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Polymers
Special Issues
Functionally Responsive Polymeric Materials
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Functionally Responsive Polymeric Materials

A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 April 2017) | Viewed by 178439

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Jinlian Hu

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong 999077, China
Interests: smart polymers; shape memory fibers; textiles; apparel; composites; digital evaluation; testing devices; textile engineering
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Rui Xiao

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
College of Mechanics and Materials, Hohai Univeristy, 8 Focheng Road, Nanjing 211100, China
Interests: shape-memory polymers; hydrogels; amorphous polymers; constitutive modeling
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Chih-Feng Huang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Chemical Engineering, i-Center for Advanced Science and Technology (iCAST), National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 40227, Taiwan
Interests: living polymerizations; nanocomposites; biomaterial modifications; stimuli-responsive polymers
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Functionally responsive polymeric materials are smart materials, which can react to an external stimulus so as to provide different functions for sensors, transducers, actuators, artificial muscle, and biomedical devices. Dielectric elastomers can convert the electric energy into mechanical deformation under electric field, while the piezoelectric polymers can generate electric charge in response to the mechanical loading. More examples include polyelectrolyte gels swell differently when pH or salt concentration in the external solution changes and the programmed shape-memory polymers can recover to their original shape when exposed to heat or solvent.

This Special Issue aims to provide a comprehensive collection of the latest development of functionally responsive polymeric materials. The Special Issue covers the synthesis, characterization, theoretical modelling and application of various responsive polymers with special functions. The topics may include the electro-active polymers, magneto-sensitive polymers, and piezoelectric polymers, which show responsive under mechanical, electric and magnetic field. The Special Issue may also address the temperature and chemical-responsive shape-memory polymers, smart gels and liquid crystal elastomers. Both review and regular original papers are welcome.

Prof. Dr. Jin-lian Hu
Prof. Dr. Rui Xiao
Prof. Chih-Feng Huang
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Shape-memory polymers
  • Smart Gels
  • Dielectric elastomers
  • Conductive polymeric materials
  • Liquid crystal elastomers
  • Self-healing polymers
  • Mechano-chemically responsive polymers
  • Temperature-sensitive polymers
  • Water sensitive polymers
  • Electrical sensitive polymers
  • Nanocomposites sensitive to external stimuli
  • Piezoelectric polymers
  • Magneto-sensitive polymers
  • Biopolymers sensitive to external stimuli
  • Stress-memory polymers
  • Light sensitive polymers
  • Living polymerizations
  • pH-sensitive polymers

Published Papers (22 papers)

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Research

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3327 KiB  
Article
Poly(3,3-dibenzyl-3,4-dihydro-2H-thieno[3,4-b][1,4]dioxepine)/Platinum Composite Films as Potential Counter Electrodes for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells
by Jung-Chuan Chou, Yu-Chi Huang, Tzi-Yi Wu, Yi-Hung Liao, Chih-Hsien Lai, Chia-Ming Chu and Yu-Jen Lin
Polymers 2017, 9(7), 271; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym9070271 - 07 Jul 2017
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4249
Abstract
In this study, poly(3,3-dibenzyl-3,4-dihydro-2H-thieno[3,4-b][1,4]dioxepine)/platinum composite films (PProDOT-Bz2/Pt) were used as counter electrodes (CEs) in dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). The composite films were prepared on fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) glass by radio frequency (RF) sputtering to deposit platinum [...] Read more.
In this study, poly(3,3-dibenzyl-3,4-dihydro-2H-thieno[3,4-b][1,4]dioxepine)/platinum composite films (PProDOT-Bz2/Pt) were used as counter electrodes (CEs) in dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). The composite films were prepared on fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) glass by radio frequency (RF) sputtering to deposit platinum (Pt) for 30 s. Afterwards, PProDOT-Bz2 was deposited on the Pt–FTO glass via electrochemical polymerization. The electron transfer process of DSSCs was investigated using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and cyclic voltammetry (CV). The DSSCs with 0.05 C/cm2 PProDOT-Bz2-Pt composite films showed an open circuit voltage (Voc) of 0.70 V, a short-circuit current density (Jsc) of 7.27 mA/cm2, and a fill factor (F.F.) of 68.74%. This corresponded to a photovoltaic conversion efficiency (η) of 3.50% under a light intensity of 100 mW/cm2. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functionally Responsive Polymeric Materials)
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8795 KiB  
Article
The Impact of Polymer Grafting from a Graphene Oxide Surface on Its Compatibility with a PDMS Matrix and the Light-Induced Actuation of the Composites
by Josef Osicka, Markéta Ilčíková, Miroslav Mrlik, Antonín Minařík, Vladimir Pavlinek and Jaroslav Mosnáček
Polymers 2017, 9(7), 264; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym9070264 - 03 Jul 2017
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 6246
Abstract
Poly(dimethyl siloxane) (PDMS)-based materials with improved photoactuation properties were prepared by the incorporation of polymer-grafted graphene oxide particles. The modification of the graphene oxide (GO) surface was achieved via a surface initiated atom transfer radical polymerization (SI ATRP) of methyl methacrylate and butyl [...] Read more.
