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Sustainable Wastewater Treatment Systems

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A special issue of Sustainability (ISSN 2071-1050). This special issue belongs to the section "Environmental Sustainability and Applications".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 April 2019) | Viewed by 75623

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Prof. Dr. José Alberto Herrera-Melián

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Department of Chemistry, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, 35017 Canary Islands, Spain
Interests: wastewater treatment; constructed wetland; biofilters; ponds; advanced oxidation technologies; wastewater disinfection
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Dear Colleagues,

The impact of untreated wastewater discharges into the environment is one of the greatest challenges facing modern societies. Phenomena such as eutrophication, hypoxia or the transmission of diseases alter natural equilibria and threaten the health of the environment, and as a consequent, that of humankind. Therefore, the treatment and reuse of wastewater is an obligation if we want to avoid its negative consequences and turn them into opportunities. Wastewater contains valuable resources such as organic matter and nutrients that can be reused in agriculture, the activity that demands the most water globally. However, the treatment methods must be environmentally friendly, that is, have a low carbon footprint and consume few resources. In addition to being as well as efficient, robust and simple, they must be environmentally and economically sustainable, so that they can be applied in remote places, in adverse conditions and by the poorest people. Therefore, the goal of this special issue is to improve our understanding of the development of sustainable wastewater treatment methods.

Prof. Dr. José Alberto Herrera-Melián
Guest Editor

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Keywords

wastewater
sustainable treatment
disinfection
reclaimed wastewater reuse
grey water
wastewater irrigation
constructed wetland
pond

Published Papers (14 papers)

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Editorial

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5 pages, 199 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Sustainable Wastewater Treatment Systems (2018–2019)

by José Alberto Herrera Melián

Sustainability 2020, 12(5), 1940; https://doi.org/10.3390/su12051940 - 03 Mar 2020

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3815

Abstract

An important part of the environmental degradation suffered by the planet is caused by the discharge of untreated or poorly treated wastewater. Industrial, urban, and agricultural wastewater contain many different types of pollutants such as biodegradable and nonbiodegradable organic matter, suspended solids, turbidity, nutrients, heavy metals, pesticides, pathogens, etc. All of these pose a threat to the environment and human health, so the selected treatment techniques must be adapted to their nature in order to optimize their removal. In addition to efficiency, wastewater treatment methods must be sustainable, not only from an environmental point of view, but also economically and ethically. As a result, no technological dependence should be generated in less developed countries or communities. Therefore, this Special Issue deals with improvements in various aspects of wastewater treatment including different aspects of water treatment such as the development of mathematical models, the application of life cycle techniques, or the experimental optimization of wastewater treatment methods. Thirteen articles were accepted covering some of the most relevant fields of wastewater treatment: activated sludge, nanoparticle treatment, constructed wetlands, energy–water nexus, nutrient recovery, eco-friendly sorbents, and reverse osmosis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Wastewater Treatment Systems)

Research

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10 pages, 1375 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Coagulation and Dissolution of CuO Nanoparticles in the Presence of Dissolved Organic Matter Under Different pH Values

by Rizwan Khan, Muhammad Ali Inam, Saba Zam Zam, Muhammad Akram, Sookyo Shin and Ick Tae Yeom

Sustainability 2019, 11(10), 2825; https://doi.org/10.3390/su11102825 - 17 May 2019

