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Water-Induced Landslides: Prediction and Control
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Water-Induced Landslides: Prediction and Control

A special issue of Water (ISSN 2073-4441). This special issue belongs to the section "Hydrology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (22 December 2020) | Viewed by 73630

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Antonello Troncone

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Calabria, Via P. Bucci, Cubo 44/B, I-87036 Rende, CS, Italy
Interests: soil mechanics; numerical analysis; slope stability; landslides
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Enrico Conte

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Civile, Università della Calabria, Via P. Bucci, cubo 44b, 87036 Rende (Cosenza), Italy
Interests: soil mechanics; foundations; slope stability; landslides
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The topic of this Special Issue, "Water-Induced Landslides: Prediction and Control", will be of great interest for many practical and scientific reasons. In fact, in many countries, landslides represent one of the major natural threats for the security of people, infrastructure, lifelines, and economic activities. Water is a primary cause of landslides, which can occur owing to intense rainfall, snowmelt, changes in groundwater level in slopes, and changes in water level of water reservoirs at the base of natural or artificial slopes, and along coastlines. These triggered factors, along with the properties of the involved soils, considerably affect the mechanical processes that lead to slope failure and the subsequent movements of landslide mass in the post-failure phase. For example, prolonged and extremely-intense rainfall could cause catastrophic and fast movement of rock and soil masses. Therefore, water plays a critical role in the study of landslides and the water–slope interaction should be investigated in detail.

Contributions concerning case studies and methods for slope stability analysis will be welcome for the present Special Issue. In particular, papers focused on the following topics: Rainfall-induced landslides, landslides activated by groundwater fluctuations, drainage systems for the slope stabilization and methods for their design, development of new monitoring techniques and nowcasting models for early warning systems, will be much appreciated.

Prof. Dr. Antonello Troncone
Prof. Dr. Enrico Conte
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Water is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Landslides
  • slope stability
  • water seepage
  • rain infiltration
  • groundwater level
  • analysis methods
  • drainage measures
  • monitoring

Published Papers (19 papers)

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Editorial

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3 pages, 178 KiB  
Editorial
Editorial for the Special Issue “Water-Induced Landslides: Prediction and Control”
by Antonello Troncone and Enrico Conte
Water 2021, 13(5), 624; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13050624 - 27 Feb 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1596
Abstract
The Special Issue “Water-Induced Landslides: Prediction and Control” [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water-Induced Landslides: Prediction and Control)

Research

Jump to: Editorial

25 pages, 4989 KiB  
Article
A Data-Driven Surrogate Approach for the Temporal Stability Forecasting of Vegetation Covered Dikes
by Elahe Jamalinia, Faraz S. Tehrani, Susan C. Steele-Dunne and Philip J. Vardon
Water 2021, 13(1), 107; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13010107 - 05 Jan 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2604
Abstract
Climatic conditions and vegetation cover influence water flux in a dike, and potentially the dike stability. A comprehensive numerical simulation is computationally too expensive to be used for the near real-time analysis of a dike network. Therefore, this study investigates a random forest [...] Read more.
Climatic conditions and vegetation cover influence water flux in a dike, and potentially the dike stability. A comprehensive numerical simulation is computationally too expensive to be used for the near real-time analysis of a dike network. Therefore, this study investigates a random forest (RF) regressor to build a data-driven surrogate for a numerical model to forecast the temporal macro-stability of dikes. To that end, daily inputs and outputs of a ten-year coupled numerical simulation of an idealised dike (2009–2019) are used to create a synthetic data set, comprising features that can be observed from a dike surface, with the calculated factor of safety (FoS) as the target variable. The data set before 2018 is split into training and testing sets to build and train the RF. The predicted FoS is strongly correlated with the numerical FoS for data that belong to the test set (before 2018). However, the trained model shows lower performance for data in the evaluation set (after 2018) if further surface cracking occurs. This proof-of-concept shows that a data-driven surrogate can be used to determine dike stability for conditions similar to the training data, which could be used to identify vulnerable locations in a dike network for further examination. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water-Induced Landslides: Prediction and Control)
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14 pages, 7495 KiB  
Article
Effect of Soaking Time and Salt Concentration on Mechanical Characteristics of Slip Zone Soil of Loess Landslides
by Chen Xue, Xingang Wang and Kai Liu
Water 2020, 12(12), 3465; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12123465 - 09 Dec 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2284
Abstract
Loess landslides are closely related to the variation in mechanical properties of soils due to the leaching of irrigation water in the irrigation area which causes the loss of soluble salt in the loess stratum. To investigate the effect of leaching on the [...] Read more.
