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Heavy Minerals: Methods & Case Histories
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Heavy Minerals: Methods & Case Histories

A special issue of Minerals (ISSN 2075-163X). This special issue belongs to the section "Mineral Deposits".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 May 2019) | Viewed by 85046

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Sergio Andò

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Piazza della Scienza 4, 20126 Milano, Italy
Interests: heavy-minerals; provenance studies; Raman spectroscopy; single grain analysis; varietal studies; Indus Fan; African sand; silt; dust

Special Issue Information

“Our chance of making correct provenance diagnoses becomes small when geological age blurs our landmarks, and the complexity of natural systems confounds us in a labyrinth of possibilities... Different techniques provide distinct points of view, from which disparate details of the general picture can be revealed. Only by the painstaking careful integration of such diverse complementary pieces of information can we hope to get a glimpse of the entire landscape.” Eduardo Garzanti, 2016. From static to dynamic provenance analysis—Sedimentary petrology upgraded. Sedimentary Geology 336, 3–13.

Dear Colleagues,

The principal aim of this book is to provide a wide range of information and a useful reference for researchers interested to investigate heavy-mineral assemblages in different geological settings and for a variety of purposes. The great methodological developments achieved in recent years for the identification of heavy minerals in a wide grain-size range will be illustrated. All factors that affect heavy-mineral concentration and relative proportions, including hydraulic sorting, mechanical abrasion, chemical weathering and post-depositional dissolution, and all factors able to introduce analytical, environmental or diagenetic bias will be thoroughly dealt with. A proper integration of multiple techniques including bulk-sediment, multi-mineral, and single-mineral methods will be discussed by renowned authors in their invited contributions.

Prof. Dr. Sergio Andò
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Minerals is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.


Keywords

  • heavy-mineral suites
  • source-to-sink studies
  • petroleum exploration
  • advanced techniques of mineral analysis
  • applications to provenance of silt and dust

Published Papers (13 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

3 pages, 186 KiB  
Editorial
Editorial for Special Issue “Heavy Minerals”
by Sergio Andò
Minerals 2020, 10(4), 356; https://doi.org/10.3390/min10040356 - 16 Apr 2020
Viewed by 2027
Abstract
This special volume, published 13 years after the monumental volume “Heavy Minerals in Use” edited by Maria Mange and David Wright, demonstrates that the use of heavy minerals as provenance tracers is alive and in full health [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Minerals: Methods & Case Histories)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