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2919

Abstract

The increased use of copper oxide nanoparticles (CuO NPs) in commercial products and industrial applications raises concerns about their adverse effects on aquatic life and human health. Therefore, the current study explored the removal of CuO NPs from water via coagulation by measuring solubility under various pH values and humic acid (HA) concentrations. The results showed that the media pH significantly affected the coagulation efficiency of CuO NPs (30 mg/L) under various (0–0.30 mM) ferric chloride (FC) dosages. The concentration of dissolved Cu²⁺ ions at pH 3–6 was (16.5–4.8 mg/L), which was higher than at other studied pH (7–11). Moreover, the simultaneous effect of coagulants and charge neutralization at pH 6–8 enhanced the removal of CuO NPs. At a lower FC (0–0.05 mM) dosage, the higher HA concentration inhibited the aggregation of CuO NPs. However, at the optimum dose of (0.2 mM) FC, the efficiency of turbidity removal and solubility of CuO NPs between pH 8 and 11 was above 98% and 5%, respectively, probably due to coagulant enmeshment. Our study suggested that coagulation was effective in removing the CuO NPs from the complex matrices with pH values ranging from 8–11. The findings of the present study provide insight into the coagulation and dissolution behavior of CuO NPs during the water treatment process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Wastewater Treatment Systems)

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12 pages, 2375 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Shifts in the Microbial Community of Activated Sludge with Different COD/N Ratios or Dissolved Oxygen Levels in Tibet, China

by Jin Xu, Peifang Wang, Yi Li, Lihua Niu and Zhen Xing

Sustainability 2019, 11(8), 2284; https://doi.org/10.3390/su11082284 - 16 Apr 2019

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3092

Abstract

In this study, we examined the influence of the organic carbon-to-nitrogen ratio (chemical oxygen demand (COD/N)) and dissolved oxygen (DO) levels on the removal efficiency of pollutants and on the change in total microflora in the cyclic activated sludge system (CASS) in the Nyingchi prefecture in Tibet. The results demonstrated that the treatment performance was the best when the COD/N ratio was 7:1 or the DO levels were 2–2.5 mg/L in comparison with four different tested COD/N ratios (4:1, 5:1, 7:1, and 10:1) and DO concentrations (0.5–1, 1–2, 2–2.5, and 2.5–3.5 mg/L). The treatment performance can be explained by the relative operational taxonomic unit richness and evenness of the microbial communities in activated sludge. Evident microbial variance was observed, especially different COD/N ratios and DO concentrations, which were conducive to the disposal of urban sewage in plateaus. The results help to understand sewage treatment under different COD/N ratios or DO concentrations on plateaus. This work provides practical guidance for the operation of any wastewater treatment plant on a plateau. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Wastewater Treatment Systems)

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18 pages, 4703 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effects of Plants on Pollutant Removal, Clogging, and Bacterial Community Structure in Palm Mulch-Based Vertical Flow Constructed Wetlands

by Marina Carrasco-Acosta, Pilar Garcia-Jimenez, José Alberto Herrera-Melián, Néstor Peñate-Castellano and Argimiro Rivero-Rosales

Sustainability 2019, 11(3), 632; https://doi.org/10.3390/su11030632 - 25 Jan 2019

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3002

Abstract

In this study, the effects of plants on the performance and bacterial community structure of palm mulch-based vertical flow constructed wetlands was studied. The wetlands were built in August 2013; one of them was planted with Canna indica and Xanthosoma sp., and the other one was not planted and used as a control. The experimental period started in September 2014 and finished in June 2015. The influent was domestic wastewater, and the average hydraulic surface loading was 208 L/m²d, and those of COD, BOD, and TSS were 77, 57, and 19 g/m²d, respectively. Although the bed without plants initially performed better, the first symptoms of clogging appeared in December 2014, and then, its performance started to fail. Afterwards, the wetland with plants provided better removals. The terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (T-RFLP) analysis of Enterococci and Escherichia coli in the effluents suggests that a reduction in their biodiversity was caused by the presence of the plants. Thus, it can be concluded that the plants helped achieve better removals, delay clogging, and reduce Enterococci and E. coli biodiversity in the effluents. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Wastewater Treatment Systems)

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22 pages, 4237 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimal Management of a Hybrid Renewable Energy System Coupled with a Membrane Bioreactor Using Enviro-Economic and Power Pinch Analyses for Sustainable Climate Change Adaption

by Tuan-Viet Hoang, Pouya Ifaei, Kijeon Nam, Jouan Rashidi, Soonho Hwangbo, Jong-Min Oh and ChangKyoo Yoo

