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Soil Erosion and the Sustainable Management of the Landscape
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Soil Erosion and the Sustainable Management of the Landscape

A special issue of Sustainability (ISSN 2071-1050). This special issue belongs to the section "Environmental Sustainability and Applications".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2020) | Viewed by 72228

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Anton Imeson

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Foundation 3D Environmental Change, 1012 CN Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Interests: climate change soil erosion, desertification, natural resources and disasters; water; infiltration; runoff; erosion; soils; ecology; land degradation; forest fires; soil conservation and protection; land use change; climate change; laboratory and field measurements; policy; law and human impact governance

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

It is a great pleasure to invite you to contribute to this Special Issue on soil erosion and the sustainable management of the land. How can we design society and its use of the land to manage erosion sustainably?

I hope very much that this issue will provide you with an opportunity to share your research with the very many people who are concerned about soil erosion but in fact find it hard to comprehend. In publishing your research in Sustainability it will transcend many of special interest research that focusses on single issues. If you are a student or young researcher or a retired professional with ideas and experienced that could help society better understand how to manage erosion, please send us your manuscript. Erosion occurs in our gardens and fields and roads and it is a major cause of floods and disasters. Sustainability can be enhanced by simple actions that are based on experiences and processes understanding. We would like to learn about sustainability and erosion management in all areas of the world.

What should we do or not do with soil erosion to become sustainable? Do new and paradigms that enable erosion management to transcend barriers. Should we abandon the idea of ecosystem services? Can erosion be used to achieve beautiful landscapes and clean water for the world.

Prof. Anton Imeson
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Sustainability is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • soil erosion
  • landscape ecology
  • hydrology
  • geography
  • architecture
  • restoration
  • agriculture and forestry
  • industrial and mining impacts
  • clean watersheds and beautiful countryside

Published Papers (20 papers)

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Research

13 pages, 1661 KiB  
Article
Earthworm Burrowing Activity and Its Effects on Soil Hydraulic Properties under Different Soil Moisture Conditions from the Loess Plateau, China
by Shuhai Wen, Ming’an Shao and Jiao Wang
Sustainability 2020, 12(21), 9303; https://doi.org/10.3390/su12219303 - 09 Nov 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3476
Abstract
Earthworm activity has become more important in the Loess Plateau, where hydrological processes are crucial for ecosystem sustainability. In this study, we conducted a laboratory microcosm experiment to determine the various burrowing activities of Eisenia fetida and their impact on the soil hydraulic [...] Read more.
Earthworm activity has become more important in the Loess Plateau, where hydrological processes are crucial for ecosystem sustainability. In this study, we conducted a laboratory microcosm experiment to determine the various burrowing activities of Eisenia fetida and their impact on the soil hydraulic properties in response to different levels of soil moisture (50%, 70%, 90% of field capacity) in two common soil types (loessial and Lou soil) obtained from the Loess Plateau. Burrowing activity of E. fetida increased with higher soil moisture and was greater in loessial than in Lou soil. Most burrowing activities occurred within the top 5 cm and decreased with increasing soil depth. Macropores and burrow branching, which are highly related to the earthworm burrowing, were more prevalent in wetter soil. Earthworms significantly altered the formation of large soil aggregates (AGL, diameter >2 mm) under different soil moistures and depths. Distinct earthworm burrowing activities, controlled by soil moisture, altered soil hydraulic properties. However, soil saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks) showed little differences between different treatments due to the horizontal and high–branched burrows of E. fetida, although higher burrowing activities were found in wetter soil. Soil field capacity was highest in drier soil due to the less macropores and burrowing activities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and the Sustainable Management of the Landscape)
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11 pages, 2938 KiB  
Article
Characteristics of Soil Moisture and Evaporation under the Activities of Earthworms in Typical Anthrosols in China
by Li Ma, Ming’an Shao and Tongchuan Li
Sustainability 2020, 12(16), 6603; https://doi.org/10.3390/su12166603 - 14 Aug 2020
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2436
Abstract
Earthworms have an important influence on the terrestrial ecological environment. This study assesses the effect of different earthworm densities on soil water content (SWC) and evaporation in a laboratory experiment. Four earthworm densities (0 no-earthworm, control [C]; 207 earthworms m−2, low [...] Read more.
