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Water Optics and Water Colour Remote Sensing
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Water Optics and Water Colour Remote Sensing

A special issue of Remote Sensing (ISSN 2072-4292).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (28 February 2017) | Viewed by 184157

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Yunlin Zhang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Nanjing Institute of Geography and Limnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 73 East Beijing Road, Nanjing 210008, China
Interests: lake optics and water color remote sensing; chromophoric dissolved organic matter (CDOM) biogeochemistry cycle; UV-B radiation environmental effect; physical limnology; lake eutrophication; lake thermodynamics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Claudia Giardino

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
CNR-IREA, Institute for Electromagnetic Sensing of the Environment, National Research Council, Milano, Italy
Interests: imaging spectroscopy and remote sensing of lakes; bio-optical modelling; shallow waters; water quality monitoring
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Linhai Li

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Marine Physical Laboratory, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0238, USA
Interests: hydrologic optics; optical remote sensing of inland and ocean waters; remote sensing inversion algorithms; radiative transfer of ocean; inelastic processes in the ocean

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Available water resources, including rivers, reservoirs, lakes, coastal waters, and oceans, are emerging as a limiting factor, not only in quantity, but also in quality, for human development and ecological stability. Declining water quality has become a global issue of significant concern as anthropogenic activities expand and climate change threatens to cause major alterations to the hydrological cycle. Thus, monitoring the physical, chemical, and biological status of those waters are immensely important. Remote sensing has the potential to provide an invaluable complementary source of data at local to global scales. However, accurate, cost effective, frequent, and synoptic retrieval algorithms of in-water optical and biogeochemical parameters, as well as information on the biophysical properties have several challenges.

A Special Issue focusing on “water optics and remote sensing” is specifically aimed at addressing: (1) issues on water optics including characterizing optical properties among rivers, reservoirs, lakes, coastal waters, and open sea, modeling the relationships between apparent optical properties (AOPs) and inherent optical properties (IOPs); and (2) challenges on retrieval algorithm developments, validation, and applications of remote sensing of rivers, reservoirs, lakes, coastal waters, and open ocean. Obviously, this Special Issue will be helpful to update the recent progress in this rapidly growing research area.

The topics, examined at local, regional, or global scales, may include, but are not limited to, the following:

  • Characterizing bio-optical properties of river, reservoir, lake, coastal and oceanic waters;
  • Exploring the relationships between bio-optical properties and biogeochemical parameters;
  • Development and validation of atmospheric correction algorithms;
  • Model calibration and validation of optical and biogeochemical parameters;
  • Mapping optical and water colour parameters from satellite and airborne data;

The Special Issue will consider invited contributed papers in response to an open call for papers. Contributions are expected from the research community focusing on algorithm development of water color and from the application community using the results obtained from remote sensing analysis.

Papers will be published continuously (as soon as they are accepted) and will be listed together on the Special Issue website. Research articles, review articles, as well as communications, are invited. Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to the website. Once you are registered, click https://susy.mdpi.com/user/manuscripts/upload?journal=remotesensing to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline (1 December, 2016).

Dr. Yunlin Zhang
Dr. Claudia Giardino
Dr. Linhai Li
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Remote Sensing is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

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Editorial

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743 KiB  
Editorial
Water Optics and Water Colour Remote Sensing
by Yunlin Zhang, Claudia Giardino and Linhai Li
Remote Sens. 2017, 9(8), 818; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9080818 - 09 Aug 2017
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 5814
Abstract
The editorial paper aims to highlight the main topics investigated in the Special Issue (SI) “Water Optics and Water Colour Remote Sensing”. The outcomes of the 21 papers published in the SI are presented, along with a bibliometric analysis in the same field, [...] Read more.
The editorial paper aims to highlight the main topics investigated in the Special Issue (SI) “Water Optics and Water Colour Remote Sensing”. The outcomes of the 21 papers published in the SI are presented, along with a bibliometric analysis in the same field, namely, water optics and water colour remote sensing. This editorial summarises how the research articles of the SI approach the study of bio-optical properties of aquatic systems, the development of remote sensing algorithms, and the application of time-series satellite data for assessing long-term and temporal-spatial dynamics in inland, coastal, and oceanic waters. The SI shows the progress with a focus on: (1) bio-optical properties (three papers); (2) atmospheric correction and data uncertainties (five papers); (3) remote sensing estimation of chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) (eight papers); (4) remote sensing estimation of suspended matter and chromophoric dissolved organic matter (CDOM) (four papers); and (5) water quality and water ecology remote sensing (four papers). Overall, the SI presents a variety of applications at the global scale (with case studies in Europe, Asia, South and North America, and the Antarctic), achieved with different remote sensing instruments, such as hyperspectral field and airborne sensors, ocean colour radiometry, geostationary platforms, and the multispectral Landsat and Sentinel-2 satellites. The bibliometric analysis, carried out to include research articles published from 1900 to 2016, indicates that “chlorophyll-a”, “ocean colour”, “phytoplankton”, “SeaWiFS” (Sea-Viewing Wide Field-of-View Sensor), and “chromophoric dissolved organic matter” were the five most frequently used keywords in the field. The SI contents, along with the bibliometric analysis, clearly suggest that remote sensing of Chl-a is one of the topmost investigated subjects in the field. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Optics and Water Colour Remote Sensing)
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Research

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9749 KiB  
Article
SNR (Signal-To-Noise Ratio) Impact on Water Constituent Retrieval from Simulated Images of Optically Complex Amazon Lakes
by Daniel S. F. Jorge, Claudio C. F. Barbosa, Lino A. S. De Carvalho, Adriana G. Affonso, Felipe De L. Lobo and Evlyn M. L. De M. Novo
Remote Sens. 2017, 9(7), 644; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9070644 - 22 Jun 2017
Cited by 41 | Viewed by 9794
Abstract
Uncertainties in the estimates of water constituents are among the main issues concerning the orbital remote sensing of inland waters. Those uncertainties result from sensor design, atmosphere correction, model equations, and in situ conditions (cloud cover, lake size/shape, and adjacency effects). In the [...] Read more.