Sustainability 2019, 11(1), 66; https://doi.org/10.3390/su11010066 - 22 Dec 2018

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4667

Abstract

This study proposed an optimal hybrid renewable energy system (HRES) to sustainably meet the dynamic electricity demand of a membrane bioreactor. The model-based HRES consists of solar photovoltaic panels, wind turbines, and battery banks with grid connectivity. Three scenarios, 101 sub-scenarios, and three management cases were defined to optimally design the system using a novel dual-scale optimization approach. At the system scale, the power-pinch analysis was applied to minimize both the size of components and the outsourced needed electricity (NE) from Vietnam’s electrical grid. At a local-scale, economic and environmental models were integrated, and the system was graphically optimized using a novel objective function, combined enviro-economic costs (CEECs). The results showed that the optimal CEECs were $850,710/year, $1,030,628/year, and $1,693,476/year for the management cases under good, moderate, and unhealthy air qualities, respectively. The smallest CEEC was obtained when 47% of the demand load of the membrane bioreactor was met using the HRES and the rest was supplied by the grid, resulting in 6,800,769 kg/year of CO₂ emissions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Wastewater Treatment Systems)

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22 pages, 8479 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Suitability of Totora (Schoenoplectus californicus (C.A. Mey.) Soják) for Its Use in Constructed Wetlands in Areas Polluted with Heavy Metals

by Juan A. Blanco

Sustainability 2019, 11(1), 19; https://doi.org/10.3390/su11010019 - 20 Dec 2018

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 5194

Abstract

Schoenoplectus californicus subsp. tatora (totora) is an endemic plant from wetlands in South America’s Altiplano region. In the endorheic Titicaca-Desaguadero-Poopó-Salar de Coipasa system (TDPS), totora can be found along rivers, lakes, and shallow ponds. Lake Uru-Uru is a minor lake placed upstream of Lake Poopó, and it gets water inflows from the Desaguadero River, the city of Oruro and several mining and metallurgic complexes. Polluted waters from these origins, together with natural high salinity and high presence of As and Pb, make Lake Uru-Uru an ideal location to search for plant species suitable to be used in constructed and restored wetlands under pollution stress, particularly in systems with high pH and salty waters. To test if totora could meet such requirements, healthy plants were collected at two sites in Lake Uru-Uru with different exposure to polluted inflows. Chemical composition of different organs (leaves, rhizomes and roots) were compared. Results indicated totora’s capacity to withstand high concentrations of a cocktail of multiple pollutants and heavy metals. Particularly, this research showed totora as a multi-hyperaccumulator (concentrations in shoots higher than 1000 mg kg⁻¹) for As, Fe and Ni. These results, combined with totora’s intrinsic high rates of biomass production, slow decomposition rates and its value as raw material for local craftwork and industrial uses, support the recommendation to use totora in constructed or restored wetlands, particularly in sites polluted with heavy metals, and in waters with high salinity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Wastewater Treatment Systems)

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22 pages, 2976 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Removal of ZnO Nanoparticles from Natural Waters by Coagulation-Flocculation Process: Influence of Surfactant Type on Aggregation, Dissolution and Colloidal Stability

by Rizwan Khan, Muhammad Ali Inam, Muhammad Mazhar Iqbal, Muhammad Shoaib, Du Ri Park, Kang Hoon Lee, Sookyo Shin, Sarfaraz Khan and Ick Tae Yeom