Earthworms have an important influence on the terrestrial ecological environment. This study assesses the effect of different earthworm densities on soil water content (SWC) and evaporation in a laboratory experiment. Four earthworm densities (0 no-earthworm, control [C]; 207 earthworms m−2, low density [LDE]; 345 earthworms m−2, medium density [MDE]; and 690 earthworms m−2, high density [HDE]) are tested in soil columns. Results show that cumulative evaporation occurs in the decreasing order of densities: C (98.6 mm) > LDE (115.8 mm) > MDE (118.4 mm) > HDE (124.6 mm). Compared with the control, earthworm activity decreases cumulative soil evaporation by 5.0–20.9%, increases soil temperature to 0.46 °C–0.63 °C at 8:00, and decreases soil temperature to 0.21 °C–0.52 °C at 14:00 on the soil surface. Temperature fluctuations reduce with increasing earthworm densities. A negative correlation is found between cumulative soil evaporation and earthworm density (R2 = 0.969, p < 0.001). Earthworms significantly (p < 0.05) decrease the surface SWC loss (0–20 cm) soil layer but increase the subsoil SWC loss (60–100 cm) by adjusting the soil temperature and reducing soil water evaporation. Earthworm activities (burrows, casts…) improve the soil water holding ability by adjusting soil temperature and reducing soil water evaporation. Thus, the population quantity of earthworms may provide valuable ecosystem services in soil water and heat cycles to save water resources and realize sustainable agricultural development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and the Sustainable Management of the Landscape)
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14 pages, 2513 KiB  
Article
A Detailed Identification of Erosionally Endangered Agricultural Land in Slovakia (Case Study of Nitra Upland)
by Lucia Petrikovičová, Zuzana Rampašeková and Jaroslava Sobocká
Sustainability 2020, 12(12), 4863; https://doi.org/10.3390/su12124863 - 15 Jun 2020
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1775
Abstract
Water erosion and its processes are the most widespread and serious degradation phenomena in Slovakia (occurring in about 37% of the agricultural land). Given the increasing use of precise land management, it is necessary to have more detailed databases, especially in erosion-accumulation areas. [...] Read more.
Water erosion and its processes are the most widespread and serious degradation phenomena in Slovakia (occurring in about 37% of the agricultural land). Given the increasing use of precise land management, it is necessary to have more detailed databases, especially in erosion-accumulation areas. The aim of the research was to identify in detail the areas of erosion-accumulation processes induced by water erosion, which can be considered as highly heterogeneous. In the territory of the Nitra upland the field survey methodology and grid mapping were used, the results of which were verified through soil erosion models. The mapping was done at the topic level and was verified using the USLE and ERDEP soil erosion models in ArcGIS. A comparison of the results of the potential model and real field parameters of soil erosion in the Nitra upland enabled us to generate dominant factors, respectively identify areas prone to soil erosion, and provided a detailed database for precise farming. At the same time, the results became the basis for a review of the current classification by erosion endangered soils. Overall, the methodology is suitable as a basis for developing sustainable management proposals in agricultural land affected by soil erosion risk. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and the Sustainable Management of the Landscape)
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21 pages, 3910 KiB  
Article
The Assessment of Climate Change on Rainfall-Runoff Erosivity in the Chirchik–Akhangaran Basin, Uzbekistan
by Khusen Sh. Gafforov, Anming Bao, Shavkat Rakhimov, Tie Liu, Farkhod Abdullaev, Liangliang Jiang, Khaydar Durdiev, Eldiiar Duulatov, Moldir Rakhimova and Yerbolat Mukanov
Sustainability 2020, 12(8), 3369; https://doi.org/10.3390/su12083369 - 21 Apr 2020
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 4229
Abstract
Changes in the frequency or intensity of rainfall due to climate always affect the conservation of soil resources, which leads to land degradation. The importance of assessing past and future climate differences plays an important role in future planning in relation to climate [...] Read more.
Changes in the frequency or intensity of rainfall due to climate always affect the conservation of soil resources, which leads to land degradation. The importance of assessing past and future climate differences plays an important role in future planning in relation to climate change. The spatiotemporal variability of erosivity depending on precipitation using the rainfall erosivity (R) of Universal Soil Loss Equation under the global circulation model (GCM) scenarios in the Chirchik–Akhangaran Basin (CHAB), which is in the northeastern part of the Republic of Uzbekistan, was statistically downscaled by using the delta method in Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) 4.5 and 8.5 during the periods of the 2030s, 2050s and 2070s. The (R) was used to determine the erosivity of precipitation, and the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) itself determined the effects of changes in erosivity. Ten weather station observational data points for the period from 1990 to 2016 were used to validate the global circulation models (GCMs) and erosion model. The assessment results showed an increase in precipitation from the baseline by an average of 11.8%, 14.1% and 16.3% for all models by 2030, 2050 and 2070, respectively, while at the same time, soil loss increased in parallel with precipitation by 17.1%, 20.5 % and 23.3%, respectively, in certain scenarios. The highest rainfall was observed for the models ACCESS1–3 and CanESM2 on both RCPs and periods, while more intense rainfall was the main reason for the increase in the spatial and temporal erosion activity of the rainfall-runoff. This study is a useful reference for improving soil conservation, preventing water erosion and ensuring the future sustainability of agricultural products, as well as improving the operational management and planning of agriculture. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and the Sustainable Management of the Landscape)
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15 pages, 3064 KiB  
Article
Growth Characteristics and Anti-Wind Erosion Ability of Three Tropical Foredune Pioneer Species for Sand Dune Stabilization
by Jung-Tai Lee, Lin-Zhi Yen, Ming-Yang Chu, Yu-Syuan Lin, Chih-Chia Chang, Ru-Sen Lin, Kung-Hsing Chao and Ming-Jen Lee
Sustainability 2020, 12(8), 3353; https://doi.org/10.3390/su12083353 - 20 Apr 2020
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2811
Abstract
Rainstorms frequently cause runoff and then the runoff carries large amounts of sediments (sand, clay, and silt) from upstream and deposit them on different landforms (coast, plain, lowland, piedmont, etc.). Afterwards, monsoons and tropical cyclones often induce severe coastal erosion and dust storms [...] Read more.