Loess landslides are closely related to the variation in mechanical properties of soils due to the leaching of irrigation water in the irrigation area which causes the loss of soluble salt in the loess stratum. To investigate the effect of leaching on the mechanical characteristics of loess, ring shear tests were conducted on the slip zone soil samples obtained from a typical loess landslide under different soaking time and salt concentration. Furthermore, the microstructural observations were made on shear planes by using SEM (scanning electron microscopy) tests. The experiment revealed that: firstly, the shear strength of loess decreases with the increase of soaking time before reaching the minimum value at the soaking time of 1 d, and then increases with the soaking time until reaching a relatively stable value. Secondly, the shear strength of loess has an increasing tendency with the salt concentration before reaching a maximum value at the salt concentration of 8%, and then shear strength decreases. In addition, a “stress-softening” was found for the loess samples with the soaking time of 1 d and salt concentration of 8%. It is found that the total number of micropores and small-pores in loess samples decreases with increasing salt concentration up to 8%, but increases rapidly between salt contents of 8% and 20%. The SEM tests showed that the increase in salt concentration (0% to 8%) facilities the formation of small aggregates within loess soils, which in turn promotes the increasing of shear strength. However, further increase in salt concentration (8% to 20%) helps the development of relatively large aggregates in loess samples, resulting in the reduction in shear strength. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water-Induced Landslides: Prediction and Control)
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22 pages, 4945 KiB  
Article
Rainfall Induced Landslide Susceptibility Mapping Based on Bayesian Optimized Random Forest and Gradient Boosting Decision Tree Models—A Case Study of Shuicheng County, China
by Guangzhi Rong, Si Alu, Kaiwei Li, Yulin Su, Jiquan Zhang, Yichen Zhang and Tiantao Li
Water 2020, 12(11), 3066; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12113066 - 02 Nov 2020
Cited by 50 | Viewed by 3699
Abstract
Among the most frequent and dangerous natural hazards, landslides often result in huge casualties and economic losses. Landslide susceptibility mapping (LSM) is an excellent approach for protecting and reducing the risks by landslides. This study aims to explore the performance of Bayesian optimization [...] Read more.
Among the most frequent and dangerous natural hazards, landslides often result in huge casualties and economic losses. Landslide susceptibility mapping (LSM) is an excellent approach for protecting and reducing the risks by landslides. This study aims to explore the performance of Bayesian optimization (BO) in the random forest (RF) and gradient boosting decision tree (GBDT) model for LSM and applied in Shuicheng County, China. Multiple data sources are used to obtain 17 conditioning factors of landslides, Borderline-SMOTE and Randomundersample methods are combined to solve the imbalanced sample problem. RF and GBDT models before and after BO are adopted to calculate the susceptibility value of landslides and produce LSMs and these models were compared and evaluated using multiple validation approach. The results demonstrated that the models we proposed all have high enough model accuracy to be applied to produce LSM, the performance of the RF is better than the GBDT model without BO, while after adopting the Bayesian optimized hyperparameters, the prediction accuracy of the RF and GBDT models is improved by 1% and 7%, respectively and the Bayesian optimized GBDT model is the best for LSM in this four models. In summary, the Bayesian optimized RF and GBDT models, especially the GBDT model we proposed for landslide susceptibility assessment and LSM construction has a very good application performance and development prospects. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water-Induced Landslides: Prediction and Control)
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17 pages, 14323 KiB  
Article
Effect of Soluble Salt Loss via Spring Water on Irrigation-Induced Landslide Deformation
by Zonglin Zhang, Runqiang Zeng, Xingmin Meng, Yi Zhang, Shufen Zhao, Jianhua Ma and Yunqi Yao
Water 2020, 12(10), 2889; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12102889 - 16 Oct 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2286
Abstract
Landslide exposes the previously blocked groundwater discharge. High concentrations of soluble salt form salt sinters that can be observed near discharge passages. Based on existing laboratory investigation results of soil leaching and shearing reported in the literature, the effect of the soluble salt [...] Read more.
