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Archaeological Remote Sensing in the 21st Century: (Re)Defining Practice and Theory

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A special issue of Remote Sensing (ISSN 2072-4292). This special issue belongs to the section "Remote Sensing Image Processing".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2020) | Viewed by 55255

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Geert Verhoeven

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Guest Editor

Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Archaeological Prospection and Virtual Archaeology (LBI ArchPro), Ludwig Boltzmann Gesellschaft GmbH, Franz-Klein-Gasse 1, A-1190 Vienna, Austria
Interests: terrestrial and airborne photography plus multi- and hyperspectral imaging; image-based 3D modelling; image fusion; scientific visualisations; digital archaeology; landscape archaeology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Mr. Dave Cowley

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Guest Editor

Historic Environment Scotland, John Sinclair House, 16 Bernard Terrace, Edinburgh EH9 9NX, UK
Interests: aerial survey; landscape archaeology; survey methodology; iron age settlement and land use

Dr. Arianna Traviglia

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Guest Editor

Ca' Foscari University of Venice, via Torino 155, Mestre Venice 30172, Italy
Interests: landscape archaeology; remote sensing archaeology; multispectral and hyperspectral imaging; automated object detection

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Despite the many (r)evolutions in remote sensing technology over the past three decades, integration in archaeological practice and theory has sometimes been limited by frequent reliance on inherited tropes and practice without question. Rather than trying to review that situation with its origins in the 20th century, this volume seeks contributions that explore developing practice and theory in remote sensing archaeology for the 21st century.

Taking its scope as the use of remotely sensed data from either air- or spaceborne platforms for the benefit of archaeology and cultural heritage in general, authors are asked to submit papers that contribute to better defining the roles and contexts for why archaeologists may apply remote sensing techniques. In doing so, we hope that the collected papers will provide a focus on integrating remotely sensed data in archaeological practice (including a critical discussion on the role of remote sensing within such practice), addressing dislocations that may occur with theoretical concerns, and considering the future of this symbiosis.

All authors are expected to consider the following points to ensure the consistency of the papers in this Special Issue:

Why can your applied or theoretical approach be considered state-of-the-art or novel?
How does your applied or theoretical approach provide new archaeological information that cannot be achieved in any other way?
How does your work fit in the wider context of archaeological remote sensing, and more generally in archaeological practice and theory? In addressing this point, authors should avoid to unravel the complete history of remote sensing, but rather focus on recent advances;
How reproducible is your result? Can this approach also work in totally different settings (archaeological, environmental and theoretical) and is it easily adopted by others? If not, clarify why only very particular sensors/data/conditions/theoretical stances benefit from your approach;
All, but the very theoretical papers, should include applied archaeological examples with interpretation, clearly showcasing the 'real world' benefits, especially to knowledge (about the past) creation and cultural resource management, that can be univocally traced back to the use of remote sensing approaches;
Finally, authors are also invited to consider and discuss the use of additional data sources that can strengthen, improve or falsify their remote sensing-based interpretations.

Dr. Geert Verhoeven
Mr. Dave Cowley
Dr. Arianna Traviglia
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Remote Sensing is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

Airborne remote sensing
Archaeology
Archaeological theory
Cultural resource management
Data fusion
Landscape archaeology
Heritage documentation
Machine learning
Monochromatic, multi- and hyperspectral reflectance and thermal imaging
Pattern recognition and object detection
Photo interpretation
Spaceborne remote sensing
UAS/UAV

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research

4 pages, 178 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Editorial for Special Issue: “Archaeological Remote Sensing in the 21st Century: (Re)Defining Practice and Theory”

by Dave Cowley, Geert Verhoeven and Arianna Traviglia

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(8), 1431; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13081431 - 08 Apr 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2046

Abstract

“Beg, borrow and steal”: in many ways, this is a strapline for archaeology as a discipline, and perhaps especially so for archaeological remote sensing [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Archaeological Remote Sensing in the 21st Century: (Re)Defining Practice and Theory)

Research

Jump to: Editorial

17 pages, 41394 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cropmarks in Aerial Archaeology: New Lessons from an Old Story

by Zoltán Czajlik, Mátyás Árvai, János Mészáros, Balázs Nagy, László Rupnik and László Pásztor

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(6), 1126; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13061126 - 16 Mar 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4079