Rainstorms frequently cause runoff and then the runoff carries large amounts of sediments (sand, clay, and silt) from upstream and deposit them on different landforms (coast, plain, lowland, piedmont, etc.). Afterwards, monsoons and tropical cyclones often induce severe coastal erosion and dust storms in Taiwan. Ipomoea pes-caprae (a vine), Spinifex littoreus (a grass), and Vitex rotundifolia (a shrub) are indigenous foredune pioneer species. These species have the potential to restore coastal dune vegetation by controlling sand erosion and stabilizing sand dunes. However, their growth characteristics, root biomechanical traits, and anti-wind erosion abilities in sand dune environments have not been documented. In this study, the root growth characteristics of these species were examined by careful hand digging. Uprooting test and root tensile test were carried out to measure their mechanical strength, and wind tunnel (6 m × 1 m × 1.3 m, L × W × H) tests were executed to explore the anti-wind erosion ability using one-year-old seedlings. The results of root growth characteristics demonstrate that I. pes-caprae is superior to S. littoreus and V. rotundifolia. Moreover, uprooting resistance of V. rotundifolia seedlings (0.074 ± 0.032 kN) was significantly higher than that of I. pes-caprae (0.039 ± 0.015 kN) and S. littoreus (0.013 ± 0.005 kN). Root tensile strength of S. littoreus (16.68 ± 8.88 MPa) and V. rotundifolia (16.48 ± 4.37 MPa) were significantly higher than that of I. pes-caprae (6.65 ± 2.39 MPa). In addition, wind tunnel tests reveal that sand wind erosion rates for all three species decrease with increasing vegetation cover, but the anti-wind erosion ability of S. littoreus seedlings is significantly higher than I. pes-caprae and V. rotundifolia. Results of root tensile strength and anti-wind erosion ability clearly show that S. littoreus is superior to I. pes-caprae and V. rotundifolia. Taken together, our results suggest that I. pes-caprae and S. littoreus are beneficial for front line mixed planting, while V. rotundifolia is suitable for second line planting in foredune areas. These findings, along with the knowledge on adaption of foredune plants following sand accretion and erosion, provide us critical information for developing the planting strategy of foredune pioneer plants for the sustainable management of coastal foredune ecosystem. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and the Sustainable Management of the Landscape)
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13 pages, 1431 KiB  
Article
Effects of Earthworm Cast Application on Water Evaporation and Storage in Loess Soil Column Experiments
by Yanpei Li, Mingan Shao, Jiao Wang and Tongchuan Li
Sustainability 2020, 12(8), 3112; https://doi.org/10.3390/su12083112 - 13 Apr 2020
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2785
Abstract
Earthworm cast is a common bio-organic fertiliser, which can effectively improve soil fertility and structure. However, only a few studies have focused on the effect of earthworm cast on soil water movement. In this study, loess soil was used to determine the effects [...] Read more.
Earthworm cast is a common bio-organic fertiliser, which can effectively improve soil fertility and structure. However, only a few studies have focused on the effect of earthworm cast on soil water movement. In this study, loess soil was used to determine the effects of earthworm cast application on soil evaporation. The effects on water storage capacity and capillary upward movement were also investigated. A laboratory-based soil column experiment using earthworm cast with different particle sizes (1–3 × 1–2 cm and 3–5 × 2–4 cm) and three application doses (5%, 7.5%, and 10%) was carried out. The daily evaporation and volume of capillary ascension were monitored. The addition of earthworm cast clearly affected the soil evaporation by changing soil water storage capacity and capillary water upward movement. Compared with control soil, the application of 5% small-particle cast reduced the soil cumulative evaporation by 5.13%, while the cumulative evaporation was higher in all large-particle cast treatments. The upward capillary water movement increased with increasing dose of earthworm cast, but decreased with increasing particle size. Overall, the addition of earthworm cast clearly enhanced the water storage capacity of the soil, with the small-particle cast having greater effects than the large-particle cast. We concluded that the application of 5% small-particle earthworm cast can enhance soil water retention and reduce soil evaporation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and the Sustainable Management of the Landscape)
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13 pages, 2461 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of Climatic and Anthropogenic Impacts on Dust Erodibility: A Case Study in Xilingol Grassland, China
by Jing Wu, Yasunori Kurosaki and Chunling Du
Sustainability 2020, 12(2), 629; https://doi.org/10.3390/su12020629 - 15 Jan 2020
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2540
Abstract
Aeolian dust is dependent on erosivity (i.e., wind speed) and erodibility (i.e., land surface conditions). The effect of erodibility on dust occurrence remains poorly understood. In this study, we proposed a composite erodibility index (dust occurrence ratio, DOR) and examined its interannual variation [...] Read more.