Poly(dimethyl siloxane) (PDMS)-based materials with improved photoactuation properties were prepared by the incorporation of polymer-grafted graphene oxide particles. The modification of the graphene oxide (GO) surface was achieved via a surface initiated atom transfer radical polymerization (SI ATRP) of methyl methacrylate and butyl methacrylate. The modification was confirmed by thermogravimetric analysis, infrared spectroscopy and electron microscopy. The GO surface reduction during the SI ATRP was investigated using Raman spectroscopy and conductivity measurements. Contact angle measurements, dielectric spectroscopy and dynamic mechanical analyses were used to investigate the compatibility of the GO filler with the PDMS matrix and the influence of the GO surface modification on its physical properties and the interactions with the matrix. Finally, the thermal conductivity and photoactuation properties of the PDMS matrix and composites were compared. The incorporation of GO with grafted polymer chains, especially poly(n-butyl methacrylate), into the PDMS matrix improved the compatibility of the GO filler with the matrix, increased the energy dissipation due to the improved flexibility of the PDMS chains, enhanced the damping behavior and increased the thermal conductivity. All the changes in the properties positively affected the photoactuation behavior of the PDMS composites containing polymer-grafted GO. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functionally Responsive Polymeric Materials)
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5245 KiB  
Article
Preparation and Property Evaluation of Conductive Hydrogel Using Poly (Vinyl Alcohol)/Polyethylene Glycol/Graphene Oxide for Human Electrocardiogram Acquisition
by Xueliang Xiao, Guanzheng Wu, Hongtao Zhou, Kun Qian and Jinlian Hu
Polymers 2017, 9(7), 259; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym9070259 - 30 Jun 2017
Cited by 59 | Viewed by 12597
Abstract
Conductive hydrogel combined with Ag/AgCl electrode is widely used in the acquisition of bio-signals. However, the high adhesiveness of current commercial hydrogel causes human skin allergies and pruritus easily after wearing hydrogel for electrodes for a long time. In this paper, a novel [...] Read more.
Conductive hydrogel combined with Ag/AgCl electrode is widely used in the acquisition of bio-signals. However, the high adhesiveness of current commercial hydrogel causes human skin allergies and pruritus easily after wearing hydrogel for electrodes for a long time. In this paper, a novel conductive hydrogel with good mechanical and conductive performance was prepared using polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), polyethylene glycol (PEG), and graphene oxide (GO) nanoparticles. A cyclic freezing–thawing method was employed under processing conditions of −40 °C (8 h) and 20 °C (4 h) separately for three cycles in sequence until a strong conductive hydrogel, namely, PVA/PEG/GO gel, was obtained. Characterization (Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance, scanning electron microscopy) results indicated that the assembled hydrogel was successfully prepared with a three-dimensional network structure and, thereafter, the high strength and elasticity due to the complete polymeric net formed by dense hydrogen bonds in the freezing process. The as-made PVA/PEG/GO hydrogel was then composited with nonwoven fabric for electrocardiogram (ECG) electrodes. The ECG acquisition data indicated that the prepared hydrogel has good electro-conductivity and can obtain stable ECG signals for humans in a static state and in motion (with a small amount of drift). A comparison of results indicated that the prepared PVA/PEG/GO gel obtained the same quality of ECG signals with commercial conductive gel with fewer cases of allergies and pruritus in volunteer after six hours of wear. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functionally Responsive Polymeric Materials)
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3554 KiB  
Article
Photodeprotectable N-Alkoxybenzyl Aromatic Polyamides
by Kenichi Iwashita, Hironobu Katoh, Yoshihiro Ohta and Tsutomu Yokozawa
Polymers 2017, 9(7), 246; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym9070246 - 24 Jun 2017
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5648
Abstract
N-alkoxybenzyl aromatic polyamides were synthesized by polycondensation of N-alkoxybenzyl aromatic diamine with equimolar dicarboxylic acid chloride in the presence of 2.2 equiv. of pyridine at room temperature for 2 days. The obtained polyamides were mainly cyclic polymers, as determined by means [...] Read more.
N-alkoxybenzyl aromatic polyamides were synthesized by polycondensation of N-alkoxybenzyl aromatic diamine with equimolar dicarboxylic acid chloride in the presence of 2.2 equiv. of pyridine at room temperature for 2 days. The obtained polyamides were mainly cyclic polymers, as determined by means of matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry, and showed higher solubility in organic solvents than unprotected aromatic polyamides. Photodeprotection of N-alkoxybenzyl aromatic polyamide film containing photo acid generator (PAG) proceeded well under UV irradiation (5 J/cm2), followed by heating at 130 °C for 15 min. The nature of the polymer end groups of N-alkoxybenzyl aromatic polyamides was found to be crucial for photodeprotection reactivity. These polymers are promising candidates for photosensitive heat-resistant materials for fine Cu wiring formation by electroless Cu plating of high-density semiconductor packaging substrates. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functionally Responsive Polymeric Materials)
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13126 KiB  
Article
Direct Micromachining of Microfluidic Channels on Biodegradable Materials Using Laser Ablation
by Yi-Kong Hsieh, Shiau-Chen Chen, Wen-Ling Huang, Kai-Ping Hsu, Kaiser Alejandro Villalobos Gorday, Tsinghai Wang and Jane Wang
Polymers 2017, 9(7), 242; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym9070242 - 23 Jun 2017
Cited by 44 | Viewed by 8184
Abstract
Laser patterning on polymeric materials is considered a green and rapid manufacturing process with low material selection barrier and high adjustability. Unlike microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), it is a highly flexible processing method, especially useful for prototyping. This study focuses on the development of [...] Read more.