Uncertainties in the estimates of water constituents are among the main issues concerning the orbital remote sensing of inland waters. Those uncertainties result from sensor design, atmosphere correction, model equations, and in situ conditions (cloud cover, lake size/shape, and adjacency effects). In the Amazon floodplain lakes, such uncertainties are amplified due to their seasonal dynamic. Therefore, it is imperative to understand the suitability of a sensor to cope with them and assess their impact on the algorithms for the retrieval of constituents. The objective of this paper is to assess the impact of the SNR on the Chl-a and TSS algorithms in four lakes located at Mamirauá Sustainable Development Reserve (Amazonia, Brazil). Two data sets were simulated (noisy and noiseless spectra) based on in situ measurements and on sensor design (MSI/Sentinel-2, OLCI/Sentinel-3, and OLI/Landsat 8). The dataset was tested using three and four algorithms for TSS and Chl-a, respectively. The results showed that the impact of the SNR on each algorithm displayed similar patterns for both constituents. For additive and single band algorithms, the error amplitude is constant for the entire concentration range. However, for multiplicative algorithms, the error changes according to the model equation and the Rrs magnitude. Lastly, for the exponential algorithm, the retrieval amplitude is higher for a low concentration. The OLCI sensor has the best retrieval performance (error of up to 2 μg/L for Chl-a and 3 mg/L for TSS). For MSI, the error of the additive and single band algorithms for TSS and Chl-a are low (up to 5 mg/L and 1 μg/L, respectively); but for the multiplicative algorithm, the errors were above 10 μg/L. The OLI simulation resulted in errors below 3 mg/L for TSS. However, the number and position of OLI bands restrict Chl-a retrieval. Sensor and algorithm selection need a comprehensive analysis of key factors such as sensor design, in situ conditions, water brightness (Rrs), and model equations before being applied for inland water studies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Optics and Water Colour Remote Sensing)
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4727 KiB  
Article
Seasonal and Interannual Variability of Satellite-Derived Chlorophyll-a (2000–2012) in the Bohai Sea, China
by Hailong Zhang, Zhongfeng Qiu, Deyong Sun, Shengqiang Wang and Yijun He
Remote Sens. 2017, 9(6), 582; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9060582 - 10 Jun 2017
Cited by 52 | Viewed by 6346
Abstract
Knowledge of the chlorophyll-a dynamics and their long-term changes is important for assessing marine ecosystems, especially for coastal waters. In this study, the spatial and temporal variability of sea surface chlorophyll-a concentration (Chl-a) in the Bohai Sea were investigated using 13-year (2000–2012) satellite-derived [...] Read more.
Knowledge of the chlorophyll-a dynamics and their long-term changes is important for assessing marine ecosystems, especially for coastal waters. In this study, the spatial and temporal variability of sea surface chlorophyll-a concentration (Chl-a) in the Bohai Sea were investigated using 13-year (2000–2012) satellite-derived products from MODIS and SeaWiFS observations. Based on linear regression analysis, the results showed that the entire Bohai Sea experienced an increase in Chl-a on a long-term scale, with the largest increase in the central Bohai Sea and the smallest increase in the Bohai strait. Distinct seasonal patterns of Chl-a existed in different sub-regions of the Bohai Sea. A long-lasting Chl-a peak was observed from May to September in coastal waters (Liaodong bay, Qinhuangdao coast, and Bohai bay) and the central Bohai Sea, whereas Laizhou bay had relatively low Chl-a in early summer. In the Bohai strait, two pronounced Chl-a peaks occurred in March and September, but the lowest Chl-a was in summer. This pattern was quite different from those in other regions of the Bohai Sea. The water column condition (stratified or mixed) was likely an important physical factor that affects the seasonal pattern of Chl-a in the Bohai Sea. Meanwhile, increased human activity (e.g., river discharge) played a significant role in changing the Chl-a distribution in both coastal waters and the central Bohai Sea, especially in summer. The increasing trend of Chl-a in the Bohai Sea might be attributed to the increase in nutrient contents from riverine inputs. The Chl-a dynamics documented in this study provide basic knowledge for the future exploration of marine biogeochemical processes and ecosystem evolution in the Bohai Sea. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Optics and Water Colour Remote Sensing)
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6742 KiB  
Article
Assessment of Chlorophyll-a Remote Sensing Algorithms in a Productive Tropical Estuarine-Lagoon System
by Regina Camara Lins, Jean-Michel Martinez, David Da Motta Marques, José Almir Cirilo and Carlos Ruberto Fragoso
Remote Sens. 2017, 9(6), 516; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9060516 - 24 May 2017
Cited by 44 | Viewed by 7365
Abstract
Remote estimation of chlorophyll-a in turbid and productive estuaries is difficult due to the optical complexity of Case 2 waters. Although recent advances have been obtained with the use of empirical approaches for estimating chlorophyll-a in these environments, the understanding of the relationship [...] Read more.
Remote estimation of chlorophyll-a in turbid and productive estuaries is difficult due to the optical complexity of Case 2 waters. Although recent advances have been obtained with the use of empirical approaches for estimating chlorophyll-a in these environments, the understanding of the relationship between spectral reflectance and chlorophyll-a is based mainly on temperate and subtropical estuarine systems. The potential to apply standard NIR-Red models to productive tropical estuaries remains underexplored. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to evaluate the performance of several approaches based on multispectral data to estimate chlorophyll-a in a productive tropical estuarine-lagoon system, using in situ measurements of remote sensing reflectance, Rrs. The possibility of applying algorithms using simulated satellite bands of modern and recent launched sensors was also evaluated. More accurate retrievals of chlorophyll-a (r2 > 0.80) based on field datasets were found using NIR-Red three-band models. In addition, enhanced chlorophyll-a retrievals were found using the two-band algorithm based on bands of recently launched satellites such as Sentinel-2/MSI and Sentinel-3/OLCI, indicating a promising application of these sensors to remotely estimate chlorophyll-a for coming decades in turbid inland waters. Our findings suggest that empirical models based on optical properties involving water constituents have strong potential to estimate chlorophyll-a using multispectral data from satellite, airborne or handheld sensors in productive tropical estuaries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Optics and Water Colour Remote Sensing)
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3856 KiB  
Article
An Optical Classification Tool for Global Lake Waters
by Marieke A. Eleveld, Ana B. Ruescas, Annelies Hommersom, Timothy S. Moore, Steef W. M. Peters and Carsten Brockmann
Remote Sens. 2017, 9(5), 420; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9050420 - 29 Apr 2017
Cited by 59 | Viewed by 8689
Abstract
Shallow and deep lakes receive and recycle organic and inorganic substances from within the confines of these lakes, their watershed and beyond. Hence, a large range in absorption and scattering and extreme differences in optical variability can be found between and within global [...] Read more.