Aeolian dust is dependent on erosivity (i.e., wind speed) and erodibility (i.e., land surface conditions). The effect of erodibility on dust occurrence remains poorly understood. In this study, we proposed a composite erodibility index (dust occurrence ratio, DOR) and examined its interannual variation at a typical steppe site (Abaga-Qi) in Xilingol Grassland, China, during spring of 1974–2018. Variation in DOR is mainly responsible for dust occurrence (R2 = 0.80, p-value < 0.001). During 2001–2018, DOR values were notably higher than those during 1974–2000. There was also a general declining trend with fluctuations. This indicates that the land surface conditions became vulnerable to wind erosion but was gradually reversed with the implementation of projects to combat desertification in recent years. To understand the relative climatic and anthropogenic impacts on erodibility, multiple regression was conducted between DOR and influencing factors for the period of 2001–2018. Precipitation (spring, summer, and winter) and temperature (summer, autumn, and winter), together with livestock population (June) explained 82% of the variation in DOR. Sheep and goat population made the greatest contribution. Therefore, reducing the number of sheep and goat could be an effective measure to prevent dust occurrence in Xilingol Grassland. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and the Sustainable Management of the Landscape)
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10 pages, 210 KiB  
Article
The Physical and Chemical Properties of Soil Crust in Straw Checkerboards with Different Ages in the Mu Us Sandland, Northern China
by Juan Wang and Rui Wang
Sustainability 2019, 11(17), 4755; https://doi.org/10.3390/su11174755 - 30 Aug 2019
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2335
Abstract
Straw checkerboards, as a mechanical sand barrier, are one of the most important engineering measures for sand control and vegetation restoration. In this study, we characterized the physical and chemical properties of soil crust treated with straw checkerboard in the Mu Us Sandland, [...] Read more.
Straw checkerboards, as a mechanical sand barrier, are one of the most important engineering measures for sand control and vegetation restoration. In this study, we characterized the physical and chemical properties of soil crust treated with straw checkerboard in the Mu Us Sandland, Northern China, and investigated the mechanism of sand stabilization and revegetation in the arid area. We collected soil crust from 1.0 × 1.0 m straw checkerboards after revegetation intermittently over 10 years, and then measured properties such as soil particle size composition, bulk density, soil nutrients, pH, and other indicators in the laboratory. During the progress of straw checkerboard treatment, the results showed a significant decrease in percentage of soil crusts sand and a corresponding increase in the portion of silt and clay with straw checkerboard treatment years. The age of straw checkerboard treatment was positively correlated with soil nutrients, such as organic matter, total N, total P, total K, available N, available P, and available K. While pH showed a slightly rising trend, electrical conductivity (EC) was negatively correlated with crust life. The number of plant species has significantly changed, herbaceous vegetation succession being replaced by shrubs over 10 years, and vegetation coverage peaked at the sixth year. This study can represent a successful example of restoration in arid desert regions, thereby supplying more theoretical basis for sand fixation and dessert restoration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and the Sustainable Management of the Landscape)
16 pages, 2660 KiB  
Article
Inhibiting Effects of Vegetation on the Characteristics of Runoff and Sediment Yield on Riparian Slope along the Lower Yellow River
by Yifan Zhang, Qinghe Zhao, Zihao Cao and Shengyan Ding
Sustainability 2019, 11(13), 3685; https://doi.org/10.3390/su11133685 - 04 Jul 2019
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2953
Abstract
Riparian vegetation plays a vital role in soil and water conservation and river health maintenance. However, its inhibiting effects on water and soil loss are limited by different factors, such as slope gradient, vegetation coverage and their interaction. Therefore, this study quantified the [...] Read more.
Riparian vegetation plays a vital role in soil and water conservation and river health maintenance. However, its inhibiting effects on water and soil loss are limited by different factors, such as slope gradient, vegetation coverage and their interaction. Therefore, this study quantified the inhibiting effect of riparian vegetation on the runoff, sediment and hydraulic characteristics of overland flow, and assessed its relative contribution to slope gradient. Specifically, we selected a riparian slope along the lower Yellow River as a case, and used a field-simulated rainfall experiment under specific rainfall intensity (90 mm/h), different vegetation coverage (0%, 15% and 30%) and slope gradients (5°, 10°, 15° and 20°). The results showed that the presence of vegetation can reduce the slope runoff rate and erosion rate. However, greater slope gradients can result in a lowering of the inhibiting effects of riparian vegetation on sediment yield. There was a critical value of vegetation coverage for inhibiting eroded sediments which was influenced by the degree of slope gradient. At 15% vegetation coverage, vegetation inhibited the slope sediment yield greatly at a slope gradient of less than 8°; while at 30% vegetation coverage, vegetation greatly inhibited the slope sediment yield at slope gradients <11°. Hydraulic characteristics were closely related to the slope gradient and vegetation coverage by the power function. Grey correlation analysis revealed that, with increasing of vegetation coverage, the effect of stream power on slope sediment yield decreased, while the effect of the friction coefficient on slope sediment yield increased. In summary, riparian vegetation can effectively inhibit slope runoff and sediment yield, but its inhibiting effect is notably affected by slope gradient. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and the Sustainable Management of the Landscape)
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18 pages, 3920 KiB  
Article
Predicting Sheet and Rill Erosion of Shihmen Reservoir Watershed in Taiwan Using Machine Learning
by Kieu Anh Nguyen, Walter Chen, Bor-Shiun Lin, Uma Seeboonruang and Kent Thomas
Sustainability 2019, 11(13), 3615; https://doi.org/10.3390/su11133615 - 01 Jul 2019
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4277
Abstract
Shihmen Reservoir watershed is vital to the water supply in Northern Taiwan but the reservoir has been heavily impacted by sedimentation and soil erosion since 1964. The purpose of this study was to explore the capability of machine learning algorithms, such as decision [...] Read more.