Abstract

Cropmarks are a major factor in the effectiveness of traditional aerial archaeology. Identified almost 100 years ago, the positive and negative features shown by cropmarks are now well understood, as are the role of the different cultivated plants and the importance of precipitation and other elements of the physical environment. Generations of aerial archaeologists are in possession of empirical knowledge, allowing them to find as many cropmarks as possible every year. However, the essential analyses belong mostly to the predigital period, while the significant growth of datasets in the last 30 years could open a new chapter. This is especially true in the case of Hungary, as scholars believe it to be one of the most promising cropmark areas in Europe. The characteristics of soil formed of Late Quaternary alluvial sediments are intimately connected to the young geological/geomorphological background. The predictive soil maps elaborated within the framework of renewed data on Hungarian soil spatial infrastructure use legacy, together with recent remote sensing imagery. Based on the results from three study areas investigated, analyses using statistical methods (the Kolmogorov–Smirnov and Random Forest tests) showed a different relative predominance of pedological variables in each study area. The geomorphological differences between the study areas explain these variations satisfactorily. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Archaeological Remote Sensing in the 21st Century: (Re)Defining Practice and Theory)

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19 pages, 5642 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Towards a Satellite System for Archaeology? Simulation of an Optical Satellite Mission with Ideal Spatial and Temporal Resolution, Illustrated by a Case Study in Scotland

by Ciara N. McGrath, Charlie Scott, Dave Cowley and Malcolm Macdonald

Remote Sens. 2020, 12(24), 4100; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12244100 - 15 Dec 2020

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2842

Abstract

Applications of remote sensing data for archaeology rely heavily on repurposed data, which carry inherent limitations in their suitability to help address archaeological questions. Through a case study framed around archaeological imperatives in a Scottish context, this work investigates the potential for existing satellite systems to provide remote sensing data that meet defined specifications for archaeological prospection, considering both spatial and temporal resolution, concluding that the availability of commercial data is currently insufficient. Tasking a commercial constellation of 12 spacecraft to collect images of a 150 km² region in Scotland through the month of July 2020 provided 26 images with less than 50% cloud cover. Following an analysis of existing systems, this paper presents a high-level mission architecture for a bespoke satellite system designed from an archaeological specification. This study focuses on orbit design and the number of spacecraft needed to meet the spatial and temporal resolution requirements for archaeological site detection and monitoring in a case study of Scotland, using existing imaging technology. By exploring what an ideal scenario might look like from a satellite mission planning perspective, this paper presents a simulation analysis that foregrounds archaeological imperatives and specifies a satellite constellation design on that basis. High-level design suggests that a system of eight 100 kg spacecraft in a 581 km altitude orbit could provide coverage at a desired temporal and spatial resolution of two-weekly revisit and <1 m ground sampling distance, respectively. The potential for such a system to be more widely applied in regions of similar latitude and climate is discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Archaeological Remote Sensing in the 21st Century: (Re)Defining Practice and Theory)

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23 pages, 1330 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Power and/or Penury of Visualizations: Some Thoughts on Remote Sensing Data and Products in Archaeology

by Włodzimierz Rączkowski

Remote Sens. 2020, 12(18), 2996; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12182996 - 15 Sep 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3216

Abstract

Airborne and spaceborne remote sensing in archaeology generates at least two important issues for discussion: technology and visualization. Technology seems to open new cognitive perspectives for archaeology and keeps researchers increasingly fascinated in its capabilities (archaeological science being a case in point). Acquired data, especially via remote sensing methods, can be studied after processing and visualizing. The paper raises several issues related to the new cognitive situation of archaeologists facing the development of new technologies within remote sensing methods. These issues are discussed from ontological, epistemological, and discursive perspectives, supporting an exploration of the role of technology and visualization. The ontological perspective places the visualization of remote sensing data in the context of understanding Virtual Reality and Jean Baudrillard’s simulacra. The epistemological perspective generates questions related to visualization as mimesis, the issue of cultural neutrality, and the use of sophisticated classifications and analytical techniques. The level of discursiveness of visualization includes categories such as persuasion, standardization, and aesthetics. This discussion is framed in relation to Martin Heidegger’s understanding of technology and a dichotomy of naturalism versus antinaturalism. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Archaeological Remote Sensing in the 21st Century: (Re)Defining Practice and Theory)

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20 pages, 8446 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Airborne Hyperspectral Imaging for Submerged Archaeological Mapping in Shallow Water Environments

by Alexandre Guyot, Marc Lennon, Nicolas Thomas, Simon Gueguen, Tristan Petit, Thierry Lorho, Serge Cassen and Laurence Hubert-Moy

Remote Sens. 2019, 11(19), 2237; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11192237 - 25 Sep 2019