15 pages, 2100 KiB  
Article
Gravimetric Separation of Heavy Minerals in Sediments and Rocks
by Sergio Andò
Minerals 2020, 10(3), 273; https://doi.org/10.3390/min10030273 - 18 Mar 2020
Cited by 37 | Viewed by 11218
Abstract
The potential of heavy minerals studies in provenance analysis can be enhanced conspicuously by using a state-of-the-art protocol for sample preparation in the laboratory, which represents the first fundamental step of any geological research. The classical method of gravimetric separation is based on [...] Read more.
The potential of heavy minerals studies in provenance analysis can be enhanced conspicuously by using a state-of-the-art protocol for sample preparation in the laboratory, which represents the first fundamental step of any geological research. The classical method of gravimetric separation is based on the properties of detrital minerals, principally their grain size and density, and its efficiency depends on the procedure followed and on the technical skills of the operator. Heavy-mineral studies in the past have been traditionally focused on the sand fraction, generally choosing a narrow grain-size window for analysis, an approach that is bound to introduce a serious bias by neglecting a large, and sometimes very large, part of the heavy-mineral spectrum present in the sample. In order to minimize bias, not only the largest possible size range in each sample should be considered, but also, the same quantitative analytical methods should be applied to the largest possible grain-size range occurring in the sediment system down to 5 μm or less, thus including suspended load in rivers, loess deposits, and shallow to deep-marine muds. Wherever the bulk sample cannot be used for practical reasons, we need to routinely analyze the medium silt to medium sand range (15–500 μm) for sand and the fine silt to sand range (5–63 or > 63 μm) for silt. This article is conceived as a practical handbook dedicated specifically to Master and PhD students at the beginning of their heavy-mineral apprenticeship, as to more expert operators from the industry and academy to help improving the quality of heavy-mineral separation for any possible field of application. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Minerals: Methods & Case Histories)
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29 pages, 9112 KiB  
Article
Provenance of Bengal Shelf Sediments: 2. Petrology and Geochemistry of Sand
by Eduardo Garzanti, Giovanni Vezzoli, Sergio Andò, Mara Limonta, Laura Borromeo and Christian France-Lanord
Minerals 2019, 9(10), 642; https://doi.org/10.3390/min9100642 - 19 Oct 2019
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 8715
Abstract
The Bangladesh lowlands are traversed by the largest sediment flux on the planet. Detritus generated mostly in Himalayan highlands and conveyed through the Ganga–Brahmaputra rivers and Meghna estuary reaches the Bay of Bengal, where it forms a composite deltaic system. This study integrates [...] Read more.
The Bangladesh lowlands are traversed by the largest sediment flux on the planet. Detritus generated mostly in Himalayan highlands and conveyed through the Ganga–Brahmaputra rivers and Meghna estuary reaches the Bay of Bengal, where it forms a composite deltaic system. This study integrates the vast existing database on Ganga–Brahmaputra sediments of all grain sizes from clay to sand with new petrographic, mineralogical, and geochemical data on estuarine and shallow-marine sands. A large spectrum of compositional signatures was used to: (i) assess the relative supply of the Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers to estuarine and shelfal sediments; (ii) define the compositional variability of estuarine sediments and the impact exerted by hydraulic sorting and climate-related chemical weathering on provenance signals; (iii) define the compositional variability of shelf sediments and the potential hydrodynamic segregation of fast-settling heavy minerals in coastal environments and of slow-settling platy micas on low-energy outer-shelf floors; (iv) consider the potential additional mud supply from the western subaerial part of the delta formerly built by the Ganga River; and (v) draw a preliminary mineralogical comparison between fluvio-deltaic sediments and turbidites of the Bengal–Nicobar deep-sea fan, thus tracing sediment dispersal across the huge sedimentary system extending from Tibet to the equatorial Indian Ocean. All investigated mineralogical and geochemical parameters, as well as Sr and Nd isotope ratios and clay–mineral assemblages, showed a clear prevalence in sediment supply from the Brahmaputra (60–70%) over the Ganga (30–40%). Heavy-mineral suites and Sr and Nd isotope fingerprints of Bengal shelf sediments are nearly identical to those of the Brahmaputra River and Meghna estuary, also because the Brahmaputra carries almost twice as many Ca-plagioclase grains and heavy minerals including epidote than the Ganga, and these minerals control the large majority of the Sr and Nd budgets. The experience gained in modern settings can be directly extrapolated only to the recent past, because sediments older than the late Pleistocene and buried more than a few hundred meters begin to lose less durable ferromagnesian minerals by selective chemical dissolution, which makes quantitative estimates progressively less robust in more deeply buried older strata. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Minerals: Methods & Case Histories)