Shihmen Reservoir watershed is vital to the water supply in Northern Taiwan but the reservoir has been heavily impacted by sedimentation and soil erosion since 1964. The purpose of this study was to explore the capability of machine learning algorithms, such as decision tree and random forest, to predict soil erosion (sheet and rill erosion) depths in the Shihmen reservoir watershed. The accuracy of the models was evaluated using the RMSE (Root Mean Squared Error), MAE (Mean Absolute Error), and R2. Moreover, the models were verified against the multiple regression analysis, which is commonly used in statistical analysis. The predictors of these models were 14 environmental factors which influence soil erosion, whereas the target was 550 erosion pins installed at 55 locations (on 55 slopes) and monitored over a period of approximately three years. The data sets for the models were separated into 70% for the training data and 30% for the testing data, using the simple random sampling and stratified random sampling methods. The results show that the random forest algorithm performed the best of the three methods. Moreover, the stratified random sampling method had better results among the two sampling methods, as anticipated. The average error (RMSE relative to 1:1 line) of the stratified random sampling method of the random forest algorithm is 0.93 mm/yr in the training data and 1.75 mm/yr in the testing data, respectively. Finally, the random forest algorithm predicted that type of slope, slope direction, and sub-watershed are the three most important factors of the 14 environmental factors collected and used in this study for splits in the trees and thus they are the three most important factors affecting the depth of sheet and rill erosion in the Shihmen Reservoir watershed. The results of this study can be employed by decision-makers to improve soil conservation planning and watershed remediation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and the Sustainable Management of the Landscape)
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20 pages, 1989 KiB  
Article
Degradation Characteristics of Soil-Quality-Related Physical and Chemical Properties Affected by Collapsing Gully: The Case of Subtropical Hilly Region, China
by Shuyue Feng, Hui Wen, Shimin Ni, Junguang Wang and Chongfa Cai
Sustainability 2019, 11(12), 3369; https://doi.org/10.3390/su11123369 - 18 Jun 2019
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2803
Abstract
In the subtropical hilly areas of China, a collapsing gully, a particular type of permanent gully, poses a great threat to the productivity and sustainability of the local ecological and agricultural systems. However, few studies have been performed regarding the effects of collapsing [...] Read more.
In the subtropical hilly areas of China, a collapsing gully, a particular type of permanent gully, poses a great threat to the productivity and sustainability of the local ecological and agricultural systems. However, few studies have been performed regarding the effects of collapsing gully erosion on soil degradation. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of collapsing gully erosion on soil-quality-related physical and chemical properties. The collapsing gullies that were severely affected by erosion processes were considered at three stages (initial, active and stable stages) and corresponding soil samples were collected to analyze the spatial variation of the soil physical and chemical quality at each stage. The changes in the properties were assumed to be considerable in the regions affected by the erosion process compared with those unaffected by this process. Soil physical properties were more susceptible than soil nutrients to collapsing gully erosion in different spatial locations. The soil quality index (SQI) system consists of total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP), pH, capillary porosity (CP), sand content (SA), soil cohesion (SC) and root density (RD). Collapsing gully erosion was found to affect the soil physical and chemical properties by progressively reducing the SQI. The mean SQI value was the lowest in the active stage of the collapsing gully, with a higher soil degradation. For the different spatial positions in the collapsing gullies, the scour channel showed the lowest SQI value. The limiting indicators varied in the different stages or spatial sites in the collapsing gullies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and the Sustainable Management of the Landscape)
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16 pages, 3377 KiB  
Article
Identifying Human-Induced Spatial Differences of Soil Erosion Change in a Hilly Red Soil Region of Southern China
by Dong Huang, Xiaohuan Yang, Hongyan Cai, Zuolin Xiao and Dongrui Han
Sustainability 2019, 11(11), 3103; https://doi.org/10.3390/su11113103 - 01 Jun 2019
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2252
Abstract
Soil erosion (SE) processes are closely related to natural conditions and human activities, posing a threat to environment and society. Identifying the human impact on regional SE changes is increasingly essential for pertinent SE management. Jiangxi province is studied here as a representative [...] Read more.
Soil erosion (SE) processes are closely related to natural conditions and human activities, posing a threat to environment and society. Identifying the human impact on regional SE changes is increasingly essential for pertinent SE management. Jiangxi province is studied here as a representative area of hilly-red-soil regions within southern China. The main objectives of this study were to investigate the changing trend of SE within Jiangxi and identify human impacts on regional SE change from the perspective of spatial differences, through a new approach based on a gravity-center model. Our results showed that SE status presented an overall amelioration from 1990 to 2015, while the average soil erosion modulus (SEM) declined from 864 to 281 Mg/(km2·a). Compared to the situation under human and natural impacts, human-induced spatial differences of SE change demonstrated that the western and northwest regions showed stronger negative effects; the southern region shifted towards negative effects; the northeast region presented a much weaker negative effect. Our results indicated that 4 cities with strong negative effects need more attention in further SE management suited to their local conditions and development, and also suggested that the approach based on a gravity-center has potential for identifying the human impact on regional SE change from the perspective of spatial patterns. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and the Sustainable Management of the Landscape)
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16 pages, 1814 KiB  
Article
Relationships between Riparian Vegetation Pattern and the Hydraulic Characteristics of Upslope Runoff
by Qinghe Zhao, Yifan Zhang, Shanshan Xu, Xiaoyu Ji, Shuoqian Wang and Shengyan Ding
Sustainability 2019, 11(10), 2966; https://doi.org/10.3390/su11102966 - 24 May 2019
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3236
Abstract
Riparian vegetation plays a vital role in inhibiting soil and water loss, but few studies have quantified the relationships between vegetation spatial pattern and the hydraulic characteristics of upslope runoff. This study investigated how hydraulic characteristics (e.g., runoff coefficient, flow regime, flow resistance, [...] Read more.