Shallow and deep lakes receive and recycle organic and inorganic substances from within the confines of these lakes, their watershed and beyond. Hence, a large range in absorption and scattering and extreme differences in optical variability can be found between and within global lakes. This poses a challenge for atmospheric correction and bio-optical algorithms applied to optical remote sensing for water quality monitoring applications. To optimize these applications for the wide variety of lake optical conditions, we adapted a spectral classification scheme based on the concept of optical water types. The optical water types were defined through a cluster analysis of in situ hyperspectral remote sensing reflectance spectra collected by partners and advisors of the European Union 7th Framework Programme (FP7) Global Lakes Sentinel Services (GLaSS) project. The method has been integrated in the Envisat-BEAM software and the Sentinel Application Platform (SNAP) and generates maps of water types from image data. Two variations of water type classification are provided: one based on area-normalized spectral reflectance focusing on spectral shape (6CN, six-class normalized) and one that retains magnitude with no modification to the reflectance signal (6C). This resulted in a protocol, or processing scheme, that can also be applied or adapted for Sentinel-3 Ocean and Land Colour Imager (OLCI) datasets. We apply both treatments to MERIS imagery of a variety of European lakes to demonstrate its applicability. The studied target lakes cover a range of biophysical types, from shallow turbid to deep and clear, as well as eutrophic and dark absorbing waters, rich in colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM). In shallow, high-reflecting Dutch and Estonian lakes with high sediment load, 6C performed better, while in deep, low-reflecting clear Italian and Swedish lakes, 6CN performed better. The 6CN classification of in situ data is promising for very dark, high CDOM, absorbing lakes, but we show that our atmospheric correction of the imagery was insufficient to corroborate this. We anticipate that the application of the protocol to other lakes with unknown in-water characterization, but with comparable biophysical properties will suggest similar atmospheric correction (AC) and in-water retrieval algorithms for global lakes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Optics and Water Colour Remote Sensing)
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2575 KiB  
Article
Spatiotemporal Variability of Lake Water Quality in the Context of Remote Sensing Models
by Carly Hyatt Hansen, Steven J. Burian, Philip E. Dennison and Gustavious P. Williams
Remote Sens. 2017, 9(5), 409; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9050409 - 26 Apr 2017
Cited by 40 | Viewed by 7645
Abstract
This study demonstrates a number of methods for using field sampling and observed lake characteristics and patterns to improve techniques for development of algae remote sensing models and applications. As satellite and airborne sensors improve and their data are more readily available, applications [...] Read more.
This study demonstrates a number of methods for using field sampling and observed lake characteristics and patterns to improve techniques for development of algae remote sensing models and applications. As satellite and airborne sensors improve and their data are more readily available, applications of models to estimate water quality via remote sensing are becoming more practical for local water quality monitoring, particularly of surface algal conditions. Despite the increasing number of applications, there are significant concerns associated with remote sensing model development and application, several of which are addressed in this study. These concerns include: (1) selecting sensors which are suitable for the spatial and temporal variability in the water body; (2) determining appropriate uses of near-coincident data in empirical model calibration; and (3) recognizing potential limitations of remote sensing measurements which are biased toward surface and near-surface conditions. We address these issues in three lakes in the Great Salt Lake surface water system (namely the Great Salt Lake, Farmington Bay, and Utah Lake) through sampling at scales that are representative of commonly used sensors, repeated sampling, and sampling at both near-surface depths and throughout the water column. The variability across distances representative of the spatial resolutions of Landsat, SENTINEL-2 and MODIS sensors suggests that these sensors are appropriate for this lake system. We also use observed temporal variability in the system to evaluate sensors. These relationships proved to be complex, and observed temporal variability indicates the revisit time of Landsat may be problematic for detecting short events in some lakes, while it may be sufficient for other areas of the system with lower short-term variability. Temporal variability patterns in these lakes are also used to assess near-coincident data in empirical model development. Finally, relationships between the surface and water column conditions illustrate potential issues with near-surface remote sensing, particularly when there are events that cause mixing in the water column. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Optics and Water Colour Remote Sensing)
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10361 KiB  
Article
Turbidity in Apalachicola Bay, Florida from Landsat 5 TM and Field Data: Seasonal Patterns and Response to Extreme Events
by Ishan D. Joshi, Eurico J. D’Sa, Christopher L. Osburn and Thomas S. Bianchi
Remote Sens. 2017, 9(4), 367; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9040367 - 13 Apr 2017
Cited by 31 | Viewed by 10212
Abstract
Synoptic monitoring of estuaries, some of the most bio-diverse and productive environments on Earth, is essential to study small-scale water dynamics and its role on spatiotemporal variation in water quality important to indigenous marine species and surrounding human settlements. We present a detailed [...] Read more.
Synoptic monitoring of estuaries, some of the most bio-diverse and productive environments on Earth, is essential to study small-scale water dynamics and its role on spatiotemporal variation in water quality important to indigenous marine species and surrounding human settlements. We present a detailed study of turbidity, an optical index of water quality, in Apalachicola Bay, Florida (USA) using historical in situ measurements and Landsat 5 TM data archive acquired from 2004 to 2011. Data mining techniques such as time-series decomposition, principal component analysis, and classification tree-based models were utilized to decipher time-series for examining variations in physical forcings, and their effects on diurnal and seasonal variability in turbidity in Apalachicola Bay. Statistical analysis showed that the bay is highly dynamic in nature, both diurnally and seasonally, and its water quality (e.g., turbidity) is largely driven by interactions of different physical forcings such as river discharge, wind speed, tides, and precipitation. River discharge and wind speed are the most influential forcings on the eastern side of river mouth, whereas all physical forcings were relatively important to the western side close to the major inlet, the West Pass. A bootstrap-optimized and atmospheric-corrected single-band empirical relationship (Turbidity (NTU) = 6568.23 × (Reflectance (Band 3))1.95; R2 = 0.77 ± 0.06, range = 0.50–0.91, N = 50) is proposed with seasonal thresholds for its application in various seasons. The validation of this relationship yielded R2 = 0.70 ± 0.15 (range = −0.96–0.97; N = 38; RMSE = 7.78 ± 2.59 NTU; Bias (%) = −8.70 ± 11.48). Complex interactions of physical forcings and their effects on water dynamics have been discussed in detail using Landsat 5 TM-based turbidity maps during major events between 2004 and 2011. Promising results of the single-band turbidity algorithm with Landsat 8 OLI imagery suggest its potential for long-term monitoring of water turbidity in a shallow water estuary such as Apalachicola Bay. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Optics and Water Colour Remote Sensing)
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21837 KiB  
Article
Polarization Patterns of Transmitted Celestial Light under Wavy Water Surfaces
by Guanhua Zhou, Jiwen Wang, Wujian Xu, Kai Zhang and Zhongqi Ma
Remote Sens. 2017, 9(4), 324; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9040324 - 29 Mar 2017
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 6325
Abstract
This paper presents a model to describe the polarization patterns of celestial light, which includes sunlight and skylight, when refracted by wavy water surfaces. The polarization patterns and intensity distribution of refracted light through the wave water surface were calculated. The model was [...] Read more.
