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Health Risks of Alternative Water Sources

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A special issue of Water (ISSN 2073-4441). This special issue belongs to the section "Water and One Health".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 May 2019) | Viewed by 49920

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Warish Ahmed

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Guest Editor

CSIRO Land and Water, Ecosciences Precinct, 41 Boggo Road, Dutton Park, QLD 4102, Australia
Interests: identifying the microbial composition of water resources using next generation sequencing; tracking the sources of faecal pollution in environmental waters using rapid molecular based methods; development and evaluation of microbial methods for the detection and quantification of pathogens in water; quantitative microbial risk assessment; roof-harvested rainwater and recreational water quality; novel techniques for pathogen detection/quantification
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Kerry Hamilton

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Guest Editor

The Biodesign Institute, School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, USA
Interests: pathogen detection in environmental media; quantitative microbial risk assessment; data analysis and modelling

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

We invite you to submit your latest research findings showing progress in health risks of alternative water sources to a Special Issue in Water (ISSN 2073-4441)—an open access journal (https://www.mdpi.com/journal/water).

Traditionally, the focus of water and sanitation efforts has been on securing access to treated, centralized water systems using surface water or groundwater supplies. However, increasing water scarcity and pressures on source water supplies due to climate variability, population growth, and economic development have led to a greater reliance on alternative and decentralized water resources to augment these supplies. The use of alternative water supplies, such as reclaimed water, rainwater, grey water, black water, and stormwater, can provide benefits in terms of sustainability, nutrient recovery, energy efficiency, and cost. However, due to their increasingly widespread use, it is warranted to examine potential health risks in order to guide management practices and encourage responsible design and use of these resources. This Special Issue aims to bring together recent research on contaminant occurrence in alternative water supplies, mathematical modeling of predictive factors relating to contaminant occurrence and transport, and the potential health risks. We encourage submissions reporting findings on physical-chemical or microbiological testing of the alternative or decentralized water sources mentioned, as well as risk assessments for exposures via intentional potable and non-potable uses, as well as unintentional exposures. We especially welcome submissions that explore and prioritize driving factors in contaminant occurrence and risk.

Dr. Warish Ahmed
Dr. Kerry Hamilton
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Water is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

Alternative water resources
Decentralized water resources
Sustainable water resources
Contaminant occurrence
Chemicals, metals, and microbiological contaminants
Contaminant fate and transport
Risk assessment

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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15 pages, 651 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reverse QMRA as a Decision Support Tool: Setting Acceptable Concentration Limits for Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Naegleria fowleri

by Md Rasheduzzaman, Rajveer Singh, Charles N. Haas, Dienye Tolofari, Hamed Yassaghi, Kerry A. Hamilton, Zhao Yang and Patrick L. Gurian

Water 2019, 11(9), 1850; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11091850 - 05 Sep 2019

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 4478 | Correction

Abstract

Opportunistic premise plumbing pathogens such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Naegleria fowleri are a growing concern in building water systems because of their potential risks to human health. The aim of this study was to determine the critical concentrations of P. aeruginosa and N. fowleri in water that are associated with meaningful public health risks. To determine these concentrations, a reverse quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) was conducted. Environmental concentrations of P. aeruginosa and N. fowleri corresponding to the risk target of one micro-disability-adjusted life year (DALY) per person per year and 10⁻⁴ annual risks of illness were calculated for several applicable exposure scenarios. To calculate the concentration of P. aeruginosa, cleaning contact lenses with potentially contaminated tap water in the absence of an appropriate cleaning solution was considered. For N. fowleri, two exposure scenarios, recreational exposure (swimming) and nasal cleansing (via the use of a neti pot™ or similar device) were considered. The highest critical concentration for P. aeruginosa was found to be 33 CFU/L with a 95% confidence interval of (2.0, 118) for the drop exposure scenario using the 10⁻⁴ annual risk target. For N. fowleri, based on the DALY approach, critical concentrations were 0.000030 N. fowleri/L for swimming and 0.00000060 N. fowleri/L for neti pot™ use scenario. Considering heat inactivation, the critical concentration limits for P. aeruginosa using the DALY approach and the 10⁻⁴ annual risk target approach were found to be 0.55 CFU/L and 55 CFU/L, respectively. For N. fowleri, the 10⁻⁴ annual risk target approach resulted in 0.022 N. fowleri/L and the DALY approach resulted in 0.00000064 N. fowleri/L for the neti pot™ scenario. For P. aeruginosa, N₅₀ (the median infective dose) and alpha (α) contributed the most and contact rates the least to the variability and uncertainty of the estimates for all the scenarios. For N. fowleri, N₅₀ and contact rates contributed the most and α the least to the variability and uncertainty to calculate the concentrations for all the scenarios. The QMRA framework implemented in this research can be used to incorporate more information regarding opportunistic pathogens to inform management decisions, and to prioritize the best interventions regarding estimated reduction in infections caused by opportunistic pathogens. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health Risks of Alternative Water Sources)