Riparian vegetation plays a vital role in inhibiting soil and water loss, but few studies have quantified the relationships between vegetation spatial pattern and the hydraulic characteristics of upslope runoff. This study investigated how hydraulic characteristics (e.g., runoff coefficient, flow regime, flow resistance, and flow shear stress of overland flow) responded to differences in vegetation cover (15% and 30%), slope gradient (5°, 10°, 15°, and 20°), and vegetation pattern in the riparian zone along the lower Yellow River, China, based on landscape pattern analysis and a runoff scouring experiment with flow rates of 9 and 15 L/min and an experimental plot size of 1 m × 3 m. We found that runoff generation on shallow slopes was moderated by increasing vegetation cover, but that this moderating effect decreased on steeper slopes. The regime of overland flow switched from laminar and subcritical on the 5° slope (Fr = 0.56–0.87) to laminar and critical on the 10°, 15°, and 20° slopes (Fr = 1.02–2.18). Flow resistance increased with vegetation cover and flow rate and decreased with slope gradients, and it was larger on shallow slopes with high vegetation cover. Flow shear stress had a range of 1.42–3.55 N m−2, and it increased with increasing slope gradient, vegetation cover, and flow rate. The hydraulic characteristics of upslope runoff, especially flow resistance, were significantly related to vegetation pattern at both the landscape and class levels. Flow resistance was negatively related to patch density, and positively related to perimeter–area fractal dimension and connectance index. The influencing mechanism of landscape patterns on soil erosion processes is dependent on the landscape scale, since the relationships between flow resistance and some landscape pattern indices (aggregation index, effective mesh size, and splitting index) were opposite at the landscape level compared to the class level. We conclude that fragmented vegetation distributions reduce flow resistance, and that riparian vegetation could be managed to inhibit slope erosion by increasing flow resistance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and the Sustainable Management of the Landscape)
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13 pages, 2506 KiB  
Article
Reservoir Conservation in a Micro-Watershed in Tigray, Ethiopian Highlands
by Kazuhisa Koda, Gebreyohannes Girmay, Tesfay Berihu and Fujio Nagumo
Sustainability 2019, 11(7), 2038; https://doi.org/10.3390/su11072038 - 05 Apr 2019
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2985
Abstract
Soil erosion in Ethiopian highlands has caused land deterioration due to moving nutrient-rich top soil to downstream reservoirs while leaving reservoirs dysfunctional due to sedimentation. Micro-watershed management by removing reservoir sediments and using them for reclaiming farmland, while using reservoir water for irrigation, [...] Read more.
Soil erosion in Ethiopian highlands has caused land deterioration due to moving nutrient-rich top soil to downstream reservoirs while leaving reservoirs dysfunctional due to sedimentation. Micro-watershed management by removing reservoir sediments and using them for reclaiming farmland, while using reservoir water for irrigation, can be a potential solution to simultaneously address soil and water constraints and food security challenges. Still, there is knowledge gap before such a solution can be practically applied. The objective of this paper is to present potential solutions for the reservoir sedimentation problem and specifically highlight the utility of bathymetric survey using an echo-sounder to assess sediment volume. Our results indicated that the estimated reservoir sediment volume was 6400 m3 leading to a reclamation of 3.2 hectares by layering 0.2 m sediment. The sediment used for reclamation depicts neutral pH (7.3), high organic carbon (2.5%), available phosphorus (9.2 mg/kg) and exchangeable potassium (25 cmol(+)/kg). Garlic (Allium sativum) was planted in the reclaiming abandoned farmland and produced 7.1 t/ha of bulb on average. There is a potential of producing 2–3 horticultural crops per year. Thus, developing methods for scaling up potential farmland reclamation using reservoir sediment would contribute to degraded farmland restoration and food security in Ethiopia and beyond. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and the Sustainable Management of the Landscape)
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18 pages, 1447 KiB  
Article
Estimation of Soil Organic Matter, Total Nitrogen and Total Carbon in Sustainable Coastal Wetlands
by Sen Zhang, Xia Lu, Yuanzhi Zhang, Gege Nie and Yurong Li
Sustainability 2019, 11(3), 667; https://doi.org/10.3390/su11030667 - 28 Jan 2019
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4147
Abstract
Soil plays an important role in coastal wetland ecosystems. The estimation of soil organic matter (SOM), total nitrogen (TN), and total carbon (TC) was investigated at the topsoil (0–20 cm) in the coastal wetlands of Dafeng Elk National Nature Reserve in Yancheng, Jiangsu [...] Read more.