Sustainability 2019, 11(1), 17; https://doi.org/10.3390/su11010017 - 20 Dec 2018

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 7451

Abstract

The zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) and surfactants that are widely used in commercial and industrial products lead to the likelihood of their co-occurrence in natural water, making it essential to investigate the effect of surfactants on the fate and mobility of ZnO NPs. The present study seeks to elucidate the effect of an anionic sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and a nonionic nonylphenol ethoxylate (NPEO), on ZnO NPs adsorption, aggregation, dissolution, and removal by the coagulation process. The results indicate that the presence of SDS in ZnO NPs suspension significantly reduced the ζ-potential and hydrodynamic diameter (HDD), while the effect of NPEO was found not to be significant. The sorption of SDS and NPEO by ZnO NPs were fitted with Langmuir model, but the Freundlich isotherm was more suitable for SDS at pH 9.0. Moreover, the adsorption was strongly pH-dependent due to the formation of mono-bilayer patches onto the NPs. The SDS remarkably affect the dissolution and aggregation phenomena of ZnO NPs in natural waters as compared to NPEO. Finally, the coagulation results showed that the removal efficiency of ZnO, Zn²⁺ and the surfactant in synthetic and wastewaters at optimum ferric chloride (FC) dosage reached around 85–98% and 20–50%, respectively. Coagulation mechanism investigation demonstrated that the cooperation of charge neutralization and adsorptive micellar flocculation (AMF) might play an important role. In summary, this study may provide new insight into the environmental behavior of coexisting ZnO NPs and surfactants in water treatment processes, and it may facilitate their sustainable use in commercial products and processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Wastewater Treatment Systems)

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18 pages, 3097 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Nitrogen Recovery from Wastewater: Possibilities, Competition with Other Resources, and Adaptation Pathways

by Jan Peter Van der Hoek, Rogier Duijff and Otto Reinstra

Sustainability 2018, 10(12), 4605; https://doi.org/10.3390/su10124605 - 05 Dec 2018

Cited by 88 | Viewed by 12184

Abstract

Due to increased food production, the demand for nitrogen and phosphorus as fertilizers grows. Nitrogen-based fertilizers are produced with the Haber–Bosch process through the industrial fixation of N₂ into ammonia. Through wastewater treatment, the nitrogen is finally released back to the atmosphere as N₂ gas. This nitrogen cycle is characterized by drawbacks. The energy requirement is high, and in the wastewater treatment, nitrogen is mainly converted to N₂ gas and lost to the atmosphere. In this study, technologies for nitrogen recovery from wastewater were selected based on four criteria: sustainability (energy use and N₂O emissions), the potential to recover nitrogen in an applicable form, the maturity of the technology, and the nitrogen concentration that can be handled by the technology. As in wastewater treatment, the focus is also on the recovery of other resources; the interactions of nitrogen recovery with biogas production, phosphorus recovery, and cellulose recovery were examined. The mutual interference of the several nitrogen recovery technologies was studied using adaptive policy making. The most promising mature technologies that can be incorporated into existing wastewater treatment plants include struvite precipitation, the treatment of digester reject water by air stripping, vacuum membrane filtration, hydrophobic membrane filtration, and treatment of air from thermal sludge drying, resulting respectively in 1.1%, 24%, 75%, 75%, and 2.1% nitrogen recovery for the specific case wastewater treatment plant Amsterdam-West. The effects on sustainability were limited. Higher nitrogen recovery (60%) could be realized by separate urine collection, but this requires a completely new infrastructure for wastewater collection and treatment. It was concluded that different technologies in parallel are required to reach sustainable solutions. Nitrogen recovery does not interfere with the recovery of the other resources. An adaptation pathways map is a good tool to take into account new developments, uncertainties, and different ambitions when choosing technologies for nitrogen recovery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Wastewater Treatment Systems)

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12 pages, 2763 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Adsorption of Hexavalent Chromium Using Banana Pseudostem Biochar and Its Mechanism

by Shuang Xu, Weiguang Yu, Sen Liu, Congying Xu, Jihui Li and Yucang Zhang

Sustainability 2018, 10(11), 4250; https://doi.org/10.3390/su10114250 - 17 Nov 2018