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11 pages, 1700 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Legionella pneumophila as a Health Hazard to Miners: A Pilot Study of Water Quality and QMRA

by Valerie Madera-García, Alexis L. Mraz, Nicolás López-Gálvez, Mark H. Weir, James Werner, Paloma I. Beamer and Marc P. Verhougstraete

Water 2019, 11(8), 1528; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11081528 - 24 Jul 2019

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3783

Abstract

Legionella pneumophila (L. pneumophila), the causative agent of legionellosis, is an aquatic bacterium that grows in warm water. Humans are only presented with a health risk when aerosolized water containing L. pneumophila is inhaled. In mining operations, aerosolized water is used as dust control and as part of the drilling operations, a currently ignored exposure route. This study characterized L. pneumophila concentrations in the mine’s non-potable water and the relationship between L. pneumophila and chlorine concentrations. These concentrations informed a quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) model to estimate the infection risk to miners exposed to aerosolized water containing L. pneumophila. Fourteen water samples were collected from seven locations at a mine and analyzed for temperature, pH, chlorine, and L. pneumophila serogroup. Most samples (93%) tested positive for L. pneumophila cells. The faucet from the sprinkler system on the adit level (entrance to the underground mine levels) showed the highest concentration of L. pneumophila (8.35 × 10⁴ MPN/L). Disability adjusted life years (DALYs) were estimated in the QMRA model and showed that the risk for all miners was significantly lower (p < 0.0001) with the ventilation system on than when the system was off. Our study showed that the use of a ventilation system at the adit level of the mine reduced the risk of infection with aerosolized L. pneumophila. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health Risks of Alternative Water Sources)

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14 pages, 2288 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Human Health Impact of Cross-Connections in Non-Potable Reuse Systems

by Mary E. Schoen, Michael A. Jahne and Jay L. Garland

Water 2018, 10(10), 1352; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10101352 - 28 Sep 2018

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3618

Abstract

We used quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) to estimate the microbial risks from two contamination pathways in onsite non-potable water systems (ONWS): contamination of potable water by (treated) reclaimed, non-potable water and contamination of reclaimed, non-potable water by wastewater or greywater. A range of system sizes, event durations, fraction of users exposed, and intrusion dilutions were considered (chlorine residual disinfection was not included). The predicted annual microbial infection risk from domestic, non-potable reuse remained below the selected benchmark given isolated, short-duration intrusion (i.e., 5-day) events of reclaimed water in potable water. Whereas, intrusions of wastewater into reclaimed, non-potable water resulted in unacceptable annual risk without large dilutions or pathogen inactivation. We predicted that 1 user out of 10,000 could be exposed to a 5-day contamination event of undiluted wastewater in the reclaimed, non-potable water system each year to meet the annual benchmark risk of 10⁻⁴ infections per person per year; whereas, 1 user out of 1000 could be exposed to a 5-day contamination event of undiluted reclaimed water in the potable water each year. Overall, the predicted annual risks support the use of previously derived non-potable reuse treatment requirements for a variety of ONWS sizes and support the prioritization of protective measures to prevent the intrusion of wastewater into domestic ONWS. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health Risks of Alternative Water Sources)

