedrich and Peter Letmathe

Minerals 2019, 9(10), 576; https://doi.org/10.3390/min9100576 - 22 Sep 2019

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 11062

Abstract

Although rare earth deposits are found on all continents, China produces more than 90% of all globally used rare earth metals. Besides its economic dominance, China has also gained a monopolistic know how position in Rare Earth Elements process technologies. Based on China’s dominant position in rare earth markets, other countries such as the USA, Australia, Europe and Japan are increasingly concerned about a stable rare earth supply and their increasing dependence on China. In 2019 the new trade conflict blazed up between China and the U.S., and the threat of China to decrease or even stop rare earth supply to the U.S. is a new chapter in the trade war which shows that new means of supply must be found. The main focus of this paper is to evaluate and compare advanced rare earth projects outside China with a new holistic and objective method to get a detailed picture of possible rare earth mining outside China. In addition to the exclusively economic investigation, specific countries’ risk und price development scenarios are considered. This leads to an objective picture of rare earth mining outside of China, which is needed as a basis for discussions of secure rare earth supply for the western world. Building on this objective economic analysis, we can also add new supply risk due to new political situations. To this end, data is compiled on 14 selected focus projects with regard to the required investments, operating costs, and the potential revenues for each case. These data are used to develop a discounted cash flow model (with analogous assumptions and methods) for each project. This model enables the achievable net present value (NPV), the internal interest rate, and the static amortization period for each project to be determined. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Earth Deposits and Challenges of World REE Demand for High-Tech and Green-Tech at the Beginning of the 3^rd Millennium)

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17 pages, 4232 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Biogeochemical Cycle of Lanthanides in a Light Rare Earth Element-Enriched Geological Area (Quebec, Canada)

by Ana Romero-Freire, François Turlin, Anne-Sylvie André-Mayer, Mia Pelletier, Alain Cayer and Laure Giamberini

Minerals 2019, 9(10), 573; https://doi.org/10.3390/min9100573 - 20 Sep 2019

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2901

Abstract

This work investigated a rare earth element (REE) natural biogeochemical cycle in an area with a light rare earth element (LREE)-rich ferrocarbonatite intrusion. An REE determination in this geological environment allowed us to trace REE natural transfers in order to better manage future REE mining exploitations. Our findings suggest that although REE concentrations in abiotic compartments (soil and freshwater systems) and biotic samples (terrestrial and aquatic plants) were low, the LREE fractionation observed in the parent material was maintained along compartments. Additionally, Nd anomalies observed in the sediment pore water suggest a potential different biogeochemical cycle of this element in aquatic systems. According to the potential bioaccumulation of REEs in the organisms of two studied plants belonging to terrestrial and aquatic compartments, Equisetum arvense L. and Typha latifolia L. (respectively), we observed that REEs were not accumulated and that they showed limited REE transfer inside plants, but with an increased uptake of Eu relative to the other REEs. Our results indicated a low mobility and transfer of REEs from REE-rich bedrocks in a natural area toward terrestrial and freshwater systems, but also pointed to a dilution of the REE content in the different compartments, maintaining the LREE fractionation. Our findings provide new knowledge about the REE biochemical cycle in a natural area (from rocks to plants) and represent a starting point for an environmentally friendly exploitation of future REE mining areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Earth Deposits and Challenges of World REE Demand for High-Tech and Green-Tech at the Beginning of the 3^rd Millennium)

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13 pages, 4419 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bands of Zircon, Allanite and Magnetite in Paleozoic Alkali Granite in the Chungju Unit, South Korea, and Origin of REE Mineralizations