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26 pages, 6466 KiB  
Article
Provenance of Bengal Shelf Sediments: 1. Mineralogy and Geochemistry of Silt
by Laura Borromeo, Sergio Andò, Christian France-Lanord, Giovanni Coletti, Annette Hahn and Eduardo Garzanti
Minerals 2019, 9(10), 640; https://doi.org/10.3390/min9100640 - 18 Oct 2019
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 7093
Abstract
This article illustrates a multi-technique frontier approach for the provenance study of silt-size sediments. The mineralogical composition of low-density and heavy-mineral fractions of four samples of fine to very coarse silt deposited on the Bengal shelf was analyzed separately for six different grain-size [...] Read more.
This article illustrates a multi-technique frontier approach for the provenance study of silt-size sediments. The mineralogical composition of low-density and heavy-mineral fractions of four samples of fine to very coarse silt deposited on the Bengal shelf was analyzed separately for six different grain-size classes by combining grain counting under an optical microscope, Raman spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction. The geochemical composition was determined on both bulk-sediment samples and on their <5-μm classes. Such a “multiple-window” approach allowed capturing the full mineralogical information contained in each sample, as well as the size-dependent intra-sample variability of all compositional parameters. The comparison between grain-size distributions obtained by different methods highlighted a notable fallacy of laser granulometry, which markedly overestimated the size of the finest mode represented by fine silt and clay. As a test case, we chose to investigate sediments of the Bengal shelf, where detritus is fed from the Meghna estuary, formed by the joint Ganga and Brahmaputra Rivers and representing the largest single entry point of sediment in the world’s oceans. The studied samples show the typical fingerprint of orogenic detritus produced by focused erosion of collision orogens. Bengal shelf silt is characterized by a feldspatho-quartzose (F-Q) composition with a Q/F ratio decreasing from 3.0 to 1.7 with increasing grain size, plagioclase prevailing over K-feldspar, and rich transparent-heavy-mineral assemblages including mainly amphibole with epidote, and minor garnet and pyroxene. Such a detrital signature compares very closely with Brahmaputra suspended load, but mineralogical and geochemical parameters, including the anomalous decrease of the Q/F ratio with increasing grain size, consistently indicate more significant Ganga contribution for cohesive fine silt. The accurate quantitative characterization of different size fractions of Bengal shelf sediments represents an essential step to allow comparison of compositional signatures characterizing different segments of this huge source-to-sink system, from fluvial and deltaic sediments of the Himalayan foreland basin and Bengal shelf to the Bengal Fan. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Minerals: Methods & Case Histories)
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13 pages, 3356 KiB  
Article
Evolution of the Upper Yellow River as Revealed by Changes in Heavy-Mineral and Geochemical (REE) Signatures of Fluvial Terraces (Lanzhou, China)
by Zhao Wang, Haobo Zhang, Eduardo Garzanti, Junsheng Nie, Wenbin Peng, Sergio Andò, Xiaofei Hu, Baotian Pan and Katharina Pfaff
Minerals 2019, 9(10), 603; https://doi.org/10.3390/min9100603 - 30 Sep 2019
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3211
Abstract
Despite decades of study, the factors that controlled the formation and evolution of the upper reaches of the Yellow River, including uplift of the northeastern Tibetan Plateau, Pliocene-Pleistocene climate change, and autogenetic processes are still poorly constrained. The stratigraphic record of such paleogeographic [...] Read more.
Despite decades of study, the factors that controlled the formation and evolution of the upper reaches of the Yellow River, including uplift of the northeastern Tibetan Plateau, Pliocene-Pleistocene climate change, and autogenetic processes are still poorly constrained. The stratigraphic record of such paleogeographic evolution is recorded in the sequence of nine terraces formed during progressive incision of the Yellow River in the last 1.7 Ma. This article investigates in detail for sediment provenance in terraces of the Lanzhou area, based on heavy-mineral and geochemical (REE) signatures. Two main provenance changes are identified, pointing each to a major paleogeographic reorganization coupled with expansion of the upper Yellow River catchment and enhanced sediment fluxes. The first change took place between the deposition of terrace T9 (formed around 1.7 Ma) and terrace T8 (formed around 1.5 Ma), when rapid fluvial incision point to tectonic control and active uplift of northeastern Tibetan Plateau. The second change took place between deposition of terrace T4 (formed around 0.86 Ma) and terrace T3 (formed around 0.14 Ma), during a period of low incision rates and notably enhanced sediment fluxes as a response to enhanced East Asian Summer Monsoon and consequently increased precipitations, pointing instead chiefly to climatic control. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Minerals: Methods & Case Histories)