Laser patterning on polymeric materials is considered a green and rapid manufacturing process with low material selection barrier and high adjustability. Unlike microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), it is a highly flexible processing method, especially useful for prototyping. This study focuses on the development of polymer surface modification method using a 193 nm excimer laser system for the design and fabrication of a microfluidic system similar to that of natural vasculatures. Besides from poly(dimethyl siloxane) (PDMS), laser ablation on biodegradable polymeric material, poly(glycerol sebacate) (PGS) and poly(1,3-diamino-2-hydroxypropane-co-polyol sebacate) (APS) are investigated. Parameters of laser ablation and fabrication techniques to create microchannels are discussed. The results show that nano/micro-sized fractures and cracks are generally observed across PDMS surface after laser ablation, but not on PGS and APS surfaces. The widths of channels are more precise on PGS and APS than those on PDMS. Laser beam size and channel depth are high correlation with a linear relationship. Repeated laser ablations on the same position of scaffolds reveal that the ablation efficiencies and edge quality on PGS and APS are higher than on PDMS, suggesting the high applicability of direct laser machining to PGS and APS. To ensure stable ablation efficiency, effects of defocus distance into polymer surfaces toward laser ablation stability are investigated. The depth of channel is related to the ratio of firing frequency and ablation progression speed. The hydrodynamic simulation of channels suggests that natural blood vessel is similar to the laser patterned U-shaped channels, and the resulting micro-patterns are highly applicable in the field of micro-fabrication and biomedical engineering. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functionally Responsive Polymeric Materials)
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2474 KiB  
Article
Synthesis of PNVP-Based Copolymers with Tunable Thermosensitivity by Sequential Reversible Addition–Fragmentation Chain Transfer Copolymerization and Ring-Opening Polymerization
by Yi-Shen Huang, Jem-Kun Chen, Tao Chen and Chih-Feng Huang
Polymers 2017, 9(6), 231; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym9060231 - 18 Jun 2017
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 6571
Abstract
Through the reversible addition–fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) copolymerization of 3-ethyl-1-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone (C2NVP) and N-vinylpyrrolidone (NVP), a series of well-defined P(C2NVP-co-NVP) copolymers were synthesized (Mn = ca. 8000 to 16,000 and Mw/Mn <1.5) [...] Read more.
Through the reversible addition–fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) copolymerization of 3-ethyl-1-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone (C2NVP) and N-vinylpyrrolidone (NVP), a series of well-defined P(C2NVP-co-NVP) copolymers were synthesized (Mn = ca. 8000 to 16,000 and Mw/Mn <1.5) by using a difunctional chain transfer agent, S-(1-methyl-4-hydroxyethyl acetate) O-ethyl xanthate (MHEX). Copolymerizing kinetics and different monomer ratio in feeds were conducted to study the apparent monomer reaction rate and reactivity ratios of NVP and C2NVP, which indicated similar reaction rates and predominantly ideal random copolymers for the two monomers. The Tgs of the obtaining P(C2NVP-co-NVP) copolymers significantly corresponded to not only molecular weights MWs but also copolymer compositions. These copolymers presented characteristic lower critical solution temperatures (LCST) behavior. We then studied the cloud points (CPs) of the copolymers with varying MWs and compositions. With different MWs, the CPs were linearly decreased from ca. 51 to 45 °C. With different compositions, the CPs of the copolymers decreased from ca. 48 to 29 °C with C2NVP content (i.e., from 60.8 to 89.9 mol %). Fitting the CPs by the theoretical equation, the result illustrated that the introduction of more hydrophobic units of C2NVP suppressed the hydrophilic interaction between the polymer chain and water. We then successfully proceeded the chain extension through the ring-opening polymerization (ROP) of ε-caprolactone (CL) to the synthesis of a novel P(C2NVP-co-NVP)-b-PCL amphiphilic block copolymer (Mn,NMR = 14,730 and Mw/Mn = 1.59). The critical micelle concentration (CMC) of the block copolymer had a value of ca. 1.46 × 10−4 g/L. The block copolymer micelle was traced by dynamic light scattering (DLS), obtaining thermosensitive behaviors with a particle size of ca. 240 nm at 25 °C and ca. 140 nm at 55 °C, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functionally Responsive Polymeric Materials)
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7319 KiB  
Article
Pattern Switching in Soft Cellular Structures and Hydrogel-Elastomer Composite Materials under Compression
by Jianying Hu, Yu Zhou, Zishun Liu and Teng Yong Ng
Polymers 2017, 9(6), 229; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym9060229 - 16 Jun 2017
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 7357
Abstract
It is well known that elastic instabilities induce pattern transformations when a soft cellular structure is compressed beyond critical limits. The nonlinear phenomena of pattern transformations make them a prime candidate for controlling macroscopic or microscopic deformation and auxetic properties of the material. [...] Read more.
