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Terrestrial Laser Scanning

A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Remote Sensors".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 April 2019) | Viewed by 72273

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Joan R. Rosell Polo

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Research Group in AgroICT & Precision Agriculture, Department of Agricultural and Forest Engineering, University of Lleida-Agrotecnio Centre, 25003 Lleida, Spain
Interests: precision agriculture; remote sensing in agriculture; robotics and automation; sensors; energy
Dr. Eduard Gregorio López

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Research Group in AgroICT & Precision Agriculture, University of Lleida – Agrotecnio Center, Catalonia (Spain)
Interests: sensors; robotics and automation; precision agriculture; LiDAR; energy
Dr. Jordi Llorens Calveras

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Research Group in AgroICT & Precision Agriculture, University of Lleida – Agrotecnio Center, Catalonia, Spain
Interests: precision agriculture; machinery; sensors; open hardware and software

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Since their availability a few decades ago, the applications of LiDAR sensors in 3D scanning have been growing steadily and have been extended to an increasing number of human activity areas and research fields. Specifically, an important effort has been devoted to the characterization of terrestrial targets, both through LiDAR sensors carried by aircrafts and spacecrafts or by terrestrial vehicles. The decrease in size and cost of many LiDAR sensors has led to their popularization among researchers and specialized companies. Simultaneously, the emerging of autonomous vehicles research and development by many car making companies has driven even more the search for more advanced, miniaturized and cheaper LiDAR systems.

The aim of this Special Issue is to bring together innovative developments and applications of Terrestrial Laser Scanning, TLS, understood in a broad sense, i.e. involving the use of Laser-based systems (such as 3D and 2D LiDAR, Flash LiDAR and RGB-D/Depth cameras, etc.) for the measurement and characterization of terrestrial targets. Laser-based systems can be either statically placed on the ground or in motion after being mounted on a moving terrestrial vehicle (mobile terrestrial laser scanners, MTLS). Papers addressing new insights in the development, application and benefits of TLS methods and technology are welcome. Articles may include, but are not limited to, the following topics:

  • New developments of LiDAR and RGB-D sensors and TLS Systems
  • Integration of TLS with other sensors (sensor fusion)
  • Applications of multiple-returns TLS
  • Mobile terrestrial Laser scanner applications (i.e., man-carried and ground-based vehicle-carried)
  • TLS data processing
  • Point cloud creation and processing
  • New applications of LiDAR for the characterization of terrestrial targets
  • Uses and applications from autonomous/unmanned vehicles
  • Agriculture, forestry and geosciences applications
  • Architecture and industrial applications
  • Cultural heritage and archaeological applications

Prof. Dr. Joan R. Rosell Polo
Dr. Eduard Gregorio López
Dr. Jordi Llorens Calveras
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Sensors is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • LiDAR
  • Laser Scanning
  • 3D modelling
  • Point cloud
  • Multiple-returns TLS
  • RGB-D sensors
  • SLAM methods
  • Data processing
  • Mobile terrestrial laser scanners

Published Papers (16 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research

6 pages, 189 KiB  
Editorial
Special Issue on “Terrestrial Laser Scanning”: Editors’ Notes
by Joan R. Rosell-Polo, Eduard Gregorio and Jordi Llorens
Sensors 2019, 19(20), 4569; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19204569 - 21 Oct 2019
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2054
Abstract
In this editorial, we provide an overview of the content of the special issue on “Terrestrial Laser Scanning”. The aim of this Special Issue is to bring together innovative developments and applications of terrestrial laser scanning (TLS), understood in a broad sense. Thus, [...] Read more.
In this editorial, we provide an overview of the content of the special issue on “Terrestrial Laser Scanning”. The aim of this Special Issue is to bring together innovative developments and applications of terrestrial laser scanning (TLS), understood in a broad sense. Thus, although most contributions mainly involve the use of laser-based systems, other alternative technologies that also allow for obtaining 3D point clouds for the measurement and the 3D characterization of terrestrial targets, such as photogrammetry, are also considered. The 15 published contributions are mainly focused on the applications of TLS to the following three topics: TLS performance and point cloud processing, applications to civil engineering, and applications to plant characterization. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Terrestrial Laser Scanning)