Cited by 40 | Viewed by 6089

Abstract

A low-cost biochar was prepared through slow pyrolysis of banana pseudostem biowaste at different temperatures, and characterized by surface area and porosity analysis, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). It was shown that the biochar prepared at low pyrolysis temperature was rich in oxygen-containing groups on the surface. Adsorption experiments revealed that the biochar prepared at 300 °C (BB300) was the best adsorbent for Cr(VI) with 125.44 mg/g maximum adsorption capacity at pH 2 and 25 °C. All the adsorption processes were well described by pseudo-second-order and Langmuir models, indicating a monolayer chemiadsorption. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that adsorption of Cr(VI) was mainly attributed to reduction of Cr(VI) to Cr(III) followed by ion exchange and complexation with the biochar. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Wastewater Treatment Systems)

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11 pages, 3094 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Sustainable Exploitation of Coffee Silverskin in Water Remediation

by Angela Malara, Emilia Paone, Patrizia Frontera, Lucio Bonaccorsi, Giuseppe Panzera and Francesco Mauriello

Sustainability 2018, 10(10), 3547; https://doi.org/10.3390/su10103547 - 03 Oct 2018

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 4020

Abstract

Coffee silverskin (CS), the main solid waste produced from the coffee industry, has efficiently been used as adsorbent material to remove potential toxic metals (PTMs). In order to assess its suitability in water remediation, kinetic adsorption experiments of Cu²⁺, Zn²⁺, and Ni²⁺ ions from wastewater were carried out and the adsorption performance of the waste material was compared with that of another well-known waste from coffee industry, spent coffee grounds (SCG). By using CS as sorbent material, ion removal follows the order Cu²⁺ > Zn²⁺ > Ni²⁺ with the adsorption equilibrium occurring after about 20 min. The adsorption efficiency of Ni²⁺ ions is the same for both investigated materials, while Cu²⁺ and Zn²⁺ ions are removed to a lesser extent by using CS. Equilibrium-adsorption data were analyzed using two different isotherm models (Langmuir and Freundlich), demonstrating that monolayer-type adsorption occurs on both CS and SCG surfaces. The overall results support the use of coffee silverskin as a new inexpensive adsorbent material for PTMs from wastewater. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Wastewater Treatment Systems)

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19 pages, 2334 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Nutrient Removal and Resource Recovery on Life Cycle Cost and Environmental Impacts of a Small Scale Water Resource Recovery Facility

by Ben Morelli, Sarah Cashman, Xin (Cissy) Ma, Jay Garland, Jason Turgeon, Lauren Fillmore, Diana Bless and Michael Nye

Sustainability 2018, 10(10), 3546; https://doi.org/10.3390/su10103546 - 03 Oct 2018

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 5277

Abstract

To limit effluent impacts on eutrophication in receiving waterbodies, a small community water resource recovery facility (WRRF) upgraded its conventional activated sludge treatment process for biological nutrient removal, and considered enhanced primary settling and anaerobic digestion (AD) with co-digestion of high strength organic waste (HSOW). The community initiated the resource recovery hub concept with the intention of converting an energy-consuming wastewater treatment plant into a facility that generates energy and nutrients and reuses water. We applied life cycle assessment and life cycle cost assessment to evaluate the net impact of the potential conversion. The upgraded WRRF reduced eutrophication impacts by 40% compared to the legacy system. Other environmental impacts such as global climate change potential (GCCP) and cumulative energy demand (CED) were strongly affected by AD and composting assumptions. The scenario analysis showed that HSOW co-digestion with energy recovery can lead to reductions in GCCP and CED of 7% and 108%, respectively, for the upgraded WRRF (high feedstock-base AD performance scenarios) relative to the legacy system. The cost analysis showed that using the full digester capacity and achieving high digester performance can reduce the life cycle cost of WRRF upgrades by 15% over a 30-year period. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Wastewater Treatment Systems)

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12 pages, 1533 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Advanced Oxidation Processes and Nanofiltration to Reduce the Color and Chemical Oxygen Demand of Waste Soy Sauce

by Hyun-Hee Jang, Gyu-Tae Seo and Dae-Woon Jeong

Sustainability 2018, 10(8), 2929; https://doi.org/10.3390/su10082929 - 17 Aug 2018