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20 pages, 3080 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing the Risk of Phthalate Ester (PAE) Contamination in Soils and Crops Irrigated with Treated Sewage Effluent

by Yan Li, Guanhua Huang, Hua Gu, Quanzhong Huang, Chunhua Lou, Lei Zhang and Honglu Liu

Water 2018, 10(8), 999; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10080999 - 28 Jul 2018

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 3765

Abstract

Waste/reclaimed irrigation water has been promoted due to water shortages in arid and semi-arid areas. However, this process may be one of the sources of phthalate esters (PAEs) in agricultural soils, and the potential risks of PAEs for soil ecosystems and human health have attracted considerable attention. A two-year (from October 2014 to October 2016) field experiment was conducted to assess the contamination risk of PAEs from reclaimed irrigation water in winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and summer maize (Zea mays L.) fields on the North China Plain. Three types of irrigation water quality were arranged for each variety, including reclaimed water, groundwater, and a mixture of reclaimed water and groundwater (1:1, v/v). The results indicate that the concentrations of the 6 PAEs in topsoil ranged from 2.79 to 5.34 mg/kg at the time of crop harvest. There was no significant effect of reclaimed irrigation water on the concentrations of PAEs in the soil. Di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP) and di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) were the most abundant contaminants in all soil samples, accounting for 43.2%~68.7% and 27.1%~48.6%, respectively, of the 6 PAEs. The levels of dimethyl phthalate (DMP) and DnBP in all soil samples exceeded the allowable soil concentrations, but the levels were far below the recommended soil cleanup objectives. The grain yields of winter wheat and summer maize ranged from 4.35 to 7.1 t/ha and 1.03 to 6.46 t/ha, respectively. There were no significant effects of reclaimed water on the growth characteristics and grain yield of winter wheat (p > 0.05); however, the effect of reclaimed irrigation water on summer maize was influenced by climate. The concentrations of the 6 PAEs in wheat grain and maize grain ranged from 1.03 to 4.05 mg/kg and from 0.37 to 3.29 mg/kg, respectively. For the same variety, there was no significant difference in the concentrations of the 6 PAEs in cereal grains among different treatments (p > 0.05). DEHP and DnBP were the most abundant components in most crop samples, accounting for 31.6%~77.9% and 21.1%~64.7%, respectively, of the 6 PAEs. The concentrations of the PAEs, DnBP and DEHP in cereal grains were lower than those in the reference doses. The BCFs of the 6 PAEs and of each PAE in cereal grains were 0.43~1.25 and 0.33~35.75, respectively. The BCFs of butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP) were the highest (1.41~35.75), followed by DMP and DEHP. There were almost no significant differences in the BCFs of each PAE among the three treatments. The total carcinogenic risks of PAEs were 2.82 × 10⁻⁵ for adults and 1.81 × 10⁻⁵ for children. The total non-carcinogenic risks of PAEs were 3.37 × 10⁻¹ for adults and 7.98 × 10⁻¹ for children. DHEP was the dominant contributor to both risks, and the intake of cereals was the main exposure pathway for the two risks. In conclusion, there were no significant effects of reclaimed irrigation water on the concentrations of PAEs in soil and cereal grains compared with groundwater irrigation, and the human health risks were within the acceptable range. Long-term studies are needed to evaluate the long-term effects of reclaimed irrigation water on the contamination risk posed by PAEs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health Risks of Alternative Water Sources)

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12 pages, 901 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Detection of Infectious Noroviruses from Wastewater and Seawater Using PEMAX^TM Treatment Combined with RT-qPCR

by Pradip Gyawali and Joanne Hewitt

Water 2018, 10(7), 841; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10070841 - 25 Jun 2018