Research

Jump to: Editorial

24 pages, 21272 KiB  
Article
Automatic Tunnel Steel Arches Extraction Algorithm Based on 3D LiDAR Point Cloud
by Wenting Zhang, Wenjie Qiu, Di Song and Bin Xie
Sensors 2019, 19(18), 3972; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19183972 - 14 Sep 2019
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4094
Abstract
Automation is an inevitable trend in the development of tunnel shotcrete machinery. Tunnel environmental perception based on 3D LiDAR point cloud has become a research hotspot. Current researches about the detection of tunnel point clouds focus on the completed tunnel with a smooth [...] Read more.
Automation is an inevitable trend in the development of tunnel shotcrete machinery. Tunnel environmental perception based on 3D LiDAR point cloud has become a research hotspot. Current researches about the detection of tunnel point clouds focus on the completed tunnel with a smooth surface. However, few people have researched the automatic detection method for steel arches installed on a complex rock surface. This paper presents a novel algorithm to extract tunnel steel arches. Firstly, we propose a refined function for calibrating the tunnel axis by minimizing the density variance of the projected point cloud. Secondly, we segment the rock surface from the tunnel point cloud by using the region-growing method with the parameters obtained by analyzing the tunnel section sequence. Finally, a Directed Edge Growing (DEG) method is proposed to detect steel arches on the rock surface in the tunnel. Our experiment in the highway tunnels under construction in Changsha (China) shows that the proposed algorithm can effectively extract the points of the edge of steel arches from 3D LiDAR point cloud of the tunnel without manual assistance. The results demonstrated that the proposed algorithm achieved 92.1% of precision, 89.1% of recall, and 90.6% of the F-score. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Terrestrial Laser Scanning)
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22 pages, 12192 KiB  
Article
Georeferencing of Laser Scanner-Based Kinematic Multi-Sensor Systems in the Context of Iterated Extended Kalman Filters Using Geometrical Constraints
by Sören Vogel, Hamza Alkhatib, Johannes Bureick, Rozhin Moftizadeh and Ingo Neumann
Sensors 2019, 19(10), 2280; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19102280 - 17 May 2019
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3767
Abstract
Georeferencing is an indispensable necessity regarding operating with kinematic multi-sensor systems (MSS) in various indoor and outdoor areas. Information from object space combined with various types of prior information (e.g., geometrical constraints) are beneficial especially in challenging environments where common solutions for pose [...] Read more.
Georeferencing is an indispensable necessity regarding operating with kinematic multi-sensor systems (MSS) in various indoor and outdoor areas. Information from object space combined with various types of prior information (e.g., geometrical constraints) are beneficial especially in challenging environments where common solutions for pose estimation (e.g., global navigation satellite system or external tracking by a total station) are inapplicable, unreliable or inaccurate. Consequently, an iterated extended Kalman filter is used and a general georeferencing approach by means of recursive state estimation is introduced. This approach is open to several types of observation inputs and can deal with (non)linear systems and measurement models. The capability of using both explicit and implicit formulations of the relation between states and observations, and the consideration of (non)linear equality and inequality state constraints is a special feature. The framework presented is evaluated by an indoor kinematic MSS based on a terrestrial laser scanner. The focus here is on the impact of several different combinations of applied state constraints and the dependencies of two classes of inertial measurement units (IMU). The results presented are based on real measurement data combined with simulated IMU measurements. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Terrestrial Laser Scanning)
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13 pages, 3225 KiB  
Article
Assessing Understory Complexity in Beech-dominated Forests (Fagus sylvatica L.) in Central Europe—From Managed to Primary Forests
by Katharina Willim, Melissa Stiers, Peter Annighöfer, Christian Ammer, Martin Ehbrecht, Myroslav Kabal, Jonas Stillhard and Dominik Seidel
Sensors 2019, 19(7), 1684; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19071684 - 09 Apr 2019
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 4329
Abstract
Understory vegetation influences several ecosystem services and functions of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) forests. Despite this knowledge on the importance of understory vegetation, it is still difficult to measure its three-dimensional characteristics in a quantitative manner. With the recent advancements in [...] Read more.