by Sang-Gun No and Maeng-Eon Park

Minerals 2019, 9(9), 566; https://doi.org/10.3390/min9090566 - 19 Sep 2019

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3466

Abstract

High-grade Zr–Nb–Y–rare earth element (REE) mineralization occurs as zircon–allanite–magnetite bands in layered Paleozoic alkali rocks which intruded the Gyemyeongsan Formation of the Chungju unit, South Korea. The mineralization period and genesis have been controversial. We investigated the petrological and mineralogical properties of the newly discovered zircon–allanite–magnetite bands and the geochronological properties of zircon within the bands in the alkali granite. We analyzed the zircon with laser ablation multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-MC-ICP-MS). The repeated quartz–feldspar-rich layers in the alkali granite show grain-sized grading textures and equilibrium igneous textures. Magnetite and allanite grains in these layers varied in size and exhibited isolated, aggregated, and coalesced textures. In addition, the settling texture of zircon grains onto the other minerals was observed. These observations could reasonably be explained by the process of gravitational accumulation during the solidification of magma. The ²⁰⁶Pb/²³⁸U ages obtained from zircon from the zircon–allanite–magnetite-rich layer and the alkali aplite were 331.1 ± 1.5 Ma and 334.5 ± 8.9 Ma, respectively. Therefore, we suggest that the Zr–Y–Nb–REE mineralization developed in the alkali rocks and the Gyemyeongsan Formation in the Chungju unit were formed by fractional crystallization of alkali magma and hydrothermal fluids which evolved from alkali magma fractional crystallization, respectively. The correlation between alkaline granite and REE mineralization found in this study could be used as a tool for REE exploration in other regions where the permeable geological unit is intruded by the alkali granite. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Earth Deposits and Challenges of World REE Demand for High-Tech and Green-Tech at the Beginning of the 3^rd Millennium)

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22 pages, 12867 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Magmatic-Hydrothermal Processes Associated with Rare Earth Element Enrichment in the Kangankunde Carbonatite Complex, Malawi

by Frances Chikanda, Tsubasa Otake, Yoko Ohtomo, Akane Ito, Takaomi D. Yokoyama and Tsutomu Sato

Minerals 2019, 9(7), 442; https://doi.org/10.3390/min9070442 - 18 Jul 2019

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 7756

Abstract

Carbonatites undergo various magmatic-hydrothermal processes during their evolution that are important for the enrichment of rare earth elements (REE). This geochemical, petrographic, and multi-isotope study on the Kangankunde carbonatite, the largest light REE resource in the Chilwa Alkaline Province in Malawi, clarifies the critical stages of REE mineralization in this deposit. The δ⁵⁶Fe values of most of the carbonatite lies within the magmatic field despite variations in the proportions of monazite, ankerite, and ferroan dolomite. Exsolution of a hydrothermal fluid from the carbonatite melts is evident based on the higher δ⁵⁶Fe of the fenites, as well as the textural and compositional zoning in monazite. Field and petrographic observations, combined with geochemical data (REE patterns, and Fe, C, and O isotopes), suggest that the key stage of REE mineralization in the Kangankunde carbonatite was the late magmatic stage with an influence of carbothermal fluids i.e. magmatic–hydrothermal stage, when large (~200 µm), well-developed monazite crystals grew. The C and O isotope compositions of the carbonatite suggest a post-magmatic alteration by hydrothermal fluids, probably after the main REE mineralization stage, as the alteration occurs throughout the carbonatite but particularly in the dark carbonatites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Earth Deposits and Challenges of World REE Demand for High-Tech and Green-Tech at the Beginning of the 3^rd Millennium)

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23 pages, 5630 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Hydrothermal Alteration of Eudialyte-Hosted Critical Metal Deposits: Fluid Source and Implications for Deposit Grade

by Mathijs A. J. van de Ven, Anouk M. Borst, Gareth R. Davies, Emma J. Hunt and Adrian A. Finch