It is well known that elastic instabilities induce pattern transformations when a soft cellular structure is compressed beyond critical limits. The nonlinear phenomena of pattern transformations make them a prime candidate for controlling macroscopic or microscopic deformation and auxetic properties of the material. In this present work, the novel mechanical properties of soft cellular structures and related hydrogel–elastomer composites are examined through experimental investigation and numerical simulations. We provide two reliable approaches for fabricating hydrogel–elastomer composites with rationally designed properties and transformed patterns, and demonstrate that different geometries of the repeat unit voids of the periodic pattern can be used to influence the global characteristics of the soft composite material. The experimental and numerical results indicate that the transformation event is dependent on the boundary conditions and material properties of matrix material for soft cellular structures; meanwhile, the deformation-triggered pattern of matrix material affects the pattern switching and mechanical properties of the hydrogel–elastomer material, thus providing future perspectives for optimal design, or serving as a fabrication suggestion of the new hydrogel–elastomer composite material. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functionally Responsive Polymeric Materials)
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2609 KiB  
Article
Multifunctional Polymer Nanoparticles for Dual Drug Release and Cancer Cell Targeting
by Yu-Han Wen, Tsung-Ying Lee, Ping-Chuan Fu, Chun-Liang Lo and Yi-Ting Chiang
Polymers 2017, 9(6), 213; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym9060213 - 09 Jun 2017
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 6944
Abstract
Multifunctional polymer nanoparticles have been developed for cancer treatment because they could be easily designed to target cancer cells and to enhance therapeutic efficacy according to cancer hallmarks. In this study, we synthesized a pH-sensitive polymer, poly(methacrylic acid-co-histidine/doxorubicin/biotin) (HBD) in which [...] Read more.
Multifunctional polymer nanoparticles have been developed for cancer treatment because they could be easily designed to target cancer cells and to enhance therapeutic efficacy according to cancer hallmarks. In this study, we synthesized a pH-sensitive polymer, poly(methacrylic acid-co-histidine/doxorubicin/biotin) (HBD) in which doxorubicin (DOX) was conjugated by a hydrazone bond to encapsulate an immunotherapy drug, imiquimod (IMQ), to form dual cancer-targeting and dual drug-loaded nanoparticles. At low pH, polymeric nanoparticles could disrupt and simultaneously release DOX and IMQ. Our experimental results show that the nanoparticles exhibited pH-dependent drug release behavior and had an ability to target cancer cells via biotin and protonated histidine. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functionally Responsive Polymeric Materials)
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1690 KiB  
Article
Combining ATRP and FRP Gels: Soft Gluing of Polymeric Materials for the Fabrication of Stackable Gels
by Antoine Beziau, Rafael N. L. De Menezes, Santidan Biswas, Awaneesh Singh, Julia Cuthbert, Anna C. Balazs, Tomasz Kowalewski and Krzysztof Matyjaszewski
Polymers 2017, 9(6), 186; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym9060186 - 24 May 2017
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 6173
Abstract
Stackable gels comprised of layers of dissimilar polymers were synthesized by combining conventional free radical polymerization (FRP) and atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) using two approaches: (i) polymerization of a pre-gel solution containing a monomer and cross-linker introduced on top of a previously [...] Read more.
Stackable gels comprised of layers of dissimilar polymers were synthesized by combining conventional free radical polymerization (FRP) and atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) using two approaches: (i) polymerization of a pre-gel solution containing a monomer and cross-linker introduced on top of a previously prepared gel, and (ii) simultaneous polymerization of two immiscible pre-gel solutions remaining in contact. All permutations of FRP and ATRP yielded single-piece, connected, amphiphilic gels regardless of the order of polymerization. Furthermore, multi-layer ATRP gels combining different polymers were synthesized with the FRP layer as a gluing agent. A 10-layer amphiphilic stackable gel combining n-butyl methacrylate (BMA) and 2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate (DMAEMA), and a 10-layer stackable gel combining BMA, DMAEMA and di(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate (PEO2MA) were synthesized. This patching method, combining conventional FRP gels with ATRP ones, offers an efficient path to the formation of complex stackable gel architectures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functionally Responsive Polymeric Materials)
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5834 KiB  
Article
Synthesis and Study of Shape-Memory Polymers Selectively Induced by Near-Infrared Lights via In Situ Copolymerization
by Tianyu Fang, Liang Fang, Shunping Chen, Lingyu Li, Hengming Huang, Chunhua Lu and Zhongzi Xu
Polymers 2017, 9(5), 181; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym9050181 - 20 May 2017
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 6151
Abstract
Shape-memory polymers (SMPs) selectively induced by near-infrared lights of 980 or 808 nm were synthesized via free radical copolymerization. Methyl methacrylate (MMA) monomer, ethylene glycol dimethylacrylate (EGDMA) as a cross-linker, and organic complexes of Yb(TTA)2AAPhen or Nd(TTA)2AAPhen containing a reactive ligand of acrylic [...] Read more.