This paper presents a model to describe the polarization patterns of celestial light, which includes sunlight and skylight, when refracted by wavy water surfaces. The polarization patterns and intensity distribution of refracted light through the wave water surface were calculated. The model was validated by underwater experimental measurements. The experimental and theoretical values agree well qualitatively. This work provides a quantitative description of the repolarization and transmittance of celestial light transmitted through wave water surfaces. The effects of wind speed and incident sources on the underwater refraction polarization patterns are discussed. Scattering skylight dominates the polarization patterns while direct solar light is the dominant source of the intensity of the underwater light field. Wind speed has an influence on disturbing the patterns under water. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Optics and Water Colour Remote Sensing)
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8950 KiB  
Article
Assessment of Atmospheric Correction Methods for Sentinel-2 MSI Images Applied to Amazon Floodplain Lakes
by Vitor Souza Martins, Claudio Clemente Faria Barbosa, Lino Augusto Sander De Carvalho, Daniel Schaffer Ferreira Jorge, Felipe De Lucia Lobo and Evlyn Márcia Leão de Moraes Novo
Remote Sens. 2017, 9(4), 322; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9040322 - 29 Mar 2017
Cited by 167 | Viewed by 15624
Abstract
Satellite data provide the only viable means for extensive monitoring of remote and large freshwater systems, such as the Amazon floodplain lakes. However, an accurate atmospheric correction is required to retrieve water constituents based on surface water reflectance ( R W ). In [...] Read more.
Satellite data provide the only viable means for extensive monitoring of remote and large freshwater systems, such as the Amazon floodplain lakes. However, an accurate atmospheric correction is required to retrieve water constituents based on surface water reflectance ( R W ). In this paper, we assessed three atmospheric correction methods (Second Simulation of a Satellite Signal in the Solar Spectrum (6SV), ACOLITE and Sen2Cor) applied to an image acquired by the MultiSpectral Instrument (MSI) on-board of the European Space Agency’s Sentinel-2A platform using concurrent in-situ measurements over four Amazon floodplain lakes in Brazil. In addition, we evaluated the correction of forest adjacency effects based on the linear spectral unmixing model, and performed a temporal evaluation of atmospheric constituents from Multi-Angle Implementation of Atmospheric Correction (MAIAC) products. The validation of MAIAC aerosol optical depth (AOD) indicated satisfactory retrievals over the Amazon region, with a correlation coefficient (R) of ~0.7 and 0.85 for Terra and Aqua products, respectively. The seasonal distribution of the cloud cover and AOD revealed a contrast between the first and second half of the year in the study area. Furthermore, simulation of top-of-atmosphere (TOA) reflectance showed a critical contribution of atmospheric effects (>50%) to all spectral bands, especially the deep blue (92%–96%) and blue (84%–92%) bands. The atmospheric correction results of the visible bands illustrate the limitation of the methods over dark lakes ( R W < 1%), and better match of the R W shape compared with in-situ measurements over turbid lakes, although the accuracy varied depending on the spectral bands and methods. Particularly above 705 nm, R W was highly affected by Amazon forest adjacency, and the proposed adjacency effect correction minimized the spectral distortions in R W (RMSE < 0.006). Finally, an extensive validation of the methods is required for distinct inland water types and atmospheric conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Optics and Water Colour Remote Sensing)
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12606 KiB  
Article
Spatio-Temporal Change of Lake Water Extent in Wuhan Urban Agglomeration Based on Landsat Images from 1987 to 2015
by Yue Deng, Weiguo Jiang, Zhenghong Tang, Jiahong Li, Jinxia Lv, Zheng Chen and Kai Jia
Remote Sens. 2017, 9(3), 270; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9030270 - 15 Mar 2017
Cited by 68 | Viewed by 7667
Abstract
Urban lakes play an important role in urban development and environmental protection for the Wuhan urban agglomeration. Under the impacts of urbanization and climate change, understanding urban lake-water extent dynamics is significant. However, few studies on the lake-water extent changes for the Wuhan [...] Read more.
Urban lakes play an important role in urban development and environmental protection for the Wuhan urban agglomeration. Under the impacts of urbanization and climate change, understanding urban lake-water extent dynamics is significant. However, few studies on the lake-water extent changes for the Wuhan urban agglomeration exist. This research employed 1375 seasonally continuous Landsat TM/ETM+/OLI data scenes to evaluate the lake-water extent changes from 1987 to 2015. The random forest model was used to extract water bodies based on eleven feature variables, including six remote-sensing spectral bands and five spectral indices. An accuracy assessment yielded a mean classification accuracy of 93.11%, with a standard deviation of 2.26%. The calculated results revealed the following: (1) The average maximum lake-water area of the Wuhan urban agglomeration was 2262.17 km2 from 1987 to 2002, and it decreased to 2020.78 km2 from 2005 to 2015, with a loss of 241.39 km2 (10.67%). (2) The lake-water areas of loss of Wuhan, Huanggang, Xianning, and Xiaogan cities, were 114.83 km2, 44.40 km2, 45.39 km2, and 31.18 km2, respectively, with percentages of loss of 14.30%, 11.83%, 13.16%, and 23.05%, respectively. (3) The lake-water areas in the Wuhan urban agglomeration were 226.29 km2, 322.71 km2, 460.35 km2, 400.79 km2, 535.51 km2, and 635.42 km2 under water inundation frequencies of 5%–10%, 10%–20%, 20%–40%, 40%–60%, 60%–80%, and 80%–100%, respectively. The Wuhan urban agglomeration was approved as the pilot area for national comprehensive reform, for promoting resource-saving and environmentally friendly developments. This study could be used as guidance for lake protection and water resource management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Optics and Water Colour Remote Sensing)
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12861 KiB  
Article
Retrieval of Chlorophyll-a and Total Suspended Solids Using Iterative Stepwise Elimination Partial Least Squares (ISE-PLS) Regression Based on Field Hyperspectral Measurements in Irrigation Ponds in Higashihiroshima, Japan
by Zuomin Wang, Kensuke Kawamura, Yuji Sakuno, Xinyan Fan, Zhe Gong and Jihyun Lim
Remote Sens. 2017, 9(3), 264; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9030264 - 13 Mar 2017
Cited by 56 | Viewed by 7749
Abstract
Concentrations of chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) and total suspended solids (TSS) are significant parameters used to assess water quality. The objective of this study is to establish a quantitative model for estimating the Chl-a and the TSS concentrations in irrigation ponds [...] Read more.