Understory vegetation influences several ecosystem services and functions of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) forests. Despite this knowledge on the importance of understory vegetation, it is still difficult to measure its three-dimensional characteristics in a quantitative manner. With the recent advancements in terrestrial laser scanning (TLS), we now have the means to analyze detailed spatial patterns of forests. Here, we present a new measure to quantify understory complexity. We tested the approach for different management types, ranging from traditionally and alternatively managed forests and national parks in Germany to primary forests of Eastern Europe and the Ukraine, as well as on an inventory site with more detailed understory reference data. The understory complexity index (UCI) was derived from point clouds from single scans and tested for its relationship with forest management and conventional inventory data. Our results show that advanced tree regeneration is a strong driver of the UCI. Furthermore, the newly developed index successfully measured understory complexity of differently managed beech stands and was able to distinguish scanning positions located on and away from skid-trails in managed stands. The approach enables a deeper understanding of the complexity of understory structures of forests and their drivers and dependents. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Terrestrial Laser Scanning)
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19 pages, 8065 KiB  
Article
How to Efficiently Determine the Range Precision of 3D Terrestrial Laser Scanners
by Berit Schmitz, Christoph Holst, Tomislav Medic, Derek D. Lichti and Heiner Kuhlmann
Sensors 2019, 19(6), 1466; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19061466 - 26 Mar 2019
Cited by 46 | Viewed by 5704
Abstract
As laser scanning technology has improved a lot in recent years, terrestrial laser scanners (TLS) have become popular devices for surveying tasks with high accuracy demands, such as deformation analyses. For this reason, finding a stochastic model for TLS measurements is very important [...] Read more.
As laser scanning technology has improved a lot in recent years, terrestrial laser scanners (TLS) have become popular devices for surveying tasks with high accuracy demands, such as deformation analyses. For this reason, finding a stochastic model for TLS measurements is very important in order to get statistically reliable results. The measurement accuracy of laser scanners—especially of their rangefinders—is strongly dependent on the scanning conditions, such as the scan configuration, the object surface geometry and the object reflectivity. This study demonstrates a way to determine the intensity-dependent range precision of 3D points for terrestrial laser scanners that measure in 3D mode by using range residuals in laser beam direction of a best plane fit. This method does not require special targets or surfaces aligned perpendicular to the scanner, which allows a much quicker and easier determination of the stochastic properties of the rangefinder. Furthermore, the different intensity types—raw and scaled—intensities are investigated since some manufacturers only provide scaled intensities. It is demonstrated that the intensity function can be derived from raw intensity values as written in literature, and likewise—in a restricted measurement volume—from scaled intensity values if the raw intensities are not available. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Terrestrial Laser Scanning)
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14 pages, 6802 KiB  
Article
Deformation Monitoring of Earth Fissure Hazards Using Terrestrial Laser Scanning
by Yunfeng Ge, Huiming Tang, Xulong Gong, Binbin Zhao, Yi Lu, Yong Chen, Zishan Lin, Hongzhi Chen and Yashi Qiu
Sensors 2019, 19(6), 1463; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19061463 - 26 Mar 2019
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 5487
Abstract
Deformation monitoring is a powerful tool to understand the formation mechanism of earth fissure hazards, enabling the engineering and planning efforts to be more effective. To assess the evolution characteristics of the Yangshuli earth fissure hazard more completely, terrestrial laser scanning (TLS), a [...] Read more.
Deformation monitoring is a powerful tool to understand the formation mechanism of earth fissure hazards, enabling the engineering and planning efforts to be more effective. To assess the evolution characteristics of the Yangshuli earth fissure hazard more completely, terrestrial laser scanning (TLS), a remote sensing technique which is regarded as one of the most promising surveying technologies in geohazard monitoring, was employed to detect the changes to ground surfaces and buildings in small- and large-scales, respectively. Time-series of high-density point clouds were collected through 5 sequential scans from 2014 to 2017 and then pre-processing was performed to filter the noise data of point clouds. A tiny deformation was observed on both the scarp and the walls, based on the local displacement analysis. The relative height differences between the two sides of the scarp increase slowly from 0.169 m to 0.178 m, while no obvious inclining (the maximum tilt reaches just to 0.0023) happens on the two walls, based on tilt measurement. Meanwhile, global displacement analysis indicates that the overall settlement slowly increases for the ground surface, but the regions in the left side of scarp are characterized by a relatively larger vertical displacement than the right. Furthermore, the comparisons of monitoring results on the same measuring line are discussed in this study and TLS monitoring results have an acceptable consistency with the global positioning system (GPS) measurements. The case study shows that the TLS technique can provide an adequate solution in deformation monitoring of earth fissure hazards, with high effectiveness and applicability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Terrestrial Laser Scanning)
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21 pages, 82477 KiB  
Article