Shape-memory polymers (SMPs) selectively induced by near-infrared lights of 980 or 808 nm were synthesized via free radical copolymerization. Methyl methacrylate (MMA) monomer, ethylene glycol dimethylacrylate (EGDMA) as a cross-linker, and organic complexes of Yb(TTA)2AAPhen or Nd(TTA)2AAPhen containing a reactive ligand of acrylic acid (AA) were copolymerized in situ. The dispersion of the organic complexes in the copolymer matrix was highly improved, while the transparency of the copolymers was negligibly influenced in comparison with the pristine cross-linked PMMA. In addition, the thermal resistance of the copolymers was enhanced with the complex loading, while their glass transition temperature, cross-linking level, and mechanical properties were to some extent reduced. Yb(TTA)2AAPhen and Nd(TTA)2AAPhen provided the prepared copolymers with selective photothermal effects and shape-memory functions for 980 and 808 nm NIR lights, respectively. Finally, smart optical devices which exhibited localized transparency or diffraction evolution procedures were demonstrated based on the prepared copolymers, owing to the combination of good transparency and selective light wavelength responsivity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functionally Responsive Polymeric Materials)
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8555 KiB  
Article
Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) Bars for Enhancing the Flexural Performance of RC Beams Using Side-NSM Technique
by Md. Akter Hosen, U. Johnson Alengaram, Mohd Zamin Jumaat, N. H. Ramli Sulong and Kh. Mahfuz ud Darain
Polymers 2017, 9(5), 180; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym9050180 - 19 May 2017
Cited by 30 | Viewed by 10851
Abstract
Reinforced concrete (RC) structures require strengthening for numerous factors, such as increased load, modification of the structural systems, structural upgrade or errors in the design and construction stages. The side near-surface mounted (SNSM) strengthening technique with glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) bars is a [...] Read more.
Reinforced concrete (RC) structures require strengthening for numerous factors, such as increased load, modification of the structural systems, structural upgrade or errors in the design and construction stages. The side near-surface mounted (SNSM) strengthening technique with glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) bars is a relatively new emerging technique for enhancing the flexural capacities of existing RC elements. Nine RC rectangular beams were flexurally strengthened with this technique and tested under four-point bending loads until failure. The main goal of this study is to optimize the structural capacity of the RC beams by varying the amount of strengthening reinforcement and bond length. The experimental test results showed that strengthening with SNSM GFRP bars significantly enhanced the flexural responses of the specimens compared with the control specimen. The first cracking and ultimate loads, energy absorption capacities, ductility and stiffness were remarkably enhanced by the SNSM technique. It was also confirmed that the bond length of the strengthened reinforcement greatly influences the energy absorption capacities, ductility and stiffness. The effect of the bond length on these properties is more significant compared to the amount of strengthening reinforcement. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functionally Responsive Polymeric Materials)
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2881 KiB  
Article
A Multiple Shape Memory Hydrogel Induced by Reversible Physical Interactions at Ambient Condition
by He Xiao, Chunxin Ma, Xiaoxia Le, Li Wang, Wei Lu, Patrick Theato, Tuoping Hu, Jiawei Zhang and Tao Chen
Polymers 2017, 9(4), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym9040138 - 12 Apr 2017
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 8772
Abstract
A novel multiple shape memory hydrogel is fabricated based on two reversible physical interactions. The multiple shape memory property is endowed by a simple treatment of soaking in NaOH or NaCl solutions to form chitosan microcrystal or chain-entanglement crosslinks as temporary junctions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functionally Responsive Polymeric Materials)
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5961 KiB  
Article
Epoxy-Based Shape-Memory Actuators Obtained via Dual-Curing of Off-Stoichiometric “Thiol–Epoxy” Mixtures
by Alberto Belmonte, Claudio Russo, Veronica Ambrogi, Xavier Fernández-Francos and Silvia De la Flor
Polymers 2017, 9(3), 113; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym9030113 - 21 Mar 2017
Cited by 40 | Viewed by 7470
Abstract
In this work, epoxy-based shape-memory actuators have been developed by taking advantage of the sequential dual-curing of off-stoichiometric “thiol–epoxy” systems. Bent-shaped designs for flexural actuation were obtained thanks to the easy processing of these materials in the intermediate stage (after the first curing [...] Read more.
In this work, epoxy-based shape-memory actuators have been developed by taking advantage of the sequential dual-curing of off-stoichiometric “thiol–epoxy” systems. Bent-shaped designs for flexural actuation were obtained thanks to the easy processing of these materials in the intermediate stage (after the first curing process), and successfully fixed through the second curing process. The samples were programmed into a flat temporary-shape and the recovery-process was analyzed in unconstrained, partially-constrained and fully-constrained conditions using a dynamic mechanical analyzer (DMA). Different “thiol–epoxy” systems and off-stoichiometric ratios were used to analyze the effect of the network structure on the actuation performance. The results evidenced the possibility to take advantage of the flexural recovery as a potential actuator, the operation of which can be modulated by changing the network structure and properties of the material. Under unconstrained-recovery conditions, faster and narrower recovery-processes (an average speed up to 80%/min) are attained by using materials with homogeneous network structure, while in partially- or fully-constrained conditions, a higher crosslinking density and the presence of crosslinks of higher functionality lead to a higher amount of energy released during the recovery-process, thus, increasing the work or the force released. Finally, an easy approach for the prediction of the work released by the shape-memory actuator has been proposed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functionally Responsive Polymeric Materials)
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2404 KiB  
Article
Programming of One- and Two-Step Stress Recovery in a Poly(ester urethane)
by Nikolaus Mirtschin and Thorsten Pretsch
Polymers 2017, 9(3), 98; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym9030098 - 10 Mar 2017
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 6087
Abstract
This work demonstrates that phase-segregated poly(ester urethane) (PEU) with switching segments of crystallizable poly(1,4-butylene adipate) (PBA) can be programmed to generate two separate stress recovery events upon heating under constant strain conditions. For programming, two elongations are applied at different temperatures, followed by [...] Read more.