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 6245

Abstract

Nearshore areas around the world contain a wide variety of archeological structures, including prehistoric remains submerged by sea level rise during the Holocene glacial retreat. While natural processes, such as erosion, rising sea level, and exceptional climatic events have always threatened the integrity of this submerged cultural heritage, the importance of protecting them is becoming increasingly critical with the expanding effects of global climate change and human activities. Aerial archaeology, as a non-invasive technique, contributes greatly to documentation of archaeological remains. In an underwater context, the difficulty of crossing the water column to reach the bottom and its potential archaeological information usually requires active remote-sensing technologies such as airborne LiDAR bathymetry or ship-borne acoustic soundings. More recently, airborne hyperspectral passive sensors have shown potential for accessing water-bottom information in shallow water environments. While hyperspectral imagery has been assessed in terrestrial continental archaeological contexts, this study brings new perspectives for documenting submerged archaeological structures using airborne hyperspectral remote sensing. Airborne hyperspectral data were recorded in the Visible Near Infra-Red (VNIR) spectral range (400–1000 nm) over the submerged megalithic site of Er Lannic (Morbihan, France). The method used to process these data included (i) visualization of submerged anomalous features using a minimum noise fraction transform, (ii) automatic detection of these features using Isolation Forest and the Reed–Xiaoli detector and (iii) morphological and spectral analysis of archaeological structures from water-depth and water-bottom reflectance derived from the inversion of a radiative transfer model of the water column. The results, compared to archaeological reference data collected from in-situ archaeological surveys, showed for the first time the potential of airborne hyperspectral imagery for archaeological mapping in complex shallow water environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Archaeological Remote Sensing in the 21st Century: (Re)Defining Practice and Theory)

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22 pages, 7389 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bringing Lunar LiDAR Back Down to Earth: Mapping Our Industrial Heritage through Deep Transfer Learning

by Jane Gallwey, Matthew Eyre, Matthew Tonkins and John Coggan

Remote Sens. 2019, 11(17), 1994; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11171994 - 23 Aug 2019

Cited by 39 | Viewed by 5525

Abstract

This article presents a novel deep learning method for semi-automated detection of historic mining pits using aerial LiDAR data. The recent emergence of national scale remotely sensed datasets has created the potential to greatly increase the rate of analysis and recording of cultural heritage sites. However, the time and resources required to process these datasets in traditional desktop surveys presents a near insurmountable challenge. The use of artificial intelligence to carry out preliminary processing of vast areas could enable experts to prioritize their prospection focus; however, success so far has been hindered by the lack of large training datasets in this field. This study develops an innovative transfer learning approach, utilizing a deep convolutional neural network initially trained on Lunar LiDAR datasets and reapplied here in an archaeological context. Recall rates of 80% and 83% were obtained on the 0.5 m and 0.25 m resolution datasets respectively, with false positive rates maintained below 20%. These results are state of the art and demonstrate that this model is an efficient, effective tool for semi-automated object detection for this type of archaeological objects. Further tests indicated strong potential for detection of other types of archaeological objects when trained accordingly. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Archaeological Remote Sensing in the 21st Century: (Re)Defining Practice and Theory)

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23 pages, 31824 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Relative Radiometric Calibration of Airborne LiDAR Data for Archaeological Applications

by Christopher Sevara, Martin Wieser, Michael Doneus and Norbert Pfeifer

Remote Sens. 2019, 11(8), 945; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11080945 - 19 Apr 2019

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 4320

Abstract

Airborne laser scanning (ALS) data can provide more than just a topographic data set for archaeological research. During data collection, laser scanning systems also record radiometric information containing object properties, and thus information about archaeological features. Being aware of the physical model of ALS scanning, the radiometric information can be used to calculate material information of the scanned object. The reflectance of an object or material states the amount of energy it reflects for a specific electromagnetic wavelength. However, the collected radiometric data are affected by several factors that cause dissimilar values to be recorded for the same object. Radiometric calibration of such data minimizes these differences in calculated reflectance values of objects, improving their usability for feature detection and visualization purposes. Previous work dealing with calibration of radiometric data in archaeological research has relied on corresponding in-field measurements to acquire calibration values or has only corrected for a limited number of variables. In this paper, we apply a desk-based approach in which radiometric calibration is conducted through the selection of homogenous areas of interest, without the use of in-field measurements. Together with flight and scan parameters, radiometric calibration allows for the estimation of reflectance values for returns of a single full-waveform ALS data collection flight. The resulting data are then processed into a raster reflectance map that approximates a monochromatic illumination-independent true orthoimage at the wavelength of the laser scanner. We apply this approach to data collected for an archaeological research project in western Sicily and discuss the relative merits of the uses of radiometric data in such locations as well as its wider applicability for present and future archaeological and environmental research. In order to make the approach more accessible, we have developed a freely available tool that allows users to apply the calibration procedure to their own data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Archaeological Remote Sensing in the 21st Century: (Re)Defining Practice and Theory)