Assessment of the Shear Strength of Pile-to-Soil Interfaces Based on Pile Surface Topography Using Laser Scanning
by Zbigniew Muszyński and Marek Wyjadłowski
Sensors 2019, 19(5), 1012; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19051012 - 27 Feb 2019
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4855
Abstract
This article presents in situ research on the side surface of continuous flight auger (CFA) foundation piles using a three-dimensional (3D) laser scanner (Leica ScanStation C10) in order to evaluate the morphology assessment of pile concrete surfaces in various geotechnical layers. Terrestrial laser [...] Read more.
This article presents in situ research on the side surface of continuous flight auger (CFA) foundation piles using a three-dimensional (3D) laser scanner (Leica ScanStation C10) in order to evaluate the morphology assessment of pile concrete surfaces in various geotechnical layers. Terrestrial laser scanning describes the 3D geometry of the construction with high spatial resolution and accuracy. A total of six areas were selected from the acquired point cloud for which a two-step approach for removing the form was applied. In the first step, the reference surface was fitted using the least squares method, and then, cylindrical projection of the surface was performed. In the second step, an operator of removal of the multi-plane form was applied. For each sample, height parameters (Sq, Ssk, Sku, Sp, Sv, Sz, Sa) and functional volume parameters (Vmp, Vmc, Vvc, Vvv) according to the standard ISO 25178-2:2012 were determined. Significant differences in the values of surface height and functional volume parameters were observed for each geotechnical layer where piles were formed. Because the piles remain embedded in the ground, in situ tests of the side surface of piles are rarely performed and taken into account in the assessment of pile bearing capacity. The study of surface topography is a crucial stage in the assessment of the shear strength at the interface between a concrete pile and the soil layer. The obtained concrete morphology assessments are applicable during the determination of the skin friction factor in the analytical or numerical estimation of pile shaft resistance. The proposed procedure of morphology evaluation may improve the fidelity of the assumed friction factor between the concrete and soil and increase the reliability of direct shear experiments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Terrestrial Laser Scanning)
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14 pages, 3228 KiB  
Article
Multitemporal Terrestrial Laser Scanning for Marble Extraction Assessment in an Underground Quarry of the Apuan Alps (Italy)
by Silvia Di Bartolo and Riccardo Salvini
Sensors 2019, 19(3), 450; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19030450 - 22 Jan 2019
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 6070
Abstract
This article focuses on the use of Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) for change detection analysis of multitemporal point clouds datasets. Two topographic surveys were carried out during the years 2016 and 2017 in an underground marble quarry of the Apuan Alps (Italy) combining [...] Read more.
This article focuses on the use of Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) for change detection analysis of multitemporal point clouds datasets. Two topographic surveys were carried out during the years 2016 and 2017 in an underground marble quarry of the Apuan Alps (Italy) combining TLS with Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) and Total Station (TS) studies. Multitemporal 3D point clouds were processed and compared with the aim of identifying areas subjected to significant material extraction. Point clouds representing changed areas were converted into triangular meshes in order to compute the volume of extracted material over one year of quarrying activities. General purpose of this work is to show a valid method to examine the morphological changes due to raw material extraction with the focus of highlighting benefits, accuracies and drawbacks. The purpose of the executed survey was that of supporting the planning of quarrying activities in respect of regional rules, safety and commercial reasons. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Terrestrial Laser Scanning)
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18 pages, 5430 KiB  
Article
Assessment of the Accuracy of a Multi-Beam LED Scanner Sensor for Measuring Olive Canopies
by Rafael R. Sola-Guirado, Sergio Bayano-Tejero, Antonio Rodríguez-Lizana, Jesús A. Gil-Ribes and Antonio Miranda-Fuentes
Sensors 2018, 18(12), 4406; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18124406 - 13 Dec 2018
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3127
Abstract
Canopy characterization has become important when trying to optimize any kind of agricultural operation in high-growing crops, such as olive. Many sensors and techniques have reported satisfactory results in these approaches and in this work a 2D laser scanner was explored for measuring [...] Read more.