This work demonstrates that phase-segregated poly(ester urethane) (PEU) with switching segments of crystallizable poly(1,4-butylene adipate) (PBA) can be programmed to generate two separate stress recovery events upon heating under constant strain conditions. For programming, two elongations are applied at different temperatures, followed by unloading and cooling. During the adjacent heating, two-step stress recovery is triggered. The results indicate that the magnitude of the stress recovery signals corresponds to the recovery of the two deformation stresses in reverse order. As demonstrated by further experiments, twofold stress recovery can be detected as long as the elongation at higher temperature exceeds the strain level of the deformation at lower temperature. Another finding includes that varying the lower deformation temperature enables a control over the stress recovery temperature and thus the implementation of so-called “temperature-memory effects”. Moreover, exerting only one elongation during programming enables a heating-initiated one-step stress recovery close to the deformation temperature. Based on these findings, such polymers may offer new technological opportunities in the fields of active assembly when used as fastening elements and in functional clothing when utilized for compression stockings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functionally Responsive Polymeric Materials)
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7507 KiB  
Article
Shape Memory Investigation of α-Keratin Fibers as Multi-Coupled Stimuli of Responsive Smart Materials
by Xueliang Xiao, Jinlian Hu, Xiaoting Gui and Kun Qian
Polymers 2017, 9(3), 87; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym9030087 - 03 Mar 2017
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 7149
Abstract
Like the water responsive shape memory (SM) effect of β-keratin bird feathers, α-keratin hairs either existing broadly in nature are found responsive to many types of coupled stimuli in SM behaviors. In this article, α-keratin hairs were investigated for the combined stimuli of [...] Read more.
Like the water responsive shape memory (SM) effect of β-keratin bird feathers, α-keratin hairs either existing broadly in nature are found responsive to many types of coupled stimuli in SM behaviors. In this article, α-keratin hairs were investigated for the combined stimuli of thermo-solvent, solvent-solvent, and UV (radiation)-reductant sensitive SM abilities. The related netpoints and switches from the hair molecular networks were identified. The experimental results showed that α-keratin hairs manifested a higher ability of shape fixation under thermal stimulus followed with the stimuli of solvent and UV-radiation. Shape recovery from the hair with a temporarily fixed shape showed a higher recovery ability using solvent than the stimuli of heat and UV-radiation. The effects of coupled stimuli on hair’s shape fixation and recovery and on variations of the crystal, disulfide, and hydrogen bonds were studied systematically. A structural network model was thereafter proposed to interpret the multi-coupled stimuli sensitive SM of α-keratin hair. This original study is expected to provide inspiration for exploring other natural fibers to reveal related smart functions and for making more types of remarkable adapted synthetic materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functionally Responsive Polymeric Materials)
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11792 KiB  
Article
Flexible Pressure Sensor Based on PVDF Nanocomposites Containing Reduced Graphene Oxide-Titania Hybrid Nanolayers
by Aisha Al-Saygh, Deepalekshmi Ponnamma, Mariam AlAli AlMaadeed, Poornima Vijayan P, Alamgir Karim and Mohammad K. Hassan
Polymers 2017, 9(2), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym9020033 - 26 Jan 2017
Cited by 106 | Viewed by 11212
Abstract
A novel flexible nanocomposite pressure sensor with a tensile strength of about 47 MPa is fabricated in this work. Nanolayers of titanium dioxide (titania nanolayers, TNL) synthesized by hydrothermal method are used to reinforce the polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) by simple solution mixing. A [...] Read more.
A novel flexible nanocomposite pressure sensor with a tensile strength of about 47 MPa is fabricated in this work. Nanolayers of titanium dioxide (titania nanolayers, TNL) synthesized by hydrothermal method are used to reinforce the polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) by simple solution mixing. A hybrid composite is prepared by incorporating the TNL (2.5 wt %) with reduced graphene oxide (rGO) (2.5 wt %) synthesized by improved graphene oxide synthesis to form a PVDF/rGO-TNL composite. A comparison between PVDF, PVDF/rGO (5 wt %), PVDF/TNL (5 wt %) and PVDF/rGO-TNL (total additives 5 wt %) samples are analyzed for their sensing, thermal and dielectric characteristics. The new shape of additives (with sharp morphology), good interaction and well distributed hybrid additives in the matrix increased the sensitivity by 333.46% at 5 kPa, 200.7% at 10.7 kPa and 246.7% at 17.6 kPa compared to the individual PVDF composite of TNL, confirming its possible application in fabricating low cost and light weight pressure sensing devices and electronic devices with reduced quantity of metal oxides. Increase in the β crystallinity percentage and removal of α phase for PVDF was detected for the hybrid composite and linked to the improvement in the mechanical properties. Tensile strength for the hybrid composite (46.91 MPa) was 115% higher than that of the neat polymer matrix. Improvement in the wettability and less roughness in the hybrid composites were observed, which can prevent fouling, a major disadvantage in many sensor applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functionally Responsive Polymeric Materials)
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2674 KiB  
Article
Flexible Transparent Electrode of Hybrid Ag-Nanowire/Reduced-Graphene-Oxide Thin Film on PET Substrate Prepared Using H2/Ar Low-Damage Plasma
by Chi-Hsien Huang, Yin-Yin Wang, Tsung-Han Lu and Yen-Cheng Li
Polymers 2017, 9(1), 28; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym9010028 - 13 Jan 2017
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 7153
Abstract
We employ H2/Ar low-damage plasma treatment (H2/Ar-LDPT) to reduce graphene oxide (GO) coating on a polymer substrate—polyethylene terephthalate (PET)—with the assistance of atomic hydrogen (Hα) at low temperature of 70 °C. Four-point probing and ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy [...] Read more.