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13 pages, 3318 KiB  
Article
Composition of Amphiboles in the Tremolite–Ferro–Actinolite Series by Raman Spectroscopy
by Danilo Bersani, Sergio Andò, Laura Scrocco, Paolo Gentile, Emma Salvioli-Mariani, Laura Fornasini and Pier Paolo Lottici
Minerals 2019, 9(8), 491; https://doi.org/10.3390/min9080491 - 16 Aug 2019
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4828
Abstract
Amphiboles are an important family of rock forming minerals, whose identification is crucial in provenance studies as well as in many other fields of geology, archaeology and environmental sciences. This study is aimed to find a quick way to characterize Ca-amphiboles in the [...] Read more.
Amphiboles are an important family of rock forming minerals, whose identification is crucial in provenance studies as well as in many other fields of geology, archaeology and environmental sciences. This study is aimed to find a quick way to characterize Ca-amphiboles in the tremolite (Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2)–ferro–actinolite (Ca2Fe5Si8O22(OH)2) series. Raman spectroscopy is established as technique to perform non-destructive and quick analysis, with micrometric resolution, able to give the composition in terms of Mg/(Mg + Fe2+) ratio. To exploit the method, a preliminary characterization is performed by Scanning Electron Microscopy coupled with Energy-dispersed X-ray Spectroscopy (SEM-EDS). Two independent methods to evaluate the composition from the Raman data (aiming to an accuracy of about 5%), using the low-wavenumbers part of the spectrum and the OH stretching bands, are developed. The application of the proposed method to micro-Raman mappings and the possible use of handheld Raman spectroscopy to have compositional information on Ca-amphiboles are discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Minerals: Methods & Case Histories)
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27 pages, 8830 KiB  
Article
Multimineral Fingerprinting of Transhimalayan and Himalayan Sources of Indus-Derived Thal Desert Sand (Central Pakistan)
by Wendong Liang, Eduardo Garzanti, Sergio Andò, Paolo Gentile and Alberto Resentini
Minerals 2019, 9(8), 457; https://doi.org/10.3390/min9080457 - 26 Jul 2019
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 5836
Abstract
As a Quaternary repository of wind-reworked Indus River sand at the entry point in the Himalayan foreland basin, the Thal Desert in northern Pakistan stores mineralogical information useful to trace erosion patterns across the western Himalayan syntaxis and the adjacent orogenic segments that [...] Read more.
As a Quaternary repository of wind-reworked Indus River sand at the entry point in the Himalayan foreland basin, the Thal Desert in northern Pakistan stores mineralogical information useful to trace erosion patterns across the western Himalayan syntaxis and the adjacent orogenic segments that fed detritus into the Indus delta and huge deep-sea fan throughout the Neogene. Provenance analysis of Thal Desert sand was carried out by applying optical and semi-automated Raman spectroscopy on heavy-mineral suites of four eolian and 11 fluvial sand samples collected in selected tributaries draining one specific tectonic domain each in the upper Indus catchment. In each sample, the different types of amphibole, garnet, epidote and pyroxene grains—the four dominant heavy-mineral species in orogenic sediment worldwide—were characterized by SEM-EDS spectroscopy. The chemical composition of 4249 grains was thus determined. Heavy-mineral concentration, the relative proportion of heavy-mineral species, and their minerochemical fingerprints indicate that the Kohistan arc has played the principal role as a source, especially of pyroxene and epidote. Within the western Himalayan syntaxis undergoing rapid exhumation, the Southern Karakorum belt drained by the Hispar River and the Nanga Parbat massif were revealed as important sources of garnet, amphibole, and possibly epidote. Sediment supply from the Greater Himalaya, Lesser Himalaya, and Subhimalaya is dominant only for Punjab tributaries that join the Indus River downstream and do not contribute sand to the Thal Desert. The detailed compositional fingerprint of Thal Desert sand, if contrasted with that of lower course tributaries exclusively draining the Himalaya, provides a semi-actualistic key to be used, in conjunction with complementary provenance datasets and geological information, to reconstruct changes in paleodrainage and unravel the relationship between climatic and tectonic forces that controlled the erosional evolution of the western Himalayan-Karakorum orogen in space and time. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Minerals: Methods & Case Histories)
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16 pages, 8200 KiB  
Article
The Chemical Composition and Surface Texture of Transparent Heavy Minerals from Core LQ24 in the Changjiang Delta
by Wei Yue, Xiyuan Yue, Sugandha Panwar, Lingmin Zhang and Bingfu Jin
Minerals 2019, 9(7), 454; https://doi.org/10.3390/min9070454 - 22 Jul 2019
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3526
Abstract
The assessment of textural and compositional modifications of detrital sediments is required to reconstruct past source to sink dynamics. The Changjiang Delta is an ideal location to study the sedimentary environment from the Pliocene to Quaternary transition. In the present study, we aim [...] Read more.