Landslide exposes the previously blocked groundwater discharge. High concentrations of soluble salt form salt sinters that can be observed near discharge passages. Based on existing laboratory investigation results of soil leaching and shearing reported in the literature, the effect of the soluble salt loss via spring water on irrigation-induced landslide deformation was studied under large-scale conditions. During our field investigation of landslides in the Heitai terrace of the Yellow River’s upper reaches in Gansu Province, China, 35 spring outlets were found, and the Heitai terrace was divided into five subareas, based on the difference in spring flow. Deformation data for the terrace were obtained by small baseline subset technology (SBAS-InSAR). These data were analyzed in combination with the amount of soluble salt loss, to explore the correlation between the deformation of the landslide and the soluble salt loss in the loess irrigation area. The results showed that the cumulative deformation and the loss of soluble salt were increasing continuously in the terrace. Although the increasing intensity of each subarea was different, the changing intensity of the two during the corresponding monitoring period was highly consistent. The statistical analysis revealed a strong positive correlation between the accumulated loss of soluble salt via spring water and the accumulated displacement of the terrace edge (p < 0.01). After the slope k between the two was tested by the Grubbs test and t-test, the k was no abnormality (α = 0.05) and difference (Sig > 0.05), further providing the basis for confirming the existence of this positive correlation. When the loss of soluble salt in rock and soil increased gradually, the accumulated deformation of the terrace edge also increased continuously. The findings of this study are of great significance for understanding the formation mechanism of landslides and the identifying landslide revival in irrigation areas of the Loess Plateau. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water-Induced Landslides: Prediction and Control)
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13 pages, 7225 KiB  
Article
Run-Out Simulation of a Landslide Triggered by an Increase in the Groundwater Level Using the Material Point Method
by Antonello Troncone, Luigi Pugliese and Enrico Conte
Water 2020, 12(10), 2817; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12102817 - 11 Oct 2020
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3504
Abstract
Deformation mechanisms of the slopes are commonly schematized in four different stages: pre-failure, failure, post-failure and eventual reactivation. Traditional numerical methods, such as the finite element method and the finite difference method, are commonly employed to analyse the slope response in the pre-failure [...] Read more.
Deformation mechanisms of the slopes are commonly schematized in four different stages: pre-failure, failure, post-failure and eventual reactivation. Traditional numerical methods, such as the finite element method and the finite difference method, are commonly employed to analyse the slope response in the pre-failure and failure stages under the assumption of small deformations. On the other hand, these methods are generally unsuitable for simulating the post-failure behaviour due to the occurrence of large deformations that often characterize this stage. The material point method (MPM) is one of the available numerical techniques capable of overcoming this limitation. In this paper, MPM is employed to analyse the post-failure stage of a landslide that occurred at Cook Lake (WY, USA) in 1997, after a long rainy period. Accuracy of the method is assessed by comparing the final geometry of the displaced material detected just after the event, to that provided by the numerical simulation. A satisfactory agreement is obtained between prediction and observation when an increase in the groundwater level due to rainfall is accounted for in the analysis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water-Induced Landslides: Prediction and Control)
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24 pages, 9198 KiB  
Article
Formation of Clay-Rich Layers at The Slip Surface of Slope Instabilities: The Role of Groundwater
by Julia Castro, Maria P. Asta, Jorge P. Galve and José Miguel Azañón
Water 2020, 12(9), 2639; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12092639 - 21 Sep 2020
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4535
Abstract
Some landslides around the world that have low-angle failure planes show exceptionally poor mechanical properties. In some cases, an extraordinarily pure clay layer has been detected on the rupture surface. In this work, a complex landslide, the so-called Diezma landslide, is investigated in [...] Read more.
Some landslides around the world that have low-angle failure planes show exceptionally poor mechanical properties. In some cases, an extraordinarily pure clay layer has been detected on the rupture surface. In this work, a complex landslide, the so-called Diezma landslide, is investigated in a low- to moderate-relief region of Southeast Spain. In this landslide, movement was concentrated on several surfaces that developed on a centimeter-thick layer of smectite (montmorillonite-beidellite) clay-rich level. Since these clayey levels have a very low permeability, high plasticity, and low friction angle, they control the stability of the entire slide mass. Specifically, the triggering factor of this landslide seems to be linked to the infiltration of water from a karstic aquifer located in the head area. The circulation of water through old failure planes could have promoted the active hydrolysis of marly soils to produce new smectite clay minerals. Here, by using geophysical, mineralogical, and geochemical modelling methods, we reveal that the formation and dissolution of carbonates, sulfates, and clay minerals in the Diezma landslide could explain the elevated concentrations of highly plastic secondary clays in its slip surface. This study may help in the understanding of landslides that show secondary clay layers coinciding to their low-angle failure planes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water-Induced Landslides: Prediction and Control)
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Graphical abstract

25 pages, 7076 KiB  
Article
Hazard Mapping of the Rainfall–Landslides Disaster Chain Based on GeoDetector and Bayesian Network Models in Shuicheng County, China
by Guangzhi Rong, Kaiwei Li, Lina Han, Si Alu, Jiquan Zhang and Yichen Zhang
Water 2020, 12(9), 2572; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12092572 - 15 Sep 2020
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 3477
Abstract
Landslides are among the most frequent natural hazards in the world. Rainfall is an important triggering factor for landslides and is responsible for topples, slides, and debris flows—three of the most important types of landslides. However, several previous relevant research studies covered general [...] Read more.