Soil plays an important role in coastal wetland ecosystems. The estimation of soil organic matter (SOM), total nitrogen (TN), and total carbon (TC) was investigated at the topsoil (0–20 cm) in the coastal wetlands of Dafeng Elk National Nature Reserve in Yancheng, Jiangsu province (China) using hyperspectral remote sensing data. The sensitive bands corresponding to SOM, TN, and TC content were retrieved based on the correlation coefficient after Savitzky–Golay (S–G) filtering and four differential transformations of the first derivative (R′), first derivative of reciprocal (1/R)′, second derivative of reciprocal (1/R)″, and first derivative of logarithm (lgR)′ by spectral reflectance (R) as R′, (1/R)′, (1/R)″, (lgR)′ of soil samples. The estimation models of SOM, TN, and TC by support vector machine (SVM) and back propagation (BP) neural network were applied. The results indicated that the effective bands can be identified by S–G filtering, differential transformation, and the correlation coefficient methods based on the original spectra of soil samples. The estimation accuracy of SVM is better than that of the BP neural network for SOM, TN, and TC in the Yancheng coastal wetland. The estimation model of SOM by SVM based on (1/R)′ spectra had the highest accuracy, with the determination coefficients (R2) and root mean square error (RMSE) of 0.93 and 0.23, respectively. However, the estimation models of TN and TC by using the (1/R)″ differential transformations of spectra were also high, with determination coefficients R2 of 0.88 and 0.85, RMSE of 0.17 and 0.26, respectively. The results also show that it is possible to estimate the nutrient contents of topsoil from hyperspectral data in sustainable coastal wetlands. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and the Sustainable Management of the Landscape)
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16 pages, 5510 KiB  
Article
Improvement of the K-Factor of USLE and Soil Erosion Estimation in Shihmen Reservoir Watershed
by Bor-Shiun Lin, Chun-Kai Chen, Kent Thomas, Chen-Kun Hsu and Hsing-Chuan Ho
Sustainability 2019, 11(2), 355; https://doi.org/10.3390/su11020355 - 11 Jan 2019
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 5349
Abstract
The estimation of soil erosion in Taiwan and many countries of the world is based on the widely used universal soil loss equation (USLE), which includes the factor of soil erodibility (K-factor). In Taiwan, K-factor values are referenced from past research compiled in [...] Read more.
The estimation of soil erosion in Taiwan and many countries of the world is based on the widely used universal soil loss equation (USLE), which includes the factor of soil erodibility (K-factor). In Taiwan, K-factor values are referenced from past research compiled in the Taiwan Soil and Water Conservation Manual, but there is limited data for the downstream area of the Shihmen reservoir watershed. The designated K-factor from the manual cannot be directly applied to large-scale regional levels and also cannot distinguish and clarify the difference of soil erosion between small field plots or subdivisions. In view of the above, this study establishes additional values of K-factor by utilizing the double rings infiltration test and measures of soil physical–chemical properties and increases the spatial resolution of K-factor map for Shihmen reservoir watershed. Furthermore, the established values of K-factors were validated with the designated value set at Fuxing Sanmin from the manual for verifying the correctness of estimates. It is found that the comparative results agree well with established estimates within an allowable error range. Thus, the K-factors established by this study update the previous K-factor system and can be spatially estimated for any area of interest within the Shihmen reservoir watershed and improving upon past limitations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and the Sustainable Management of the Landscape)
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14 pages, 2116 KiB  
Article
Changes in Soil Organic Carbon and Total Nitrogen at a Small Watershed Scale as the Result of Land Use Conversion on the Loess Plateau
by Zhijing Xue and Shaoshan An
Sustainability 2018, 10(12), 4757; https://doi.org/10.3390/su10124757 - 13 Dec 2018
Cited by 32 | Viewed by 3631
Abstract
Soil organic carbon (SOC) and total nitrogen (total N) are important soil components for agricultural production. Soil quality is related to the total amount of SOC and total N sequestered in the soil. Land use plays a major role in the distribution and [...] Read more.
Soil organic carbon (SOC) and total nitrogen (total N) are important soil components for agricultural production. Soil quality is related to the total amount of SOC and total N sequestered in the soil. Land use plays a major role in the distribution and amount of SOC and total N. This study analyses the amount of SOC and total N under various land cover types in 1987, 2005 and 2010, and evaluated their storage in land use conversions in a comprehensively managed watershed on the Loess Plateau, China. Results show that concentrations of SOC and total N in shrub land and natural grassland areas were significantly higher than for other land uses (farmland, orchard, abandoned farmland, manmade grassland) while cropland had the lowest concentration. Storage of SOC and total N increased along the revegetation chronosequence. As the storage of SOC in 2005 and 2010, they were 3461.86 × 108 and 4504.04 × 108 g respectively. Soil organic carbon storage were enhanced one third just during 5 years. The effects of land use on SOC and total N were the most significant in the upper soil layers. The correlation between SOC, total N, and the C/N ratio indicated that the best combination of land uses were natural grassland and shrub land. They efficiently influenced the distribution and storage of SOC and total N, and benefited vegetation restoration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and the Sustainable Management of the Landscape)
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20 pages, 11072 KiB  
Article
Assessment of Land Cover Change and Its Impact on Changes in Soil Erosion Risk in Nepal
by Kabir Uddin, Mir Abdul Matin and Sajana Maharjan
Sustainability 2018, 10(12), 4715; https://doi.org/10.3390/su10124715 - 11 Dec 2018
Cited by 65 | Viewed by 9154
Abstract
Land cover change is a critical driver for enhancing the soil erosion risk in Nepal. Loss of the topsoil has a direct and indirect effect on human life and livelihoods. The present study provides an assessment of the decadal land use and land [...] Read more.