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5877

Abstract

Rapid detection of infectious noroviruses from environmental samples is essential to minimize the risk of norovirus outbreaks associated with environmental transmission. Reverse transcription quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) methods are rapid and sensitive, but cannot differentiate between infectious and non-infectious noroviruses. In this study, a PEMAX^TM treatment followed by RT-qPCR (PEMAX^TM-RT-qPCR) method was developed for murine norovirus and norovirus GI/GII, and evaluated for the selective detection of infectious viruses following heat inactivation. The norovirus PEMAX^TM-RT-qPCR method was then evaluated for the selective detection of infectious viruses from environmental samples. Following heat-treatment (90 °C for 3 min), the murine norovirus PEMAX^TM-RT-qPCR showed at least a 2.04 log₁₀ reduction in detectable virus, compared to a 0.43 log₁₀ reduction for RT-qPCR alone. Under the same conditions, the norovirus PEMAX^TM-RT-qPCR showed a 0.34 to 0.98 log₁₀ (GI.3) and 0.63 to 2.06 log₁₀ (GII.4) reduction in detectable viruses, compared to 0.05 to 0.18 log₁₀ (GI.3) and 0.06 to 0.25 log₁₀ (GII.4) for RT-qPCR alone. Evaluation of the norovirus PEMAX^TM-RT-qPCR on norovirus-contaminated influent and effluent wastewater, and seawater indicated a high proportion of non-infectious norovirus GI and GII (i.e., 56 to 100% in seawater, 32 to 76% in effluent, and 11 to 79% in influent) was present in samples. While potentially overestimating the amount of infectious noroviruses, this approach has potential to provide better information on viral infectivity than RT-qPCR alone. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health Risks of Alternative Water Sources)

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14 pages, 1934 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Assessment of the Microbiological Water Quality of Sand Dams in Southeastern Kenya

by Ruth Quinn, Orlando Avis, Manon Decker, Alison Parker and Sandy Cairncross

Water 2018, 10(6), 708; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10060708 - 31 May 2018

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 8969

Abstract

Sand-storage dams have proven to be a successful water harvesting method and potential solution to water and food security issues in semi-arid regions such as south east Kenya. This paper examines the microbiological quality of water both contained in the sand dam via test holes and abstracted from it through covered wells and scoop holes. In total, the values of thermotolerant coliform (TTC) concentration, turbidity, and pH are presented for 47 covered wells, 36 scoop holes, and 29 test holes, as well as the conductivity values in conductivity in 39 covered wells and 11 scoop holes. The water from test holes and covered wells was microbiologically of better quality than the scoop holes with median TTC levels of 0/100 mL and 159/100 mL respectively. However, the median values of turbidity for both scoop holes (20–30 NTU) and covered wells (5–10 NTU) exceed the World Health Organisation (WHO) guideline values. In addition the conductivity of water from 23% of scoop holes and 26% of covered wells is above the recommended WHO limit. This study also found that sanitary surveys are not a useful indicator of water quality in sand dams; however, they can identify areas in which sanitation and improvement of water sources are needed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health Risks of Alternative Water Sources)

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13 pages, 1625 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploratory Assessment of Risks from Drinking and Recreational Water Exposure to Children in the State of New Jersey

by Brandon M. Owen and Neha Sunger

Water 2018, 10(3), 276; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10030276 - 06 Mar 2018

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3588

Abstract

In this study, we conducted a worst-case risk assessment for children’s health from ingestion exposure to water sources in two densely populated counties of the Piedmont province of New Jersey—Hunterdon and Mercer counties. Carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic health risk estimates for 19 contaminants, representing 3 different chemical classes—organic, inorganic and contaminants of emerging concern (CEC), for which environmental monitoring data are available—were generated. The three exposure scenarios examined were: (1) ingestion exposure to untreated groundwater from contaminated private wells; (2) recreational exposure through incidental ingestion of water from the Delaware River; and (3) ingestion exposure through fish consumption sourced from the Delaware River. The total health hazard posed by each contaminant across all the three exposure scenarios was compared to prioritize contaminants based on health risk potential. As a result of this analysis, arsenic and trichloroethylene in private well water were identified as key drivers of health risk and, hence, are proposed as the contaminants of primary concern for the target population. Significantly high total excess cancer risk of 2.13 × 10⁻³ from arsenic exposure was estimated, highlighting the need for testing and treating water sources as well as setting a framework for more detailed work in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health Risks of Alternative Water Sources)