Landslides are among the most frequent natural hazards in the world. Rainfall is an important triggering factor for landslides and is responsible for topples, slides, and debris flows—three of the most important types of landslides. However, several previous relevant research studies covered general landslides and neglected the rainfall–topples–slides–debris flows disaster chain. Since landslide hazard mapping (LHM) is a critical tool for disaster prevention and mitigation, this study aimed to build a GeoDetector and Bayesian network (BN) model framework for LHM in Shuicheng County, China, to address these geohazards. The GeoDetector model will be used to screen factors, eliminate redundant information, and discuss the interaction between elements, while the BN model will be used for constructing a causality disaster chain network to determine the probability and risk level of the three types of landslides. The practicability of the BN model was confirmed by error rate and scoring rules validation. The prediction accuracy results were tested using overall accuracy, Matthews correlation coefficient, relative operating characteristics curve, and seed cell area index. The proposed framework is demonstrated to be sufficiently accurate to construct the complex LHM. In summary, the combination of the GeoDetector and BN model is very promising for spatial prediction of landslides. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water-Induced Landslides: Prediction and Control)
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16 pages, 5716 KiB  
Article
A Nonlinear Creep Damage Model Considering the Effect of Dry-Wet Cycles of Rocks on Reservoir Bank Slopes
by Xingang Wang, Baoqin Lian and Wenkai Feng
Water 2020, 12(9), 2396; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12092396 - 26 Aug 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1839
Abstract
Water has a crucial effect on the time-dependent behavior of rocks. The long-term cyclical fluctuations of reservoir water level lead to dry–wet (DW) cycles of rocks on reservoir bank slopes, making this influential factor more complex. To deeply understand the time-dependent behavior of [...] Read more.
Water has a crucial effect on the time-dependent behavior of rocks. The long-term cyclical fluctuations of reservoir water level lead to dry–wet (DW) cycles of rocks on reservoir bank slopes, making this influential factor more complex. To deeply understand the time-dependent behavior of rocks under DW cycles, argillite from the reservoir bank slope of Longtan Hydropower Station was used to perform a series of triaxial creep tests. Subsequently, based on analysis of creep test results after different DW cycles, a damage nonlinear Burgers viscoelastic-plastic (DNBVP) model considering the effect of saturation–dehydration cycles was proposed by introducing a nonlinear viscoplastic body and a damage variable describing DW cycles. Then, the three-dimensional creep equations of the new model were derived and its creep parameters were identified. Comparison between the theoretical curves and the test results shows that the theoretical curves of the DNBVP model were able to describe rock creep tests results after different DW cycles. Furthermore, by comparing classical creep models with the proposed model, it was found that the DNBVP model can accurately reflect the nonlinear characteristics of rocks at the accelerated creep stage. Finally, the sensitivity of the DNBVP model was analyzed and discussed, and three-dimensional central difference expressions necessary for secondary development of the new model were also derived in detail. The proposed new model with secondary development may provide a basis for improving the geotechnical design of reservoir bank slopes and the control of reservoir bank landslides. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water-Induced Landslides: Prediction and Control)
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24 pages, 11505 KiB  
Article
Topographic Effects on Three-Dimensional Slope Stability for Fluctuating Water Conditions Using Numerical Analysis
by Yue Zhou, Shun-Chao Qi, Gang Fan, Ming-Liang Chen and Jia-Wen Zhou
Water 2020, 12(2), 615; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020615 - 24 Feb 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4353
Abstract
With recent advances in calculation methods, the external factors that affect slope stability, such as water content fluctuations and self-configuration, can be more easily assessed. In this study, a three-dimensional finite element strength reduction method was used to analyze the stability of three-dimensional [...] Read more.