Land cover change is a critical driver for enhancing the soil erosion risk in Nepal. Loss of the topsoil has a direct and indirect effect on human life and livelihoods. The present study provides an assessment of the decadal land use and land cover (LULC) change and consequent changes in the distribution of soil erosion risk for the years, 1990, 2000, and 2010, for the entire country of Nepal. The study attempted to understand how different land cover types change over the three decades and how it has changed the distribution of soil erosion risks in Nepal that would help in the development of soil conservation priority. The land cover maps were produced using geographic object-based image analysis (GEOBIA) using Landsat images. Soil erosion patterns were assessed using the revised universal soil loss equation (RUSLE) with the land cover as the input. The study shows that the forest cover is the most dominant land cover in Nepal that comprises about 6,200,000 ha forest cover. The estimated annual erosion was 129.30 million tons in 1990 and 110.53 million tons in 2010. The assessment of soil erosion dynamics was presented at the national, provincial, and district level. District wise analysis revealed that Gulmi, Parbat, Syangja, and the Tanahu district require priority for soil conservation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and the Sustainable Management of the Landscape)
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16 pages, 6735 KiB  
Article
Erosion Control in the Sustainable Cultivation of Maize (Zea mays L.) and Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) at Two Stages of the Agricultural Cycle in Southern Guatemala
by Rafael Blanco Sepúlveda and Francisco Enríquez Narváez
Sustainability 2018, 10(12), 4654; https://doi.org/10.3390/su10124654 - 06 Dec 2018
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3597
Abstract
Agricultural intensification in the mountains of Central America has increased soil vulnerability to erosion by water. This study was undertaken to analyse the erosion that affects the mixed cultivation of maize and beans at two stages of the crop development cycle (at 3 [...] Read more.
Agricultural intensification in the mountains of Central America has increased soil vulnerability to erosion by water. This study was undertaken to analyse the erosion that affects the mixed cultivation of maize and beans at two stages of the crop development cycle (at 3 and 6 months after sowing) in southern Guatemala, together with the influence of the ground and crop canopy vegetal cover on soil erosion. The main aim of this analysis is to establish the soil erosion threshold enabling sustainable agriculture. The results obtained show that the soil surface was severely eroded, with mean values of area affected of 88.4% and 73.5% at 3 and 6 months, respectively. In the 3-month plots, the erosion bore scant relation to the factors analysed. Conversely, the area affected by soil erosion in the 6-month plots was significantly related to the degree of ground cover by weeds and litter, and the erosion threshold was located at 80% of vegetal cover. However, plots with this level of cover did not achieve effective erosion control, due to the low level of plant litter cover (15.7%) compared to that of weeds (75.5%). We conclude that this low content of vegetal residue in the soil, together with the tillage practices employed, explains the large surface area affected by erosion and the impossibility of establishing an erosion threshold. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and the Sustainable Management of the Landscape)
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17 pages, 2480 KiB  
Article
Assessment of the Sustainability of the Territories Affected by Gully Head Advancements through Aerial Photography and Modeling Estimations: A Case Study on Samal Watershed, Iran
by Aliakbar Nazari Samani, Fatemeh Tavakoli Rad, Maryam Azarakhshi, Mohammad Reza Rahdari and Jesús Rodrigo-Comino
Sustainability 2018, 10(8), 2909; https://doi.org/10.3390/su10082909 - 16 Aug 2018
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3692
Abstract
Gully erosion is considered one of the major issues of land sustainability because it can remove considerable volumes of sediment and productive soils. Once started, gullies can continue to move by headcut retreat, or slumping of the side walls. Studies of gully development [...] Read more.
Gully erosion is considered one of the major issues of land sustainability because it can remove considerable volumes of sediment and productive soils. Once started, gullies can continue to move by headcut retreat, or slumping of the side walls. Studies of gully development require constant monitoring activities which are not possible in not-well-explored areas, such as the arduous region of Iran, due to costs and a lack of geoinformation. Thus, the present research attempts to assess gully evolution using only two digital aerial photographs of different periods (1968 and 1994) and field assessment (2009) to estimate the gully head advancement based on frames geometry and rigorous procedure in southwestern Iran. Also, the gully head advancement was estimated and compared among them by different empirical equations. The results indicated that the mean of gully head advancement was 1.4 m year−1 and 1.2 m year−1 during 1968–1994 and 1994–2009, respectively, and the annual average of sediment mobilization was 26.8 m3 ha−1 in 2009. The model assessment indexes indicated that SCS (Soil Conservation Service) II was the best model for gully head advancement estimations in this study area. The main reasons for this can be associated with the Rp factor (previous gully head advancement) and the local environmental conditions. We conclude that the sustainability of the territory has been greatly affected due to this advancement. We also hypothesize that gully head changes could be related to the susceptibility of geological formations, climate, soil properties, and the coincidence of other gullies’ formation with common drainage networks in the study area. Based on the obtained results, land managers can use the results to distinguish the gullies in this region with a higher environmental risk, and to decide an effective implementation of soil conservation measures in order to include them in the land management plans. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and the Sustainable Management of the Landscape)
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