Minerals 2019, 9(7), 422; https://doi.org/10.3390/min9070422 - 10 Jul 2019

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 6089

Abstract

Eudialyte-hosted critical metal deposits potentially represent major sources of rare earth elements (REE), zirconium and niobium. Here, we study the chemical and isotopic composition of fresh and altered eudialyte in nepheline syenite from the Ilímaussaq Complex, Greenland, one of the world’s largest known eudialyte-hosted deposits. Late-magmatic hydrothermal alteration caused partial replacement of primary magmatic eudialyte by complex pseudomorph assemblages of secondary Zr-, Nb-, and REE-minerals. Three secondary assemblage types are characterised by the zirconosilicates catapleiite, gittinsite and zircon, respectively, of which the catapleiite type is most common. To investigate elemental exchange associated with alteration and to constrain the nature of the metasomatic fluids, we compare trace elements and Sm/Nd isotope compositions of unaltered eudialyte crystals and their replaced counterparts from five syenite samples (three catapleiite-type, one gittinsite-type, and one zircon-type assemblage). Trace element budgets for the catapleiite-type pseudomorphs indicate a 15–30% loss of REE, Ta, Nb, Zr, Sr and Y relative to fresh eudialyte. Moreover, the gittinsite- and zircon-type assemblages record preferential heavy REE (HREE) depletion (≤50%), suggesting that the metasomatic fluids mobilised high field strength elements. Initial Nd isotope ratios of unaltered eudialyte and catapleiite- and gittinsite-type pseudomorphs are indistinguishable, confirming a magmatic fluid origin. However, a higher initial ratio and stronger HREE depletion in the zircon-type pseudomorphs suggests a different source for the zircon-forming fluid. Although alteration reduces the metal budget of the original eudialyte volume, we infer that these elements re-precipitate nearby in the same rock. Alteration, therefore, might have little effect on overall grade but preferentially separates heavy and light REE into different phases. Targeted processing of the alteration products may access individual rare earth families (heavy vs. light) and other metals (Zr, Nb, Ta) more effectively than processing the fresh rock. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Earth Deposits and Challenges of World REE Demand for High-Tech and Green-Tech at the Beginning of the 3^rd Millennium)

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23 pages, 2490 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Non-Metamict Aeschynite-(Y), Polycrase-(Y), and Samarskite-(Y) in NYF Pegmatites from Arvogno, Vigezzo Valley (Central Alps, Italy)

by Alessandro Guastoni, Luciano Secco, Radek Škoda, Fabrizio Nestola, Mariangela Schiazza, Milan Novák and Giorgio Pennacchioni

Minerals 2019, 9(5), 313; https://doi.org/10.3390/min9050313 - 21 May 2019

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3718

Abstract

At Arvogno, Vigezzo valley in the Central Alps, Italy, pegmatite dikes are unique in the scenario of a tertiary alpine pegmatite field because they show marked geochemical and mineralogical niobium–yttrium–fluorine features. These pegmatites contain AB₂O₆ aeschynite group minerals and ABX₂O₈ euxenite group minerals as typical accessory minerals including aeschynite-(Y), polycrase-(Y), and samarskite-(Y). They are associated with additional typical minerals such as fluorite, Y-dominant silicates, and xenotime-(Y). The Y–Nb–Ti–Ta AB₂O₆ and ABX₂O₈ oxides at the Arvogno pegmatites did not exhibit any textural and compositional features of oxidation or weathering. They are characterized by low self-radiation-induced structural damage, leading to the acquisition of unit-cell data for aeschynite-(Y), polycrase-(Y), and samarskite-(Y) by single-crystal X-ray diffraction. Aeschynite-(Y) and polycrase-(Y) crystals allowed for both to provide space groups whereas samarskite-(Y) was the first crystal from pegmatites for which cell-data were obtained at room temperature but did not allow for the accurate determination of the space group. According to the chemical compositions defined by Ti-dominant content at the B-site, the cell parameters, respectively, corresponded to polycrase-(Y), aeschynite-(Y), and the monoclinic cell of samarskite-(Y). Emplacement of Alpine pegmatites can be related to the progressive regional metamorphic rejuvenation from east to west in the Central Alps, considering the progressive cooling of the thermal Lepontine Barrovian metamorphic dome. Previous studies considered magmatic pulses that led to emplace the pegmatite field in the Central Alps. As an example, the pegmatites that intruded the Bergell massif were aged at 28–25 millions of years or younger, around 20–22 m.y. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Earth Deposits and Challenges of World REE Demand for High-Tech and Green-Tech at the Beginning of the 3^rd Millennium)