With recent advances in calculation methods, the external factors that affect slope stability, such as water content fluctuations and self-configuration, can be more easily assessed. In this study, a three-dimensional finite element strength reduction method was used to analyze the stability of three-dimensional slopes under fluctuating water conditions. Based on soil parameter variations in engineering practice, the calculation models were established using heterogeneous layers, including a cover layer with inferior properties. An analysis of seepage, deformation and slope stability was carried out with 27 different models, including three different slope gradients and nine different corner angles under five different hydraulic conditions. The failure mechanism has been shown to be closely related to the change in matric suction of unsaturated soils and the geometric slope configuration. Finally, the effect of geometry (surface shape, turning corner and slope gradient) and water (fluctuations) on slope stability are discussed in detail. Emphasis is given to comparing safety factors obtained considering or ignoring matric suction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water-Induced Landslides: Prediction and Control)
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15 pages, 8833 KiB  
Article
Application of a Three-Dimensional Deterministic Model to Assess Potential Landslides, a Case Study: Antong Hot Spring Area in Hualien, Taiwan
by Lien-Kuang Chen, Chih-Hsin Chang, Che-Hsin Liu and Jui-Yi Ho
Water 2020, 12(2), 480; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020480 - 11 Feb 2020
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3216
Abstract
This study proposes a landslide disaster assessment model combining a fully three-dimensional, physically-based landslide model with high precision of in situ survey data such as surface slip signs, geologic drilling results, underground water observation, and displacement monitoring results over time to perform distribution [...] Read more.
This study proposes a landslide disaster assessment model combining a fully three-dimensional, physically-based landslide model with high precision of in situ survey data such as surface slip signs, geologic drilling results, underground water observation, and displacement monitoring results over time to perform distribution of potential landslide zones and the size of landslides (area and volume) in the Antong hot spring area in Hualien, Taiwan. The distribution of potential landslide zones in the study area was represented by slope stability safety factors. The results of the analysis showed that the toe of the slope and two upward slopes in the study area were potential landslide areas with safety factors of 1.37, 0.92, and 1.19, respectively. The 3D model analysis results indicated that a landslide could occur at a depth of 20 m at the toe of the slope. Monitoring results for 2015 and 2016 showed that the sliding depth at the toe of the slope was approximately 22.5 m; consequently, the error of landslide depth was only 2.5 m. The simulated results and in situ monitoring results were in good agreement. In addition, the simulated landslide volume was also compared with the results of an empirical equation commonly used in Taiwan to determine their differences. The landslide volumes estimated using the empirical equation were only approximately 38.5% in zone 1, 42.9% in zone 2, and 21.7% in zone 3 of that generated by the proposed model. The empirical equation was used to calculate the landslide volume according to the landslide area, which was subsequently converted into landslide depth. However, the obtained landslide depth was considerably lower than that derived from the in situ monitoring, implying that an empirical estimation approach may result in serious underestimation. Thus, the proposed model could predict landslide area and volume in advance to assist authorities in minimizing loss of life and property damage during a heavy rainfall event. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water-Induced Landslides: Prediction and Control)
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35 pages, 28440 KiB  
Article
Slope Stability of a Scree Slope Based on Integrated Characterisation and Monitoring
by Daisy Lucas, Kerstin Fankhauser, Hansruedi Maurer, Brian McArdell, Reto Grob, Ralf Herzog, Ernst Bleiker and Sarah M. Springman
Water 2020, 12(2), 447; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020447 - 07 Feb 2020
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4190
Abstract
Three years of geotechnical seasonal field monitoring including soil temperature, suction and volumetric water content plus geophysical measurements, lead to a preliminary ground model and assessment of slope stability for a steep scree slope in the Meretschibach catchment, near Agarn village in the [...] Read more.