Concentrations of chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) and total suspended solids (TSS) are significant parameters used to assess water quality. The objective of this study is to establish a quantitative model for estimating the Chl-a and the TSS concentrations in irrigation ponds in Higashihiroshima, Japan, using field hyperspectral measurements and statistical analysis. Field experiments were conducted in six ponds and spectral readings for Chl-a and TSS were obtained from six field observations in 2014. For statistical approaches, we used two spectral indices, the ratio spectral index (RSI) and the normalized difference spectral index (NDSI), and a partial least squares (PLS) regression. The predictive abilities were compared using the coefficient of determination (R2), the root mean squared error of cross validation (RMSECV) and the residual predictive deviation (RPD). Overall, iterative stepwise elimination based on PLS (ISE–PLS), using the first derivative reflectance (FDR), showed the best predictive accuracy, for both Chl-a (R2 = 0.98, RMSECV = 6.15, RPD = 7.44) and TSS (R2 = 0.97, RMSECV = 1.91, RPD = 6.64). The important wavebands for estimating Chl-a (16.97% of all wavebands) and TSS (8.38% of all wavebands) were selected by ISE–PLS from all 501 wavebands over the 400–900 nm range. These findings suggest that ISE–PLS based on field hyperspectral measurements can be used to estimate water Chl-a and TSS concentrations in irrigation ponds. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Optics and Water Colour Remote Sensing)
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3731 KiB  
Article
Fluorescence-Based Approach to Estimate the Chlorophyll-A Concentration of a Phytoplankton Bloom in Ardley Cove (Antarctica)
by Chen Zeng, Tao Zeng, Andrew M. Fischer and Huiping Xu
Remote Sens. 2017, 9(3), 210; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9030210 - 25 Feb 2017
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 5999
Abstract
A phytoplankton bloom occurred in Ardley Cove, King George Island in January 2016, during which maximum chlorophyll-a reached 9.87 mg/m3. Records show that blooms have previously not occurred in this area prior to 2010 and the average chlorophyll-a concentration between 1991 [...] Read more.
A phytoplankton bloom occurred in Ardley Cove, King George Island in January 2016, during which maximum chlorophyll-a reached 9.87 mg/m3. Records show that blooms have previously not occurred in this area prior to 2010 and the average chlorophyll-a concentration between 1991 and 2009 was less than 2 mg/m3. Given the lack of in situ measurements and the poor performance of satellite algorithms in the Southern Ocean and Antarctic waters, we validate and assess several chlorophyll-a algorithms and apply an improved baseline fluorescence approach to examine this bloom event. In situ water properties including in vivo fluorescence, water leaving radiance, and solar irradiance were collected to evaluate satellite algorithms and characterize chlorophyll-a concentration, as well as dominant phytoplankton groups. The results validated the nFLH fluorescence baseline approach, resulting in a good agreement at this high latitude, high chlorophyll-a region with correlation at 59.46%. The dominant phytoplankton group within the bloom was micro-phytoplankton, occupying 79.58% of the total phytoplankton community. Increasing sea ice coverage and sea ice concentration are likely responsible for increasing phytoplankton blooms in the recent decade. Given the profound influence of climate change on sea-ice and phytoplankton dynamics in the region, it is imperative to develop accurate methods of estimating the spatial distribution and concentrations of the increasing occurrence of bloom events. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Optics and Water Colour Remote Sensing)
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10205 KiB  
Article
Temporal and Spatial Dynamics of Phytoplankton Primary Production in Lake Taihu Derived from MODIS Data
by Yubing Deng, Yunlin Zhang, Deping Li, Kun Shi and Yibo Zhang
Remote Sens. 2017, 9(3), 195; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9030195 - 24 Feb 2017
Cited by 46 | Viewed by 6519
Abstract
We investigated the long-term variations in primary production in Lake Taihu using Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data, based on the Vertically Generalized Production Model (VGPM). We firstly test the applicability of VGPM in Lake Taihu by comparing the results between the model-derived [...] Read more.
We investigated the long-term variations in primary production in Lake Taihu using Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data, based on the Vertically Generalized Production Model (VGPM). We firstly test the applicability of VGPM in Lake Taihu by comparing the results between the model-derived and the in situ results, and the results showed that a strong significant correlation (R2 = 0.753, p < 0.001, n = 63). Then, VGPM was used to map temporal-spatial distributions of primary production in Lake Taihu. The annual mean daily primary production of Lake Taihu from 2003 to 2013 was 1094.06 ± 720.74 mg·C·m−2·d−1. Long-term primary production maps estimated from the MODIS data demonstrated marked temporal and spatial variations. Spatially, the primary production in bays, especially in Zhushan Bay and Meiliang Bay, was consistently higher than that in the open area of Lake Taihu, which was caused by chlorophyll-a concentrations resulting from high nutrient concentrations. Temporally, the seasonal variation of primary production from 2003 to 2013 was: summer > autumn > spring > winter, with significantly higher primary production found in summer and autumn than in winter (p < 0.005, t-test), primarily caused by seasonal variations in water temperature. On a monthly scale, the primary production exerts a clear character of bimodality, increasing from January to May, decreasing in June or July, and finally reaching its highest value during August or September. Wind is another important factor that could affect the spatial variations of primary production in the large, eutrophic and shallow Lake Taihu. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Optics and Water Colour Remote Sensing)
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5665 KiB  
Article
An Empirical Ocean Colour Algorithm for Estimating the Contribution of Coloured Dissolved Organic Matter in North-Central Western Adriatic Sea
by Alessandra Campanelli, Simone Pascucci, Mattia Betti, Federica Grilli, Mauro Marini, Stefano Pignatti and Stefano Guicciardi
Remote Sens. 2017, 9(2), 180; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9020180 - 21 Feb 2017
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 5508
Abstract
The performance of empirical band ratio models were evaluated for the estimation of Coloured Dissolved Organic Matter (CDOM) using MODIS ocean colour sensor images and data collected on the North-Central Western Adriatic Sea (Mediterranean Sea). Relationships between in situ measurements (2013–2016) of CDOM [...] Read more.