We employ H2/Ar low-damage plasma treatment (H2/Ar-LDPT) to reduce graphene oxide (GO) coating on a polymer substrate—polyethylene terephthalate (PET)—with the assistance of atomic hydrogen (Hα) at low temperature of 70 °C. Four-point probing and ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy demonstrate that the conductivity and transmittance can be controlled by varying the H2/Ar flow rate, treatment time, and radio-frequency (RF) power. Optical emission spectroscopy reveals that the Hα intensity depends on these processing parameters, which influence the removal of oxidative functional groups (confirmed via X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy) to yield reduced GO (rGO). To further improve the conductivity while maintaining high transmittance, we introduce silver nanowires (AgNWs) between rGO and a PET substrate to obtain a hybrid rGO/AgNWs/PET with a sheet resistance of ~100 Ω/sq and 81% transmittance. In addition, the hybrid rGO/AgNWs thin film also shows high flexibility and durability and is suitable for flexible and wearable electronics applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functionally Responsive Polymeric Materials)
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5073 KiB  
Article
Temperature-, pH- and CO2-Sensitive Poly(N-isopropylacryl amide-co-acrylic acid) Copolymers with High Glass Transition Temperatures
by Yeong-Tarng Shieh, Pei-Yi Lin, Tao Chen and Shiao-Wei Kuo
Polymers 2016, 8(12), 434; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym8120434 - 14 Dec 2016
Cited by 40 | Viewed by 9101
Abstract
A series of poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-co-acrylic acid) (PNIPAAm-co-PAA) random copolymers were synthesized through free radical copolymerization in MeOH. The incorporation of the acrylic acid units into PNIPAAm tended to enhance the glass transition temperature (Tg), due [...] Read more.
A series of poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-co-acrylic acid) (PNIPAAm-co-PAA) random copolymers were synthesized through free radical copolymerization in MeOH. The incorporation of the acrylic acid units into PNIPAAm tended to enhance the glass transition temperature (Tg), due to strong intermolecular hydrogen bonding between the amide groups of PNIPAAm and the carboxyl groups of PAA, as observed using 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopic analyses. The lower critical solution temperature (LCST) increased upon increasing the pH of the aqueous solution containing PNIPAAm-co-PAA because the COOH groups of the PAA segment dissociated into COO− groups, enhancing the solubility of the copolymer. In addition, high-pressure differential scanning calorimetry revealed that the LCSTs of all the aqueous solutions of the copolymers decreased upon increasing the pressure of CO2, suggesting that CO2 molecules had displaced H2O molecules around the polar CONH and COOH groups in PNIPAAm-co-PAA, thereby promoting the hydrophobicity of the copolymers in the aqueous solution. In addition, the values of Tg of a film sample increased upon treatment with supercritical CO2, implying that intermolecular interactions in the copolymer had been enhanced after such treatment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functionally Responsive Polymeric Materials)
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3779 KiB  
Article
Enhanced Transdermal Permeability via Constructing the Porous Structure of Poloxamer-Based Hydrogel
by Wen-Yi Wang, Patrick C. L. Hui, Elaine Wat, Frency S. F. Ng, Chi-Wai Kan, Clara B. S. Lau and Ping-Chung Leung
Polymers 2016, 8(11), 406; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym8110406 - 21 Nov 2016
Cited by 31 | Viewed by 7402
Abstract
A major concern for transdermal drug delivery systems is the low bioavailability of targeted drugs primarily caused by the skin’s barrier function. The resistance to the carrier matrix for the diffusion and transport of drugs, however, is routinely ignored. This study reports a [...] Read more.
A major concern for transdermal drug delivery systems is the low bioavailability of targeted drugs primarily caused by the skin’s barrier function. The resistance to the carrier matrix for the diffusion and transport of drugs, however, is routinely ignored. This study reports a promising and attractive approach to reducing the resistance to drug transport in the carrier matrix, to enhance drug permeability and bioavailability via enhanced concentration-gradient of the driving force for transdermal purposes. This approach simply optimizes and reconstructs the porous channel structure of the carrier matrix, namely, poloxamer 407 (P407)-based hydrogel matrix blended with carboxymethyl cellulose sodium (CMCs). Addition of CMCs was found to distinctly improve the porous structure of the P407 matrix. The pore size approximated to normal distribution as CMCs were added and the fraction of pore number was increased by over tenfold. Transdermal studies showed that P407/CMCs saw a significant increase in drug permeability across the skin. This suggests that P407/CMC with improved porous structure exhibits a feasible and promising way for the development of transdermal therapy with high permeability and bioavailability, thereby avoiding or reducing use of any chemical enhancers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functionally Responsive Polymeric Materials)
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5303 KiB  
Article
Copolymers Based on 1,3-Bis(carbazol-9-yl)benzene and Three 3,4-Ethylenedioxythiophene Derivatives as Potential Anodically Coloring Copolymers in High-Contrast Electrochromic Devices
by Chung-Wen Kuo, Teng-Lu Wu, Yuan-Chung Lin, Jeng-Kuei Chang, Ho-Rei Chen and Tzi-Yi Wu
Polymers 2016, 8(10), 368; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym8100368 - 19 Oct 2016
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 5616
Abstract
In this study, copolymers based on 1,3-bis(carbazol-9-yl)benzene (BCz) and three 3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene derivatives (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene (EDOT), 3,4-(2,2-dimethylpropylenedioxy)thiophene (ProDOT-Me2), and 3,4-ethylenedithiathiophene (EDTT)) were electrochemically synthesized and their electrochemical and electrochromic properties were characterized. The anodic copolymer P(BCz-co-ProDOT) with BCz/ProDOT-Me2 = 1/1 [...] Read more.