Three years of geotechnical seasonal field monitoring including soil temperature, suction and volumetric water content plus geophysical measurements, lead to a preliminary ground model and assessment of slope stability for a steep scree slope in the Meretschibach catchment, near Agarn village in the Swiss Alps. Building on data reported in a previous paper, which focused on preliminary ground characterisation and seasonal field monitoring, this current research aims to understand whether a surficial failure in the scree slope, triggered by rainfall and depending on bedrock conditions, would represent a relevant natural hazard for Agarn village. A final year of field data is included as well as site-specific sensor calibration, a Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) profile, and laboratory triaxial testing to provide strength parameters. A bedrock map is presented, based on GPR, with a realistic ground model of the entire scree slope. Furthermore, a preliminary numerical analysis, performed using SEEP-SLOPE/W, shows the influence of a bedrock outcrop observed in the field, for a specific soil thickness, strength parameters and rain intensity. The stability of a gravelly slope decreases with groundwater flow over a step in the bedrock, and the location of the failure will tend to move uphill of a bedrock outcrop at a shallow depth as groundwater flow increases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water-Induced Landslides: Prediction and Control)
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13 pages, 6134 KiB  
Article
Analysis of the Slope Response to an Increase in Pore Water Pressure Using the Material Point Method
by Antonello Troncone, Enrico Conte and Luigi Pugliese
Water 2019, 11(7), 1446; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11071446 - 12 Jul 2019
Cited by 31 | Viewed by 4815
Abstract
Traditional numerical methods, such as the finite element method or the finite difference method, are generally used to analyze the slope response in the pre-failure and failure stages. The post-failure phase is often ignored due to the unsuitability of these methods for dealing [...] Read more.
Traditional numerical methods, such as the finite element method or the finite difference method, are generally used to analyze the slope response in the pre-failure and failure stages. The post-failure phase is often ignored due to the unsuitability of these methods for dealing with problems involving large deformations. However, an adequate analysis of this latter stage and a reliable prediction of the landslide kinematics after failure are very useful for minimizing the risk of catastrophic damage. This is generally the case of the landslides triggered by an excess in pore water pressure, which are often characterized by high velocity and long run-out distance. In the present paper, the deformation processes occurring in an ideal slope owing to an increase in pore water pressure are analyzed using the material point method (MPM) that is a numerical technique capable of overcoming the limitations of the above-mentioned traditional methods. In particular, this study is aimed to investigate the influence of the main involved parameters on the development of a slip surface within the slope, and on the kinematics of the consequent landslide. The obtained results show that, among these parameters, the excess water pressure exerts the major influence on the slope response. A simple equation is also proposed for a preliminary evaluation of the run-out distance of the displaced soil mass. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water-Induced Landslides: Prediction and Control)
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18 pages, 10633 KiB  
Article
Combining TRIGRS and DEBRIS-2D Models for the Simulation of a Rainfall Infiltration Induced Shallow Landslide and Subsequent Debris Flow
by Yu-Charn Hsu and Ko-Fei Liu
Water 2019, 11(5), 890; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11050890 - 28 Apr 2019
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 5115
Abstract
TRIGRS revealed the responses of the total pressure heads and factors of safety with a depth change under a rainfall infiltration occurring on the Daniao tribe’s hill. The depth distribution of the collapsed zone could be identified under the condition where the factors [...] Read more.
TRIGRS revealed the responses of the total pressure heads and factors of safety with a depth change under a rainfall infiltration occurring on the Daniao tribe’s hill. The depth distribution of the collapsed zone could be identified under the condition where the factors of safety Fs = 1, and the results could calculate the area and volume. Afterward, DEBRIS-2D used TRIGRS’s results to assess the hazard zone of the subsequent debris flow motion. In this study, the DTM variation analysis results from both of before and after the Daniao tribe’s landslide are used to validate TRIGRS’s simulation, the area and the volume of the collapse zone within 8% and 23% errors, respectively. The real disaster range was depicted from the aerial photo used to validate the hazard zone simulation of DEBRIS-2D within 25% errors. In spite of that, the hazard zone from the simulation still included the real disaster range. The combining method for a rainfall infiltration induced a shallow landslide and subsequent debris flow, which was well-matched on a real disaster range on the Daniao tribe’s hill. Therefore, we believe that the TRIGRS and DEBRIS-2D combining methods would provide a better solution for an assessment of a rainfall infiltration inducing shallow landslide and subsequent debris flow motion. TRIGRS could, therefore, provide the area and depth distribution of the collapsed zone, and DEBRIS-2D could use TRIGRS’s results for subsequent debris flow hazard assessment. Furthermore, these results would be of great help in the management of slope disaster prevention. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water-Induced Landslides: Prediction and Control)
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15 pages, 2855 KiB  
Article
Analysis and Mapping of Rainfall-Induced Landslide Susceptibility in A Luoi District, Thua Thien Hue Province, Vietnam
by Nguyen Thanh Long and Florimond De Smedt
Water 2019, 11(1), 51; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11010051 - 29 Dec 2018
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 4440
Abstract
Rainfall-induced landslides form an important natural threat in Vietnam. The purpose of this study is to explore regional landslide susceptibility mapping in the mountainous district of A Luoi in Thua Thien Hue Province, where data on the occurrence and causes of landslides are [...] Read more.