Canopy characterization has become important when trying to optimize any kind of agricultural operation in high-growing crops, such as olive. Many sensors and techniques have reported satisfactory results in these approaches and in this work a 2D laser scanner was explored for measuring canopy trees in real-time conditions. The sensor was tested in both laboratory and field conditions to check its accuracy, its cone width, and its ability to characterize olive canopies in situ. The sensor was mounted on a mast and tested in laboratory conditions to check: (i) its accuracy at different measurement distances; (ii) its measurement cone width with different reflectivity targets; and (iii) the influence of the target’s density on its accuracy. The field tests involved both isolated and hedgerow orchards, in which the measurements were taken manually and with the sensor. The canopy volume was estimated with a methodology consisting of revolving or extruding the canopy contour. The sensor showed high accuracy in the laboratory test, except for the measurements performed at 1.0 m distance, with 60 mm error (6%). Otherwise, error remained below 20 mm (1% relative error). The cone width depended on the target reflectivity. The accuracy decreased with the target density. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Terrestrial Laser Scanning)
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14 pages, 8145 KiB  
Article
Towards Efficient Implementation of an Octree for a Large 3D Point Cloud
by Soohee Han
Sensors 2018, 18(12), 4398; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18124398 - 12 Dec 2018
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4346
Abstract
The present study introduces an efficient algorithm to construct a file-based octree for a large 3D point cloud. However, the algorithm was very slow compared with a memory-based approach, and got even worse when using a 3D point cloud scanned in longish objects [...] Read more.
The present study introduces an efficient algorithm to construct a file-based octree for a large 3D point cloud. However, the algorithm was very slow compared with a memory-based approach, and got even worse when using a 3D point cloud scanned in longish objects like tunnels and corridors. The defects were addressed by implementing a semi-isometric octree group. The approach implements several semi-isometric octrees in a group, which tightly covers the 3D point cloud, though each octree along with its leaf node still maintains an isometric shape. The proposed approach was tested using three 3D point clouds captured in a long tunnel and a short tunnel by a terrestrial laser scanner, and in an urban area by an airborne laser scanner. The experimental results showed that the performance of the semi-isometric approach was not worse than a memory-based approach, and quite a lot better than a file-based one. Thus, it was proven that the proposed semi-isometric approach achieves a good balance between query performance and memory efficiency. In conclusion, if given enough main memory and using a moderately sized 3D point cloud, a memory-based approach is preferable. When the 3D point cloud is larger than the main memory, a file-based approach seems to be the inevitable choice, however, the semi-isometric approach is the better option. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Terrestrial Laser Scanning)
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18 pages, 19621 KiB  
Article
Deformation Analysis of a Composite Bridge during Proof Loading Using Point Cloud Processing
by Patryk Ziolkowski, Jakub Szulwic and Mikolaj Miskiewicz
Sensors 2018, 18(12), 4332; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18124332 - 07 Dec 2018
Cited by 37 | Viewed by 4946
Abstract
Remote sensing in structural diagnostics has recently been gaining attention. These techniques allow the creation of three-dimensional projections of the measured objects, and are relatively easy to use. One of the most popular branches of remote sensing is terrestrial laser scanning. Laser scanners [...] Read more.
Remote sensing in structural diagnostics has recently been gaining attention. These techniques allow the creation of three-dimensional projections of the measured objects, and are relatively easy to use. One of the most popular branches of remote sensing is terrestrial laser scanning. Laser scanners are fast and efficient, gathering up to one million points per second. However, the weakness of terrestrial laser scanning is the troublesome processing of point clouds. Currently, many studies deal with the subject of point cloud processing in various areas, but it seems that there are not many clear procedures that we can use in practice, which indicates that point cloud processing is one of the biggest challenges of this issue. To tackle that challenge we propose a general framework for studying the structural deformations of bridges. We performed an advanced object shape analysis of a composite foot-bridge, which is subject to spatial deformations during the proof loading process. The added value of this work is the comprehensive procedure for bridge evaluation, and adaptation of the spheres translation method procedure for use in bridge engineering. The aforementioned method is accurate for the study of structural element deformation under monotonic load. The study also includes a comparative analysis between results from the spheres translation method, a total station, and a deflectometer. The results are characterized by a high degree of convergence and reveal the highly complex state of deformation more clearly than can be concluded from other measurement methods, proving that laser scanning is a good method for examining bridge structures with several competitive advantages over mainstream measurement methods. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Terrestrial Laser Scanning)
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23 pages, 8184 KiB  
Article
Accuracy Assessment of Semi-Automatic Measuring Techniques Applied to Displacement Control in Self-Balanced Pile Capacity Testing Appliance
by Zbigniew Muszyński, Jarosław Rybak and Paulina Kaczor
Sensors 2018, 18(11), 4067; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18114067 - 21 Nov 2018