In this study, copolymers based on 1,3-bis(carbazol-9-yl)benzene (BCz) and three 3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene derivatives (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene (EDOT), 3,4-(2,2-dimethylpropylenedioxy)thiophene (ProDOT-Me2), and 3,4-ethylenedithiathiophene (EDTT)) were electrochemically synthesized and their electrochemical and electrochromic properties were characterized. The anodic copolymer P(BCz-co-ProDOT) with BCz/ProDOT-Me2 = 1/1 feed molar ratio showed high optical contrast (ΔT%) and coloring efficiency (η), measured as 52.5% and 153.5 cm2∙C−1 at 748 nm, respectively. Electrochromic devices (ECDs) based on P(BCz-co-EDOT), P(BCz-co-ProDOT), and P(BCz-co-EDTT) as anodic polymer layers, and poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)-poly(styrene sulfonic acid) (PEDOT-PSS) as cathodic polymer layer were fabricated. P(BCz-co-ProDOT)/triple-layer PEDOT-PSS ECD showed three different colors (light yellow, yellowish-blue, and dark blue) at different applied potentials. In addition, the highest optical contrast (ΔT%) of P(BCz-co-ProDOT)/triple-layer PEDOT-PSS ECD was found to be 41% at 642 nm and the coloration efficiency was calculated to be 416.5 cm2∙C−1 at 642 nm. All ECDs showed satisfactory optical memories and electrochemical cyclic stability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functionally Responsive Polymeric Materials)
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Review

Jump to: Research

5539 KiB  
Review
Glucose Oxidase-Based Glucose-Sensitive Drug Delivery for Diabetes Treatment
by Li Zhao, Liyan Wang, Yuhan Zhang, Shanshan Xiao, Fei Bi, Jianyu Zhao, Guangqing Gai and Jianxun Ding
Polymers 2017, 9(7), 255; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym9070255 - 29 Jun 2017
Cited by 67 | Viewed by 13241
Abstract
The glucose-sensitive drug delivery systems based on glucose oxidase (GOD), which exhibit highly promising applications in diabetes therapy, have attracted much more interest in recent years. The self-regulated drug delivery systems regulate drug release by glucose concentration automatically and continuously to control the [...] Read more.
The glucose-sensitive drug delivery systems based on glucose oxidase (GOD), which exhibit highly promising applications in diabetes therapy, have attracted much more interest in recent years. The self-regulated drug delivery systems regulate drug release by glucose concentration automatically and continuously to control the blood glucose level (BGL) in normoglycemic state. This review covers the recent advances at the developments of GOD-based glucose-sensitive drug delivery systems and their in vivo applications for diabetes treatment. The applications of GOD-immobilized platforms, such as self-assembly layer-by-layer (LbL) films and polymer vesicles, cross-linking hydrogels and microgels, hybrid mesoporous silica nanoparticles, and microdevices fabricated with insulin reservoirs have been surveyed. The glucose-sensitive drug delivery systems based on GOD are expected to be a typical candidate for smart platforms for potential applications in diabetes therapy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functionally Responsive Polymeric Materials)
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9756 KiB  
Review
Recent Progress on Hyperbranched Polymers Synthesized via Radical-Based Self-Condensing Vinyl Polymerization
by Xiaofeng Wang and Haifeng Gao
Polymers 2017, 9(6), 188; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym9060188 - 24 May 2017
Cited by 96 | Viewed by 13084
Abstract
This short review article summarizes recent reports on using controlled radical polymerization (CRP) of inimers (compounds containing initiating group and vinyl group in one molecule) or transmers (compounds containing chain transfer group and vinyl group in one molecule) for the synthesis of hyperbranched [...] Read more.
This short review article summarizes recent reports on using controlled radical polymerization (CRP) of inimers (compounds containing initiating group and vinyl group in one molecule) or transmers (compounds containing chain transfer group and vinyl group in one molecule) for the synthesis of hyperbranched polymers. These inimers and transmers that carry numerous functional groups could be homopolymerized, i.e., self-condensing vinyl polymerization, or copolymerized with monovinyl monomers, i.e., self-condensing vinyl copolymerization, using atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP), nitroxide-mediated polymerization (NMP) or reversible addition fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization techniques, producing hyperbranched polymers and hyperstar polymers with tunable molecular weights, compositions and degree of branching. Recent reports that attempted different strategies to regulate polymer–polymer reactions were introduced, demonstrating possible syntheses of hyperbranched polymers with better defined structures and relatively low molecular weight dispersity. Finally, several CRP-produced hyperbranched polymers were discussed on their applications for encapsulation of guest molecules, nanomedicine, diagnostic imaging and catalysis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functionally Responsive Polymeric Materials)
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