Rainfall-induced landslides form an important natural threat in Vietnam. The purpose of this study is to explore regional landslide susceptibility mapping in the mountainous district of A Luoi in Thua Thien Hue Province, where data on the occurrence and causes of landslides are very limited. Three methods are applied to examine landslide susceptibility: statistical index, logistic regression and certainty factor. Nine causative factors are considered: elevation, slope, geological strata, fault density, geomorphic landforms, weathering crust, land use, distance to rivers and annual precipitation. The reliability of the landslide susceptibility maps is evaluated by a receiver operating characteristic curve and the area under the curve is used to quantify and compare the prediction accuracy of the models. The certainty factor model performs best. This model is optimized by maximizing the difference between the true positive rate and the false positive rate. The optimal model correctly identifies 84% of the observed landslides. The results are verified with a validation test, whereby the model is calibrated with 75% randomly selected observed landslides, while the remaining 25% of the observed landslides are used for validation. The validation test correctly identifies 81% of the observed landslides in the training set and 73% of the observed landslides in the validation set. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water-Induced Landslides: Prediction and Control)
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11 pages, 4013 KiB  
Article
The Stability of Tailings Dams under Dry-Wet Cycles: A Case Study in Luonan, China
by Xingang Wang, Hongbin Zhan, Jiading Wang and Ping Li
Water 2018, 10(8), 1048; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10081048 - 07 Aug 2018
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 5086
Abstract
Instability of tailings dams may result in loss of life and property and serious environmental pollution. The position of the tailings dam’s phreatic line varies due to continuously changing factors such as rainfall infiltration and discharge of tailings recycling water. Consequently, tailings dams [...] Read more.
Instability of tailings dams may result in loss of life and property and serious environmental pollution. The position of the tailings dam’s phreatic line varies due to continuously changing factors such as rainfall infiltration and discharge of tailings recycling water. Consequently, tailings dams undergo dry-wet (DW) cycles, accompanied by the appearance of a hydro-fluctuation belt. With dynamic development of the physical and chemical properties of tailings sand in the hydro-fluctuation belt, the stability of tailings dams is uncertain. In this study, direct shear tests were performed on the tailings sand collected from a tailings dam in Luonan, through which the shear strength parameters of tailings sand with DW cycles were obtained. Then, a method that efficiently calculates the phreatic line of the tailings dam under DW cycles was proposed. In addition, based on laboratory tests and the proposed phreatic line calculation method, we used a finite element program to evaluate the stability of the tailings dam that experienced different DW cycles. The calculated results showed that: (i) the damage effects of DW cycles gradually weakens as the number of DW cycles increases. (ii) With the increasing of DW cycles, the maximum displacement of the tailings dam increases from 0.5 mm to 22 mm, and the area of maximum displacement expanded mainly at the toe of the tailings dam and at the front edge of the hydro-fluctuation belt. (iii) The tailings dam safety factor decreases continuously with increasing DW cycles. This study may provide a novel method for analyzing the stability of tailings dams under different DW cycles as well as an important reference for improving tailings dam stability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water-Induced Landslides: Prediction and Control)
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13 pages, 4080 KiB  
Article
Analyzing the Effect of Soil Hydraulic Conductivity Anisotropy on Slope Stability Using a Coupled Hydromechanical Framework
by Hsin-Fu Yeh and Yi-Jin Tsai
Water 2018, 10(7), 905; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10070905 - 09 Jul 2018
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4619
Abstract
In studies on the effect of rainfall on slope stability, soil hydraulic conductivity is usually assumed to be isotropic to simplify the analysis. In the present study, a coupled hydromechanical framework based on transient seepage analysis and slope stability analysis is used to [...] Read more.