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27 pages, 13085 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Beyond Site Detection: The Role of Satellite Remote Sensing in Analysing Archaeological Problems. A Case Study in Lithic Resource Procurement in the Atacama Desert, Northern Chile

by César Borie, César Parcero-Oubiña, Youngsang Kwon, Diego Salazar, Carola Flores, Laura Olguín and Pedro Andrade

Remote Sens. 2019, 11(7), 869; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11070869 - 10 Apr 2019

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 6109

Abstract

Remote sensing archaeology in recent years has emphasized the use of high-precision and high-accuracy tools to achieve the detailed documentation of archaeological elements (drones, LIDAR, etc.). Satellite remote sensing has also benefited from an increase in the spatial and spectral resolution of the sensors, which is enabling the discovery and documentation of new archaeological features and sites worldwide. While there can be no doubt that a great deal is being gained via such “site detection” approaches, there still remains the possibility of further exploring remote sensing methods to analyse archaeological problems. In this paper, this issue is discussed by focusing on one common archaeological topic: the mapping of environmental resources used in the past and, in particular, the procurement of lithic raw material by hunter-gatherer groups. This is illustrated by showing how the combined use of Landsat 8 images and “ground-truthing” via focused field studies has allowed the identification of a number of potential chert sources, the major lithic resource used by coastal groups between 11,500–1,500 cal. BP, in a vast area of the Atacama Desert covering 22,500 km². Besides discussing the case study, the strength of remote sensing techniques in addressing archaeological questions comprising large spatial scales is highlighted, stressing the key role they can play in the detection and study of specific environmental resources within challenging physical settings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Archaeological Remote Sensing in the 21st Century: (Re)Defining Practice and Theory)

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20 pages, 14466 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Integrating Remote Sensing, Machine Learning, and Citizen Science in Dutch Archaeological Prospection

by Karsten Lambers, Wouter B. Verschoof-van der Vaart and Quentin P. J. Bourgeois

Remote Sens. 2019, 11(7), 794; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11070794 - 03 Apr 2019

Cited by 92 | Viewed by 9082

Abstract

Although the history of automated archaeological object detection in remotely sensed data is short, progress and emerging trends are evident. Among them, the shift from rule-based approaches towards machine learning methods is, at the moment, the cause for high expectations, even though basic problems, such as the lack of suitable archaeological training data are only beginning to be addressed. In a case study in the central Netherlands, we are currently developing novel methods for multi-class archaeological object detection in LiDAR data based on convolutional neural networks (CNNs). This research is embedded in a long-term investigation of the prehistoric landscape of our study region. We here present an innovative integrated workflow that combines machine learning approaches to automated object detection in remotely sensed data with a two-tier citizen science project that allows us to generate and validate detections of hitherto unknown archaeological objects, thereby contributing to the creation of reliable, labeled archaeological training datasets. We motivate our methodological choices in the light of current trends in archaeological prospection, remote sensing, machine learning, and citizen science, and present the first results of the implementation of the workflow in our research area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Archaeological Remote Sensing in the 21st Century: (Re)Defining Practice and Theory)

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Graphical abstract

26 pages, 27377 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Why Not a Single Image? Combining Visualizations to Facilitate Fieldwork and On-Screen Mapping

by Žiga Kokalj and Maja Somrak

Remote Sens. 2019, 11(7), 747; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11070747 - 27 Mar 2019

Cited by 139 | Viewed by 8990

Abstract

Visualization products computed from a raster elevation model still form the basis of most archaeological and geomorphological enquiries of lidar data. We believe there is a need to improve the existing visualizations and create meaningful image combinations that preserve positive characteristics of individual techniques. In this paper, we list the criteria a good visualization should meet, present five different blend modes (normal, screen, multiply, overlay, luminosity), which combine various images into one, discuss their characteristics, and examine how they can be used to improve the visibility (recognition) of small topographical features. Blending different relief visualization techniques allows for a simultaneous display of distinct topographical features in a single (enhanced) image. We provide a “recipe” and a tool for a mix of visualization techniques and blend modes, including all the settings, to compute a visualization for archaeological topography that meets all of the criteria of a good visualization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Archaeological Remote Sensing in the 21st Century: (Re)Defining Practice and Theory)

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