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3409
Abstract
Static load tests of foundation piles are the basic method for the designing or verification of adopted design solutions which concern the foundation of a building structure. Preparation of a typical test station using the so-called inverted beam method is very expensive and [...] Read more.
Static load tests of foundation piles are the basic method for the designing or verification of adopted design solutions which concern the foundation of a building structure. Preparation of a typical test station using the so-called inverted beam method is very expensive and labor-intensive. The settlement values of the loaded pile are usually recorded using accurate dial gauges. These gauges are attached to a reference beam located in close proximity to the pile under test, which may cause systematic errors (difficult to detect) caused by the displacement of the adopted reference beam. The application of geodetic methods makes it possible to maintain an independent, external reference system, and to verify the readouts from dial gauges. The article presents an innovative instrumentation for a self-balanced stand for the static load test made from a closed-end, double steel pipe. Instead of typical, precise geometric leveling, the semi-automatic measuring techniques were used: motorized total station measurement and terrestrial laser scanning controlled by a computer. The processing of the acquired data made it possible to determine the vertical displacements of both parts of the examined pile and compare displacements with the results from the dial gauges. On the basis of the excess of the collected observations, it was possible to assess the accuracy, which confirmed the usefulness of measuring techniques under study. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Terrestrial Laser Scanning)
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17 pages, 2530 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of Object Surface Edge Profiles Detected with a 2-D Laser Scanning Sensor
by Tingting Yan, Xiaochan Wang, Heping Zhu and Peter Ling
Sensors 2018, 18(11), 4060; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18114060 - 21 Nov 2018
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4038
Abstract
Canopy edge profile detection is a critical component of plant recognition in variable-rate spray control systems. The accuracy of a high-speed 270° radial laser sensor was evaluated in detecting the surface edge profiles of six complex-shaped objects. These objects were toy balls with [...] Read more.
Canopy edge profile detection is a critical component of plant recognition in variable-rate spray control systems. The accuracy of a high-speed 270° radial laser sensor was evaluated in detecting the surface edge profiles of six complex-shaped objects. These objects were toy balls with a pink smooth surface, light brown rectangular cardboard boxes, black and red texture surfaced basketballs, white smooth cylinders, and two different sized artificial plants. Evaluations included reconstructed three-dimensional (3-D) images for the object surfaces with the data acquired from the laser sensor at four different detection heights (0.25, 0.50, 0.75, and 1.00 m) above each object, five sensor travel speeds (1.6, 2.4, 3.2, 4.0, and 4.8 km h−1), and 8 to 15 horizontal distances to the sensor ranging from 0 to 3.5 m. Edge profiles of the six objects detected with the laser sensor were compared with images taken with a digital camera. The edge similarity score (ESS) was significantly affected by the horizontal distances of the objects, and the influence became weaker when the objects were placed closer to each other. The detection heights and travel speeds also influenced the ESS slightly. The overall average ESS ranged from 0.38 to 0.95 for all the objects under all the test conditions, thereby providing baseline information for the integration of the laser sensor into future development of greenhouse variable-rate spray systems to improve pesticide, irrigation, and nutrition application efficiencies through watering booms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Terrestrial Laser Scanning)
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16 pages, 1616 KiB  
Article
On the Sensitivity of the Parameters of the Intensity-Based Stochastic Model for Terrestrial Laser Scanner. Case Study: B-Spline Approximation
by Gaël Kermarrec, Hamza Alkhatib and Ingo Neumann
Sensors 2018, 18(9), 2964; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18092964 - 05 Sep 2018
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 2720
Abstract
For a trustworthy least-squares (LS) solution, a good description of the stochastic properties of the measurements is indispensable. For a terrestrial laser scanner (TLS), the range variance can be described by a power law function with respect to the intensity of the reflected [...] Read more.