The performance of empirical band ratio models were evaluated for the estimation of Coloured Dissolved Organic Matter (CDOM) using MODIS ocean colour sensor images and data collected on the North-Central Western Adriatic Sea (Mediterranean Sea). Relationships between in situ measurements (2013–2016) of CDOM absorption coefficients at 355 nm (aCDOM355) with several MODIS satellite band ratios were evaluated on a test data set. The prediction capability of the different linear models was assessed on a validation data set. Based on some statistical diagnostic parameters (R2, APD and RMSE), the best MODIS band ratio performance in retrieving CDOM was obtained by a simple linear model of the transformed dependent variable using the remote sensing reflectance band ratio Rrs(667)/Rrs(488) as the only independent variable. The best-retrieved CDOM algorithm provides very good results for the complex coastal area along the North-Central Western Adriatic Sea where the Po River outflow is the main driving force in CDOM and nutrient circulation, which in winter mostly remains confined to a coastal boundary layer, whereas in summer it spreads to the open sea as well. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Optics and Water Colour Remote Sensing)
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4894 KiB  
Article
A MODIS-Based Novel Method to Distinguish Surface Cyanobacterial Scums and Aquatic Macrophytes in Lake Taihu
by Qichun Liang, Yuchao Zhang, Ronghua Ma, Steven Loiselle, Jing Li and Minqi Hu
Remote Sens. 2017, 9(2), 133; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9020133 - 06 Feb 2017
Cited by 69 | Viewed by 10401
Abstract
Satellite remote sensing can be an effective alternative for mapping cyanobacterial scums and aquatic macrophyte distribution over large areas compared with traditional ship’s site-specific samplings. However, similar optical spectra characteristics between aquatic macrophytes and cyanobacterial scums in red and near infrared (NIR) wavebands [...] Read more.
Satellite remote sensing can be an effective alternative for mapping cyanobacterial scums and aquatic macrophyte distribution over large areas compared with traditional ship’s site-specific samplings. However, similar optical spectra characteristics between aquatic macrophytes and cyanobacterial scums in red and near infrared (NIR) wavebands create a barrier to their discrimination when they co-occur. We developed a new cyanobacteria and macrophytes index (CMI) based on a blue, a green, and a shortwave infrared band to separate waters with cyanobacterial scums from those dominated by aquatic macrophytes, and a turbid water index (TWI) to avoid interference from high turbid waters typical of shallow lakes. Combining CMI, TWI, and the floating algae index (FAI), we used a novel classification approach to discriminate lake water, cyanobacteria blooms, submerged macrophytes, and emergent/floating macrophytes using MODIS imagery in the large shallow and eutrophic Lake Taihu (China). Thresholds for CMI, TWI, and FAI were determined by statistical analysis for a 2010–2016 MODIS Aqua time series. We validated the accuracy of our approach by in situ reflectance spectra, field investigations and high spatial resolution HJ-CCD data. The overall classification accuracy was 86% in total, and the user’s accuracy was 88%, 79%, 85%, and 93% for submerged macrophytes, emergent/floating macrophytes, cyanobacterial scums and lake water, respectively. The estimated aquatic macrophyte distributions gave consistent results with that based on HJ-CCD data. This new approach allows for the coincident determination of the distributions of cyanobacteria blooms and aquatic macrophytes in eutrophic shallow lakes. We also discuss the utility of the approach with respect to masking clouds, black waters, and atmospheric effects, and its mixed-pixel effects. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Optics and Water Colour Remote Sensing)
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6705 KiB  
Article
Atmospheric Corrections and Multi-Conditional Algorithm for Multi-Sensor Remote Sensing of Suspended Particulate Matter in Low-to-High Turbidity Levels Coastal Waters
by Stéfani Novoa, David Doxaran, Anouck Ody, Quinten Vanhellemont, Virginie Lafon, Bertrand Lubac and Pierre Gernez
Remote Sens. 2017, 9(1), 61; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9010061 - 12 Jan 2017
Cited by 131 | Viewed by 12318
Abstract
The accurate measurement of suspended particulate matter (SPM) concentrations in coastal waters is of crucial importance for ecosystem studies, sediment transport monitoring, and assessment of anthropogenic impacts in the coastal ocean. Ocean color remote sensing is an efficient tool to monitor SPM spatio-temporal [...] Read more.
The accurate measurement of suspended particulate matter (SPM) concentrations in coastal waters is of crucial importance for ecosystem studies, sediment transport monitoring, and assessment of anthropogenic impacts in the coastal ocean. Ocean color remote sensing is an efficient tool to monitor SPM spatio-temporal variability in coastal waters. However, near-shore satellite images are complex to correct for atmospheric effects due to the proximity of land and to the high level of reflectance caused by high SPM concentrations in the visible and near-infrared spectral regions. The water reflectance signal (ρw) tends to saturate at short visible wavelengths when the SPM concentration increases. Using a comprehensive dataset of high-resolution satellite imagery and in situ SPM and water reflectance data, this study presents (i) an assessment of existing atmospheric correction (AC) algorithms developed for turbid coastal waters; and (ii) a switching method that automatically selects the most sensitive SPM vs. ρw relationship, to avoid saturation effects when computing the SPM concentration. The approach is applied to satellite data acquired by three medium-high spatial resolution sensors (Landsat-8/Operational Land Imager, National Polar-Orbiting Partnership/Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite and Aqua/Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer) to map the SPM concentration in some of the most turbid areas of the European coastal ocean, namely the Gironde and Loire estuaries as well as Bourgneuf Bay on the French Atlantic coast. For all three sensors, AC methods based on the use of short-wave infrared (SWIR) spectral bands were tested, and the consistency of the retrieved water reflectance was examined along transects from low- to high-turbidity waters. For OLI data, we also compared a SWIR-based AC (ACOLITE) with a method based on multi-temporal analyses of atmospheric constituents (MACCS). For the selected scenes, the ACOLITE-MACCS difference was lower than 7%. Despite some inaccuracies in ρw retrieval, we demonstrate that the SPM concentration can be reliably estimated using OLI, MODIS and VIIRS, regardless of their differences in spatial and spectral resolutions. Match-ups between the OLI-derived SPM concentration and autonomous field measurements from the Loire and Gironde estuaries’ monitoring networks provided satisfactory results. The multi-sensor approach together with the multi-conditional algorithm presented here can be applied to the latest generation of ocean color sensors (namely Sentinel2/MSI and Sentinel3/OLCI) to study SPM dynamics in the coastal ocean at higher spatial and temporal resolutions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Optics and Water Colour Remote Sensing)
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5044 KiB  
Article
Atmospheric Correction Performance of Hyperspectral Airborne Imagery over a Small Eutrophic Lake under Changing Cloud Cover
by Lauri Markelin, Stefan G. H. Simis, Peter D. Hunter, Evangelos Spyrakos, Andrew N. Tyler, Daniel Clewley and Steve Groom
Remote Sens. 2017, 9(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9010002 - 23 Dec 2016
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 8618
Abstract
Atmospheric correction of remotely sensed imagery of inland water bodies is essential to interpret water-leaving radiance signals and for the accurate retrieval of water quality variables. Atmospheric correction is particularly challenging over inhomogeneous water bodies surrounded by comparatively bright land surface. We present [...] Read more.