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15 pages, 1330 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Water Quality in Roof-Harvested Rainwater Barrels in Greater Philadelphia

by Kerry A. Hamilton, Kerrianne Parrish, Warish Ahmed and Charles N. Haas

Water 2018, 10(2), 92; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10020092 - 24 Jan 2018

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5898

Abstract

A study of water quality parameters was conducted in 38 small-scale roof-harvested rainwater barrels (RHRB) located in urban and peri-urban Philadelphia, USA in winter (November–December) 2014 and summer (June–August 2016). Parameters included two fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) (Escherichia coli and Enterococcus spp.) measured using culture-based methods, eight potential enteric and opportunistic pathogens (Campylobacter jejuni, Acanthamoeba spp., Legionella spp., L. pneumophila, Naegleria fowleri, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Mycobacterium avium and Mycobacterium intracellulare) measured using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), and two metals (lead and zinc) using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Fecal indicator bacteria were detected in greater than 60% RHRB samples and concentrations (up to >10³ per 100 mL) exceeded US Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) irrigation water quality standards. Among the enteric and opportunistic pathogens tested, 57.9, 44.7, 21.1, 18.4, 5 and 3% were PCR positive for Legionella spp., M. intracellulare, M. avium, Acanthamoeba spp., P. aeruginosa, and C. jejuni, respectively. N. fowleri and L. pneumophila were not detected in any sample. The concentrations of enteric and opportunistic pathogens ranged from 10² to 10⁷ gene copies/L of barrel water. Lead and zinc were each observed in 88.5% of RHRB but the concentrations did not exceed US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) standards for irrigating produce, with the exception of one zinc observation (2660 µg/L). Based on these data, it appears that the risk associated with metals in RHRB is likely to be low, as these barrels are only used for gardening and non-potable purposes. However, risks due to fecal and opportunistic pathogens may be higher due to exposure to aerosols during gardening activities and produce consumed raw, and should be investigated further. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health Risks of Alternative Water Sources)

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19 pages, 714 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Knowledge to Predict Pathogens: Legionella pneumophila Lifecycle Critical Review Part I Uptake into Host Cells

by Alexis L. Mraz and Mark H. Weir

Water 2018, 10(2), 132; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10020132 - 31 Jan 2018

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 7221

Abstract

Legionella pneumophila (L. pneumophila) is an infectious disease agent of increasing concern due to its ability to cause Legionnaires’ Disease, a severe community pneumonia, and the difficulty in controlling it within water systems. L. pneumophila thrives within the biofilm of premise plumbing systems, utilizing protozoan hosts for protection from disinfectants and other environmental stressors. While there is a great deal of information regarding how L. pneumophila interacts with protozoa and human macrophages (host for human infection), the ability to use this data in a model to attempt to predict a concentration of L. pneumophila in a water system is not known. The lifecycle of L. pneumophila within host cells involves three processes: uptake, growth, and egression from the host cell. The complexity of these three processes would risk conflation of the concepts; therefore, this review details the available information regarding how L. pneumophila invades host cells (uptake) within the context of data needed to model this process, while a second review will focus on growth and egression. The overall intent of both reviews is to detail how the steps in L. pneumophila’s lifecycle in drinking water systems affect human infectivity, as opposed to detailing just its growth and persistence in drinking water systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health Risks of Alternative Water Sources)

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4 pages, 177 KiB

Open AccessCorrection

Correction: Rasheduzzaman, M., et al. Reverse QMRA as a Decision Support Tool: Setting Acceptable Concentration Limits for Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Naegleria fowleri. Water 2019, 11, 1850

by Md Rasheduzzaman, Rajveer Singh, Charles N. Haas, Dienye Tolofari, Hamed Yassaghi, Kerry A. Hamilton, Zhao Yang and Patrick L. Gurian

Water 2019, 11(12), 2523; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11122523 - 28 Nov 2019

Viewed by 1932

Abstract

The authors regret to report that the paper “Reverse QMRA as a Decision Support Tool: Setting Acceptable Concentration Limits for Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Naegleria fowleri” contains some erroneous computations [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health Risks of Alternative Water Sources)

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