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4355

Abstract

Currently, the ozone (O₃) oxidation efficiency in the treatment of waste soy sauce provides 34.2% color removal and a 27.4% reduction in its chemical oxygen demand (COD). To improve the O₃ oxidation efficiency, hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) is used to cause a H₂O₂/O₃ process. In H₂O₂/O₃ process experiments, a previously optimized pH of 11 and applied O₃ dose of 50 mg L⁻¹ were used and the H₂O₂/O₃ ratio was varied between 0.1 and 0.9 in intervals of 0.2. The results show that an H₂O₂/O₃ ratio of 0.3 results in the highest efficiencies in terms of color removal (51.6%) and COD reduction (33.8%). Nanofiltration (NF) was used to pretreat the waste soy sauce to improve color removal and COD reduction. The results showed that NF with an NE-70 membrane results in 80.8% color removal and 79.6% COD reduction. Finally, the combination of NF and H₂O₂/O₃ process resulted in the best treatment efficiency: 98.1% color removal and 98.2% COD reduction. Thus, NF & H₂O₂/O₃ process can be considered as one of the best treatment methods for waste soy sauce, which requires high intrinsic color removal and COD reduction efficiencies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Wastewater Treatment Systems)

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14 pages, 2308 KiB

Open AccessArticle

One-Dimensional Analytical Modeling of Pressure- Retarded Osmosis in a Parallel Flow Configuration for the Desalination Industry in the State of Kuwait

by Bader S. Al-Anzi and Ashly Thomas

Sustainability 2018, 10(4), 1288; https://doi.org/10.3390/su10041288 - 22 Apr 2018

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3301

Abstract

The present study deals with the application of one-dimensional (1D) analytical expressions for a parallel flow configuration in pressure-retarded osmosis (PRO) exchangers by using actual brine and feed salinity values from the Kuwait desalination industry. The 1D expressions are inspired by the effectiveness-number of transfer unit (ε-NTU) method used in heat exchanger analysis and has been developed to “size” an osmotically-driven membrane process (ODMP) mass exchanger given the operating conditions and desired performance. The driving potentials in these mass exchangers are the salinity differences between feed and draw solution. These 1D model equations are employed to determine mass transfer units (MTU) as a function of different dimensionless groups such as mass flowrate ratio (MR), recovery ratio (RR), concentration factors (CF) and effectiveness (ε). The introduction of new dimensionless groups such as the dilution rate ratio (DRR) and dilution rate (DR) would be used to relate the actual water permeation to the brine draw stream. The results show that a maximum power of 0.28 and 2.6 kJ can be produced by the PRO system using seawater or treated wastewater effluent (TWE) as the feed solution, respectively, which might be able to reduce the power consumption of the desalination industry in Kuwait. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Wastewater Treatment Systems)

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Review

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19 pages, 1484 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Sustainable Management and Successful Application of Constructed Wetlands: A Critical Review

by Angela Gorgoglione and Vincenzo Torretta

Sustainability 2018, 10(11), 3910; https://doi.org/10.3390/su10113910 - 27 Oct 2018

Cited by 91 | Viewed by 9182

Abstract

Constructed wetlands (CWs) are affordable and reliable green technologies for the treatment of various types of wastewater. Compared to conventional treatment systems, CWs offer an environmental-friendly approach, are low cost, have fewer operational and maintenance requirements, and have a high potential for being applied in developing countries; particularly in small rural communities. However, the sustainable management and successful application of these systems remain a challenge. Therefore, after briefly giving basic information on wetlands and summarizing the classification and use of current CWs, this study aims to provide sustainable solutions for the performance and applications of CWs. To accomplish this objective, design and management parameters of CWs, including macrophyte species, media types, water level, hydraulic retention time (HRT), and hydraulic loading rate (HLR), are discussed. The current study collects and presents results of more than 120 case studies from around the world. This work provides a tool for researchers and decision-makers for using CWs to treat wastewater in a particular area. This study presents an aid for informed analysis, decision-making, and communication. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Wastewater Treatment Systems)

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