Atmospheric correction of remotely sensed imagery of inland water bodies is essential to interpret water-leaving radiance signals and for the accurate retrieval of water quality variables. Atmospheric correction is particularly challenging over inhomogeneous water bodies surrounded by comparatively bright land surface. We present results of AisaFENIX airborne hyperspectral imagery collected over a small inland water body under changing cloud cover, presenting challenging but common conditions for atmospheric correction. This is the first evaluation of the performance of the FENIX sensor over water bodies. ATCOR4, which is not specifically designed for atmospheric correction over water and does not make any assumptions on water type, was used to obtain atmospherically corrected reflectance values, which were compared to in situ water-leaving reflectance collected at six stations. Three different atmospheric correction strategies in ATCOR4 was tested. The strategy using fully image-derived and spatially varying atmospheric parameters produced a reflectance accuracy of ±0.002, i.e., a difference of less than 15% compared to the in situ reference reflectance. Amplitude and shape of the remotely sensed reflectance spectra were in general accordance with the in situ data. The spectral angle was better than 4.1° for the best cases, in the spectral range of 450–750 nm. The retrieval of chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) concentration using a popular semi-analytical band ratio algorithm for turbid inland waters gave an accuracy of ~16% or 4.4 mg/m3 compared to retrieval of Chl-a from reflectance measured in situ. Using fixed ATCOR4 processing parameters for whole images improved Chl-a retrieval results from ~6 mg/m3 difference to reference to approximately 2 mg/m3. We conclude that the AisaFENIX sensor, in combination with ATCOR4 in image-driven parametrization, can be successfully used for inland water quality observations. This implies that the need for in situ reference measurements is not as strict as has been assumed and a high degree of automation in processing is possible. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Optics and Water Colour Remote Sensing)
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3877 KiB  
Article
Spatial Distribution of Diffuse Attenuation of Photosynthetic Active Radiation and Its Main Regulating Factors in Inland Waters of Northeast China
by Jianhang Ma, Kaishan Song, Zhidan Wen, Ying Zhao, Yingxin Shang, Chong Fang and Jia Du
Remote Sens. 2016, 8(11), 964; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8110964 - 21 Nov 2016
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 5812
Abstract
Light availability in lakes or reservoirs is affected by optically active components (OACs) in the water. Light plays a key role in the distribution of phytoplankton and hydrophytes, thus, is a good indicator of the trophic state of an aquatic system. Diffuse attenuation [...] Read more.
Light availability in lakes or reservoirs is affected by optically active components (OACs) in the water. Light plays a key role in the distribution of phytoplankton and hydrophytes, thus, is a good indicator of the trophic state of an aquatic system. Diffuse attenuation of photosynthetic active radiation (PAR) (Kd(PAR)) is commonly used to quantitatively assess the light availability. The PAR and the concentration of OACs were measured at 206 sites, which covered 26 lakes and reservoirs in Northeast China. The spatial distribution of Kd(PAR) was depicted and its association with the OACs was assessed by grey incidences(GIs) and linear regression analysis. Kd(PAR) varied from 0.45 to 15.04 m−1. This investigation revealed that reservoirs in the east part of Northeast China were clear with small Kd(PAR) values, while lakes located in plain areas, where the source of total suspended matter (TSM) varied, displayed high Kd(PAR) values. The GIs and linear regression analysis indicated that the TSM was the dominant factor in determining Kd(PAR) values and best correlated with Kd(PAR) (R2 = 0.906, RMSE = 0.709). Most importantly, we have demonstrated that the TSM concentration is a reliable measurement for the estimation of the Kd(PAR) as 74% of the data produced a relative error (RE) of less than 0.4 in a leave-one-out cross validation (LOO-CV) analysis. Spatial transferability assessment of the model also revealed that TSM performed well as a determining factor of the Kd(PAR) for the majority of the lakes. However, a few exceptions were identified where the optically regulating dominant factors were chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) and/or the chromophroic dissolved organic matter (CDOM). These extreme cases represent lakes with exceptionally clear waters. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Optics and Water Colour Remote Sensing)
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4852 KiB  
Article
Remote Sensing of Particle Cross-Sectional Area in the Bohai Sea and Yellow Sea: Algorithm Development and Application Implications
by Shengqiang Wang, Yu Huan, Zhongfeng Qiu, Deyong Sun, Hailong Zhang, Lufei Zheng and Cong Xiao
Remote Sens. 2016, 8(10), 841; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8100841 - 22 Oct 2016
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 6400
Abstract
Suspended particles in waters play an important role in determination of optical properties and ocean color remote sensing. To link suspended particles to their optical properties and thereby remote sensing reflectance (Rrs(λ)), cross-sectional area is a key factor. [...] Read more.
Suspended particles in waters play an important role in determination of optical properties and ocean color remote sensing. To link suspended particles to their optical properties and thereby remote sensing reflectance (Rrs(λ)), cross-sectional area is a key factor. Till now, there is still a lack of methodologies for derivation of the particle cross-sectional area concentration (AC) from satellite measurements, which consequently limits potential applications of AC. In this study, we investigated the relationship between AC and Rrs(λ) based on field measurements in the Bohai Sea (BS) and Yellow Sea (YS). Our analysis confirmed the strong dependence of Rrs(λ) on AC and that such dependence is stronger than on mass concentration. Subsequently, a remote sensing algorithm that uses the slope of Rrs(λ) between 490 and 555 nm was developed for retrieval of AC from satellite measurements of the Geostationary Ocean Color Imager (GOCI). In situ evaluations show that the algorithm displays good performance for deriving AC and is robust to uncertainties in Rrs(λ). When the algorithm was applied to satellite data, it performed well, with a coefficient of determination of 0.700, a root mean squared error of 2.126 m−1 and a mean absolute percentage error of 40.7%, and it yielded generally reasonable spatial and temporal distributions of AC in the BS and YS. The satellite-derived AC using our algorithm may offer useful information for modeling the inherent optical properties of suspended particles, deriving the water transparency, estimating the particle composition and possibly improving particle mass concentration estimations in future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Optics and Water Colour Remote Sensing)
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2199 KiB  
Article
MOD2SEA: A Coupled Atmosphere-Hydro-Optical Model for the Retrieval of Chlorophyll-a from Remote Sensing Observations in Complex Turbid Waters
by Behnaz Arabi, Mhd. Suhyb Salama, Marcel Robert Wernand and Wouter Verhoef
Remote Sens. 2016, 8(9), 722; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8090722 - 01 Sep 2016
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 8094
Abstract
An accurate estimation of the chlorophyll-a (Chla) concentration is crucial for water quality monitoring and is highly desired by various government agencies and environmental groups. However, using satellite observations for Chla estimation remains problematic over coastal waters due to their optical complexity and [...] Read more.