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31 pages, 7721 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Volcanic-Derived Placers as a Potential Resource of Rare Earth Elements: The Aksu Diamas Case Study, Turkey

by Eimear Deady, Alicja Lacinska, Kathryn M. Goodenough, Richard A. Shaw and Nick M. W. Roberts

Minerals 2019, 9(4), 208; https://doi.org/10.3390/min9040208 - 30 Mar 2019

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 7900

Abstract

Rare earth elements (REE) are essential raw materials used in modern technology. Current production of REE is dominated by hard-rock mining, particularly in China, which typically requires high energy input. In order to expand the resource base of the REE, it is important to determine what alternative sources exist. REE placers have been known for many years, and require less energy than mining of hard rock, but the REE ore minerals are typically derived from eroded granitic rocks and are commonly radioactive. Other types of REE placers, such as those derived from volcanic activity, are rare. The Aksu Diamas heavy mineral placer in Turkey has been assessed for potential REE extraction as a by-product of magnetite production, but its genesis was not previously well understood. REE at Aksu Diamas are hosted in an array of mineral phases, including apatite, chevkinite group minerals (CGM), monazite, allanite and britholite, which are concentrated in lenses and channels in unconsolidated Quaternary sands. Fingerprinting of pyroxene, CGM, magnetite and zircon have identified the source of the placer as the nearby Gölcük alkaline volcanic complex, which has a history of eruption throughout the Plio-Quaternary. Heavy minerals were eroded from tephra and reworked into basinal sediments. This type of deposit may represent a potential resource of REE in other areas of alkaline volcanism. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Earth Deposits and Challenges of World REE Demand for High-Tech and Green-Tech at the Beginning of the 3^rd Millennium)

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39 pages, 37544 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Geology and Mineralogy of Rare Earth Elements Deposits and Occurrences in Finland

by Thair Al-Ani, Ferenc Molnár, Panu Lintinen and Seppo Leinonen

Minerals 2018, 8(8), 356; https://doi.org/10.3390/min8080356 - 18 Aug 2018

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 12964

Abstract

Rare earth elements (REE) have critical importance in the manufacturing of many electronic products in the high-tech and green-tech industries. Currently, mining and processing of REE is strongly concentrated in China. A substantial growth in global exploration for REE deposits has taken place in the recent years and has resulted in considerable advances in defining new resources. This study provides an overview of the mineralogical and petrological peculiarities of the most important REE prospects and metallogeny of REE in Finland. There is a particularly good potential for future discoveries of carbonatite hosted REE deposits in the Paleozoic Sokli carbonatite complex, as well as in the Paleoproterozoic Korsnäs and Kortejärvi Laivajoki areas. This review also provides information about the highest known REE concentration in the alkaline intrusions of Finland in the Tana Belt and other alkaline rock hosted occurrences (e.g., Otanmäki and Katajakangas). Significant REE enrichments in hydrothermal alteration zones are also known in the Kuusamo Belt (Uuniniemi and Honkilehto), and occurrences of REE-rich mineralisation are also present in granite pegmatite bodies and greisens in central and southern Finland (Kovela monazite granite and the Rapakivi Granite batholith at Vyborg, respectively). REE minerals in all of the localities listed above were identified and analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and electron microprobes (EMPs). In localities of northern and central Finland, both primary rock forming and epigenetic-hydrothermal REE minerals were found, namely phosphates (monazite-Ce, xenotime-Y), fluorcarbonates (bastnäsite-Ce, synchysite), and hydrated carbonates (ancylite-Ce), hydrated aluminium silicates (allanite-Ce, Fe-allanite, cerite, chevkinite), oxides (fergusonite, euxenite) and U-Pb rich minerals. The chondrite normalized REE concentrations, the La/Nd ratios and the REE vs. major element contents in several types of REE bearing minerals from prospects in Finland can be used to identify and define variable REE fractionation processes (carbonatites), as well as to discriminate deposits of different origins. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Earth Deposits and Challenges of World REE Demand for High-Tech and Green-Tech at the Beginning of the 3^rd Millennium)

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