The assessment of textural and compositional modifications of detrital sediments is required to reconstruct past source to sink dynamics. The Changjiang Delta is an ideal location to study the sedimentary environment from the Pliocene to Quaternary transition. In the present study, we aim to decipher the response of heavy minerals to mechanical wear and chemical weathering since the Pliocene. With the application of a scanning electron microscope and an electron probe, the geochemistry and surface texture of different heavy minerals (amphibole, epidote, and tourmaline groups) with grain-size fractions of 32–63 µm and 63–125 µm were studied. The result shows that the surface texture of unstable minerals (amphibole, epidote) changed under strong chemical weathering in the Pliocene sediments. By contrast, unstable minerals of the Pleistocene sediments are relatively fresh and similar to those of the modern Changjiang sediment. The stable mineral tourmaline does not exhibit morphology changes in different chemical weathering conditions. No effect of grain size on geochemical composition is noticed. The single minerals of very fine sand and coarse silt show similar geochemical and morphological features. The integration of mineralogy, geochemical data, and grain size parameters yield a more precise understanding of the physical and chemical response of heavy minerals to different weathering conditions. The outcome of the study is also helpful in deciphering sediment provenance changes and environmental changes in the Changjiang basin. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Minerals: Methods & Case Histories)
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32 pages, 14024 KiB  
Article
Semi-Automated Heavy-Mineral Analysis by Raman Spectroscopy
by Nils Keno Lünsdorf, Jannick Kalies, Patrick Ahlers, István Dunkl and Hilmar von Eynatten
Minerals 2019, 9(7), 385; https://doi.org/10.3390/min9070385 - 26 Jun 2019
Cited by 36 | Viewed by 5991
Abstract
A significant amount of information on sedimentary provenance is encoded in the heavy minerals of a sediment or sedimentary rock. This information is commonly assessed by optically determining the heavy-mineral assemblage, potentially followed by geochemical and/or geochronological analysis of specific heavy minerals. The [...] Read more.
A significant amount of information on sedimentary provenance is encoded in the heavy minerals of a sediment or sedimentary rock. This information is commonly assessed by optically determining the heavy-mineral assemblage, potentially followed by geochemical and/or geochronological analysis of specific heavy minerals. The proposed method of semi-automated heavy-mineral analysis by Raman spectroscopy (Raman-HMA) aims to combine the objective mineral identification capabilities of Raman spectroscopy with high-resolution geochemical techniques applied to single grains. The Raman-HMA method is an efficient and precise tool that significantly improves the comparability of heavy-mineral data with respect to both overall assemblages and individual compositions within solid solution series. Furthermore, the efficiency of subsequent analysis is increased due to identification and spatial referencing of the heavy minerals in the sample slide. The method is tested on modern sediments of the Fulda river (central Germany) draining two Miocene volcanic sources (Vogelsberg, Rhön) resting on top of Lower Triassic siliciclastic sediments. The downstream evolution of the volcanic detritus is documented and the capability to analyze silt-sized grains has revealed an additional eolian source. This capability also poses the possibility of systematically assessing the heavy-mineral assemblages of shales, which are often disregarded in sedimentary provenance studies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Minerals: Methods & Case Histories)
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33 pages, 24824 KiB  
Article
Provenance of Heavy Minerals: A Case Study from the WNW Portuguese Continental Margin
by João Cascalho
Minerals 2019, 9(6), 355; https://doi.org/10.3390/min9060355 - 12 Jun 2019
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 9271
Abstract
This work describes and interprets the presence of heavy minerals in the WNW Portuguese continental margin using a set of 78 bottom samples collected from three distinct areas of this margin: the Porto, Aveiro, and Nazaré canyon head areas. The main transparent heavy [...] Read more.
This work describes and interprets the presence of heavy minerals in the WNW Portuguese continental margin using a set of 78 bottom samples collected from three distinct areas of this margin: the Porto, Aveiro, and Nazaré canyon head areas. The main transparent heavy mineral assemblage (mineral grains with frequencies ≥1% identified under a petrographic microscope) is composed of amphibole, andalusite, tourmaline, biotite, garnet, staurolite, pyroxene, zircon, and apatite. The felsic igneous and metamorphic rock outcrops in the main Northern Portuguese river basins and the relict sedimentary continental shelf deposits explained the presence of most of these mineral grains (both considered as distal sources). However, the presence of pargasite, augite, diopside-hedenbergite, enstatite-ferrosilite, and forsterite in the Porto and Aveiro areas (minerals identified by electronic microprobe analysis) is probably related to the presence of an igneous basic source next to dolomitic limestones affected by thermal metamorphism. These geological formations are considered as local sources. The high concentration of biotite observed in the Nazaré area is the result of the selective transport of the most lamellar sand particles of this mineral. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Minerals: Methods & Case Histories)