For a trustworthy least-squares (LS) solution, a good description of the stochastic properties of the measurements is indispensable. For a terrestrial laser scanner (TLS), the range variance can be described by a power law function with respect to the intensity of the reflected signal. The power and scaling factors depend on the laser scanner under consideration, and could be accurately determined by means of calibrations in 1d mode or residual analysis of LS adjustment. However, such procedures complicate significantly the use of empirical intensity models (IM). The extent to which a point-wise weighting is suitable when the derived variance covariance matrix (VCM) is further used in a LS adjustment remains moreover questionable. Thanks to closed loop simulations, where both the true geometry and stochastic model are under control, we investigate how variations of the parameters of the IM affect the results of a LS adjustment. As a case study, we consider the determination of the Cartesian coordinates of the control points (CP) from a B-splines curve. We show that a constant variance can be assessed to all the points of an object having homogeneous properties, without affecting the a posteriori variance factor or the loss of efficiency of the LS solution. The results from a real case scenario highlight that the conclusions of the simulations stay valid even for more challenging geometries. A procedure to determine the range variance is proposed to simplify the computation of the VCM. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Terrestrial Laser Scanning)
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30 pages, 11071 KiB  
Article
Robust Segmentation of Planar and Linear Features of Terrestrial Laser Scanner Point Clouds Acquired from Construction Sites
by Reza Maalek, Derek D Lichti and Janaka Y Ruwanpura
Sensors 2018, 18(3), 819; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18030819 - 08 Mar 2018
Cited by 49 | Viewed by 6217
Abstract
Automated segmentation of planar and linear features of point clouds acquired from construction sites is essential for the automatic extraction of building construction elements such as columns, beams and slabs. However, many planar and linear segmentation methods use scene-dependent similarity thresholds that may [...] Read more.
Automated segmentation of planar and linear features of point clouds acquired from construction sites is essential for the automatic extraction of building construction elements such as columns, beams and slabs. However, many planar and linear segmentation methods use scene-dependent similarity thresholds that may not provide generalizable solutions for all environments. In addition, outliers exist in construction site point clouds due to data artefacts caused by moving objects, occlusions and dust. To address these concerns, a novel method for robust classification and segmentation of planar and linear features is proposed. First, coplanar and collinear points are classified through a robust principal components analysis procedure. The classified points are then grouped using a new robust clustering method, the robust complete linkage method. A robust method is also proposed to extract the points of flat-slab floors and/or ceilings independent of the aforementioned stages to improve computational efficiency. The applicability of the proposed method is evaluated in eight datasets acquired from a complex laboratory environment and two construction sites at the University of Calgary. The precision, recall, and accuracy of the segmentation at both construction sites were 96.8%, 97.7% and 95%, respectively. These results demonstrate the suitability of the proposed method for robust segmentation of planar and linear features of contaminated datasets, such as those collected from construction sites. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Terrestrial Laser Scanning)
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Article
Vertical Optical Scanning with Panoramic Vision for Tree Trunk Reconstruction
by Adilson Berveglieri, Antonio M. G. Tommaselli, Xinlian Liang and Eija Honkavaara
Sensors 2017, 17(12), 2791; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17122791 - 02 Dec 2017
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5557
Abstract
This paper presents a practical application of a technique that uses a vertical optical flow with a fisheye camera to generate dense point clouds from a single planimetric station. Accurate data can be extracted to enable the measurement of tree trunks or branches. [...] Read more.
This paper presents a practical application of a technique that uses a vertical optical flow with a fisheye camera to generate dense point clouds from a single planimetric station. Accurate data can be extracted to enable the measurement of tree trunks or branches. The images that are collected with this technique can be oriented in photogrammetric software (using fisheye models) and used to generate dense point clouds, provided that some constraints on the camera positions are adopted. A set of images was captured in a forest plot in the experiments. Weighted geometric constraints were imposed in the photogrammetric software to calculate the image orientation, perform dense image matching, and accurately generate a 3D point cloud. The tree trunks in the scenes were reconstructed and mapped in a local reference system. The accuracy assessment was based on differences between measured and estimated trunk diameters at different heights. Trunk sections from an image-based point cloud were also compared to the corresponding sections that were extracted from a dense terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) point cloud. Cylindrical fitting of the trunk sections allowed the assessment of the accuracies of the trunk geometric shapes in both clouds. The average difference between the cylinders that were fitted to the photogrammetric cloud and those to the TLS cloud was less than 1 cm, which indicates the potential of the proposed technique. The point densities that were obtained with vertical optical scanning were 1/3 less than those that were obtained with TLS. However, the point density can be improved by using higher resolution cameras. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Terrestrial Laser Scanning)
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