An accurate estimation of the chlorophyll-a (Chla) concentration is crucial for water quality monitoring and is highly desired by various government agencies and environmental groups. However, using satellite observations for Chla estimation remains problematic over coastal waters due to their optical complexity and the critical atmospheric correction. In this study, we coupled an atmospheric and a water optical model for the simultaneous atmospheric correction and retrieval of Chla in the complex waters of the Wadden Sea. This coupled model called MOD2SEA combines simulations from the MODerate resolution atmospheric TRANsmission model (MODTRAN) and the two-stream radiative transfer hydro-optical model 2SeaColor. The accuracy of the coupled MOD2SEA model was validated using a matchup data set of MERIS (MEdium Resolution Imaging SpectRometer) observations and four years of concurrent ground truth measurements (2007–2010) at the NIOZ jetty location in the Dutch part of the Wadden Sea. The results showed that MERIS-derived Chla from MOD2SEA explained the variations of measured Chla with a determination coefficient of R2 = 0.88 and a RMSE of 3.32 mg·m−3, which means a significant improvement in comparison with the standard MERIS Case 2 regional (C2R) processor. The proposed coupled model might be used to generate a time series of reliable Chla maps, which is of profound importance for the assessment of causes and consequences of long-term phenological changes of Chla in the turbid Wadden Sea area. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Optics and Water Colour Remote Sensing)
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3235 KiB  
Article
Remote Sensing of Black Lakes and Using 810 nm Reflectance Peak for Retrieving Water Quality Parameters of Optically Complex Waters
by Tiit Kutser, Birgot Paavel, Charles Verpoorter, Martin Ligi, Tuuli Soomets, Kaire Toming and Gema Casal
Remote Sens. 2016, 8(6), 497; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8060497 - 14 Jun 2016
Cited by 143 | Viewed by 12003
Abstract
Many lakes in boreal and arctic regions have high concentrations of CDOM (coloured dissolved organic matter). Remote sensing of such lakes is complicated due to very low water leaving signals. There are extreme (black) lakes where the water reflectance values are negligible in [...] Read more.
Many lakes in boreal and arctic regions have high concentrations of CDOM (coloured dissolved organic matter). Remote sensing of such lakes is complicated due to very low water leaving signals. There are extreme (black) lakes where the water reflectance values are negligible in almost entire visible part of spectrum (400–700 nm) due to the absorption by CDOM. In these lakes, the only water-leaving signal detectable by remote sensing sensors occurs as two peaks—near 710 nm and 810 nm. The first peak has been widely used in remote sensing of eutrophic waters for more than two decades. We show on the example of field radiometry data collected in Estonian and Swedish lakes that the height of the 810 nm peak can also be used in retrieving water constituents from remote sensing data. This is important especially in black lakes where the height of the 710 nm peak is still affected by CDOM. We have shown that the 810 nm peak can be used also in remote sensing of a wide variety of lakes. The 810 nm peak is caused by combined effect of slight decrease in absorption by water molecules and backscattering from particulate material in the water. Phytoplankton was the dominant particulate material in most of the studied lakes. Therefore, the height of the 810 peak was in good correlation with all proxies of phytoplankton biomass—chlorophyll-a (R2 = 0.77), total suspended matter (R2 = 0.70), and suspended particulate organic matter (R2 = 0.68). There was no correlation between the peak height and the suspended particulate inorganic matter. Satellite sensors with sufficient spatial and radiometric resolution for mapping lake water quality (Landsat 8 OLI and Sentinel-2 MSI) were launched recently. In order to test whether these satellites can capture the 810 nm peak we simulated the spectral performance of these two satellites from field radiometry data. Actual satellite imagery from a black lake was also used to study whether these sensors can detect the peak despite their band configuration. Sentinel 2 MSI has a nearly perfectly positioned band at 705 nm to characterize the 700–720 nm peak. We found that the MSI 783 nm band can be used to detect the 810 nm peak despite the location of this band is not in perfect to capture the peak. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Optics and Water Colour Remote Sensing)
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11492 KiB  
Article
Estimation of Water Quality Parameters in Lake Erie from MERIS Using Linear Mixed Effect Models
by Kiana Zolfaghari and Claude R. Duguay
Remote Sens. 2016, 8(6), 473; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8060473 - 03 Jun 2016
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 7083
Abstract
Linear Mixed Effect (LME) models are applied to the CoastColour atmospherically-corrected Medium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MERIS) reflectance, L2R full resolution product, to derive chlorophyll-a (chl-a) concentration and Secchi disk depth (SDD) in Lake Erie, which is considered as a Case II water ( [...] Read more.
Linear Mixed Effect (LME) models are applied to the CoastColour atmospherically-corrected Medium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MERIS) reflectance, L2R full resolution product, to derive chlorophyll-a (chl-a) concentration and Secchi disk depth (SDD) in Lake Erie, which is considered as a Case II water (i.e., turbid and productive). A LME model considers the correlation that exists in the field measurements which have been performed repeatedly in space and time. In this study, models are developed based on the relation between the logarithmic scale of the water quality parameters and band ratios: B07:665 nm to B09:708.75 nm for log10chl-a and B06:620 nm to B04:510 nm for log10SDD. Cross validation is performed on the models. The results show good performance of the models, with Root Mean Square Errors (RMSE) and Mean Bias Errors (MBE) of 0.31 and 0.018 for log10chl-a, and 0.19 and 0.006 for log10SDD, respectively. The models are then applied to a time series of MERIS images acquired over Lake Erie from 2004–2012 to investigate the spatial and temporal variations of the water quality parameters. Produced maps reveal distinct monthly patterns for different regions of Lake Erie that are in agreement with known biogeochemical properties of the lake. The Detroit River and Maumee River carry sediments and nutrients to the shallow western basin. Hence, the shallow western basin of Lake Erie experiences the most intense algal blooms and the highest turbidity compared to the other sections of the lake. Maumee Bay, Sandusky Bay, Rondeau Bay and Long Point Bay are estimated to have prolonged intense algal bloom. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Optics and Water Colour Remote Sensing)
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