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29 pages, 959 KiB  
Article
Exploratory Analysis of Provenance Data Using R and the Provenance Package
by Pieter Vermeesch
Minerals 2019, 9(3), 193; https://doi.org/10.3390/min9030193 - 22 Mar 2019
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4515 | Correction
Abstract
The provenance of siliclastic sediment may be traced using a wide variety of chemical, mineralogical and isotopic proxies. These define three distinct data types: (1) compositional data such as chemical concentrations; (2) point-counting data such as heavy mineral compositions; and (3) distributional data [...] Read more.
The provenance of siliclastic sediment may be traced using a wide variety of chemical, mineralogical and isotopic proxies. These define three distinct data types: (1) compositional data such as chemical concentrations; (2) point-counting data such as heavy mineral compositions; and (3) distributional data such as zircon U-Pb age spectra. Each of these three data types requires separate statistical treatment. Central to any such treatment is the ability to quantify the ‘dissimilarity’ between two samples. For compositional data, this is best done using a logratio distance. Point-counting data may be compared using the chi-square distance, which deals better with missing components (zero values) than the logratio distance does. Finally, distributional data can be compared using the Kolmogorov–Smirnov and related statistics. For small datasets using a single provenance proxy, data interpretation can sometimes be done by visual inspection of ternary diagrams or age spectra. However, this no longer works for larger and more complex datasets. This paper reviews a number of multivariate ordination techniques to aid the interpretation of such studies. Multidimensional Scaling (MDS) is a generally applicable method that displays the salient dissimilarities and differences between multiple samples as a configuration of points in which similar samples plot close together and dissimilar samples plot far apart. For compositional data, classical MDS analysis of logratio data is shown to be equivalent to Principal Component Analysis (PCA). The resulting MDS configurations can be augmented with compositional information as biplots. For point-counting data, classical MDS analysis of chi-square distances is shown to be equivalent to Correspondence Analysis (CA). This technique also produces biplots. Thus, MDS provides a common platform to visualise and interpret all types of provenance data. Generalising the method to three-way dissimilarity tables provides an opportunity to combine several datasets together and thereby facilitate the interpretation of ‘Big Data’. This paper presents a set of tutorials using the statistical programming language R. It illustrates the theoretical underpinnings of compositional data analysis, PCA, MDS and other concepts using toy examples, before applying these methods to real datasets with the provenance package. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Minerals: Methods & Case Histories)
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29 pages, 19867 KiB  
Article
Correlation of Hydrocarbon Reservoir Sandstones Using Heavy Mineral Provenance Signatures: Examples from the North Sea and Adjacent Areas
by Andrew Morton and Paula McGill
Minerals 2018, 8(12), 564; https://doi.org/10.3390/min8120564 - 03 Dec 2018
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5985
Abstract
Correlation of hydrocarbon reservoir sandstones is one of the most important economic applications for heavy mineral analysis. In this paper, we review the fundamental principles required for establishing correlation frameworks using heavy mineral data, and illustrate the applications of a wide variety of [...] Read more.
Correlation of hydrocarbon reservoir sandstones is one of the most important economic applications for heavy mineral analysis. In this paper, we review the fundamental principles required for establishing correlation frameworks using heavy mineral data, and illustrate the applications of a wide variety of heavy mineral techniques using a number of case studies from hydrocarbon reservoirs in the North Sea and adjacent areas. The examples cover Triassic red-bed successions in the central North Sea and west of Shetland, which have been subdivided and correlated using provenance-sensitive ratio data and mineral morphologies; Middle Jurassic paralic sandstones in the northern North Sea, correlated using garnet geochemistry; Upper Jurassic deep water sandstones in the northern North Sea, discriminated using rutile geochemistry and detrital zircon age data; and the “real-time” application of the technique at well site in Devonian-Carboniferous fluvio-lacustrine sandstones of the Clair Field, west of Shetland. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Minerals: Methods & Case Histories)
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Review

Jump to: Editorial, Research

25 pages, 13792 KiB  
Review
Heavy Minerals for Junior Woodchucks
by Eduardo Garzanti and Sergio Andò
Minerals 2019, 9(3), 148; https://doi.org/10.3390/min9030148 - 28 Feb 2019
Cited by 105 | Viewed by 10573
Abstract
In the last two centuries, since the dawn of modern geology, heavy minerals have been used to investigate sediment provenance and for many other scientific or practical applications. Not always, however, with the correct approach. Difficulties are diverse, not just technical and related [...] Read more.
In the last two centuries, since the dawn of modern geology, heavy minerals have been used to investigate sediment provenance and for many other scientific or practical applications. Not always, however, with the correct approach. Difficulties are diverse, not just technical and related to the identification of tiny grains, but also procedural and conceptual. Even the definition of “heavy minerals” is elusive, and possibly impossible. Sampling is critical. In many environments (e.g., beaches), both absolute and relative heavy mineral abundances invariably increase or decrease locally to different degrees owing to hydraulic-sorting processes, so that samples close to "neutral composition" are hard to obtain. Several widely shared opinions are misleading. Choosing a narrow size-window for analysis leads to increased bias, not to increased accuracy or precision. Only point-counting provides real volume percentages, whereas grain-counting distorts results in favor of smaller minerals. This paper also briefly reviews the heavy mineral associations typically found in diverse plate-tectonic settings. A mineralogical assemblage, however, only reproduces the mineralogy of source rocks, which does not correlate univocally with the geodynamic setting in which those source rocks were formed and assembled. Moreover, it is affected by environmental bias, and by diagenetic bias on top in the case of ancient sandstones. One fruitful way to extract information on both provenance and sedimentological processes is to look for anomalies in mineralogical–textural relationships (e.g., denser minerals bigger than lower-density minerals; harder minerals better rounded than softer minerals; less durable minerals increasing with stratal age and stratigraphic depth). To minimize mistakes, it is necessary to invariably combine heavy mineral investigations with the petrographic analysis of bulk sand. Analysis of thin sections allows us to see also those source rocks that do not shed significant amounts of heavy minerals, such as limestone or granite, and helps us to assess heavy mineral concentration, the “outer” message carrying the key to decipher the “inner message” contained in the heavy mineral suite. The task becomes thorny indeed when dealing with samples with strong diagenetic overprint, which is, unfortunately, the case of most ancient sandstones. Diagenesis is the Moloch that devours all grains that are not chemically resistant, leaving a meager residue difficult or even impossible to interpret when diagenetic effects accumulate through multiple sedimentary cycles. We have conceived this friendly little handbook to help the student facing these problems, hoping that it may serve the purpose. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Minerals: Methods & Case Histories)
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