In studies on the effect of rainfall on slope stability, soil hydraulic conductivity is usually assumed to be isotropic to simplify the analysis. In the present study, a coupled hydromechanical framework based on transient seepage analysis and slope stability analysis is used to investigate the effects of hydraulic conductivity anisotropy on rainfall infiltration and slope safety at various slope locations (the top of the slope, the slope itself and the toe of the slope). The results show that when the vertical hydraulic conductivity (Ky) is constant, the horizontal hydraulic conductivity (Kx) increases (i.e., anisotropy increases). This occurs because rainfall tends to infiltrate into the interior of the slope, resulting in the soil on top of the slope and on the slope itself being easily influenced by rainfall, leading to soil instability. The change of rainfall infiltration at the slope itself is the most significant. When the anisotropic ratio Kr (=Kx/Ky) increased from 1 to 100, the depth of the wetting zones for loam, silt and clay slopes increased by 23.3%, 33.3% and 50%, respectively. However, increased Kr led to a slower infiltration rate in the vertical direction at the toe of the slope. Compared to the results for Kr = 1 and for Kr = 100, the thickness of the wetting zones at the toe of loam and silt slopes decreased by 23.3% and 30.0%, respectively. For the clay slope, Kr changes did not significantly affect the wetting zones because of poor permeability. The results of this study suggest that the effect of soil hydraulic conductivity anisotropy should be considered when estimating slope stability to better understand the effect of rainfall on slopes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water-Induced Landslides: Prediction and Control)
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25 pages, 11312 KiB  
Article
WCSPH with Limiting Viscosity for Modeling Landslide Hazard at the Slopes of Artificial Reservoir
by Sauro Manenti, Andrea Amicarelli and Sara Todeschini
Water 2018, 10(4), 515; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10040515 - 20 Apr 2018
Cited by 30 | Viewed by 4451
Abstract
This work illustrated an application of the FOSS code SPHERA v.8.0 (RSE SpA, Milano, Italy) to the simulation of landslide hazard at the slope of a water basin. SPHERA is based on the weakly compressible SPH method (WCSPH) and holds a mixture model, [...] Read more.
This work illustrated an application of the FOSS code SPHERA v.8.0 (RSE SpA, Milano, Italy) to the simulation of landslide hazard at the slope of a water basin. SPHERA is based on the weakly compressible SPH method (WCSPH) and holds a mixture model, consistent with the packing limit of the Kinetic Theory of Granular Flow (KTGF), which was previously tested for simulating two-phase free-surface rapid flows involving water-sediment interaction. In this study a limiting viscosity parameter was implemented in the previous formulation of the mixture model to limit the growth of the apparent viscosity, thus saving computational time while preserving the solution accuracy. This approach is consistent with the experimental behavior of high polymer solutions for which an almost constant value of viscosity may be approached at very low deformation rates near the transition zone of elastic–plastic regime. In this application, the limiting viscosity was used as a numerical parameter for optimization of the computation. Some preliminary tests were performed by simulating a 2D erosional dam break, proving that a proper selection of the limiting viscosity leads to a considerable drop of the computational time without altering significantly the numerical solution. SPHERA was then validated by simulating a 2D scale experiment reproducing the early phase of the Vajont landslide when a tsunami wave was generated that climbed the opposite mountain side with a maximum run-up of about 270 m. The obtained maximum run-up was very close to the experimental result. Influence of saturation of the landslide material below the still water level was also accounted, showing that the landslide dynamics can be better represented and the wave run-up can be properly estimated. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water-Induced Landslides: Prediction and Control)
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22 pages, 32402 KiB  
Article
Application of Geomorphologic Factors for Identifying Soil Loss in Vulnerable Regions of the Cameron Highlands
by Kahhoong Kok, Lariyah Mohd Sidek, Kwansue Jung and Joo-Cheol Kim
Water 2018, 10(4), 396; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10040396 - 28 Mar 2018
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3600
Abstract
The main purpose of this study is to propose a methodology for identifying vulnerable regions in the Cameron Highlands that are susceptible to soil loss, based on runoff aggregation structure and the energy expenditure pattern of the natural river basin, within the framework [...] Read more.
The main purpose of this study is to propose a methodology for identifying vulnerable regions in the Cameron Highlands that are susceptible to soil loss, based on runoff aggregation structure and the energy expenditure pattern of the natural river basin, within the framework of power law distribution. To this end, three geomorphologic factors, namely shear stress and stream power, as well as the drainage area of every point in the basin of interest, have been extracted using GIS, and then their complementary cumulative distributions are graphically analyzed by fitting them to power law distribution, with the purpose of identifying the sensitive points within the basin that are susceptible to soil loss with respect to scaling regimes of shear stress and stream power. It is observed that the range of vulnerable regions by the scaling regime of shear stress is much narrower than by the scaling regime of stream power. This result seems to suggest that shear stress is a scale-dependent factor, which does not follow power law distribution and does not adequately reflect the energy expenditure pattern of a river basin. Therefore, stream power is preferred as a more reasonable factor for the evaluation of soil loss. The methodology proposed in this study can be validated by visualizing the path of soil loss, which is generated from the hillslope process (characterized by the local slope) to the valley through a fluvial process (characterized by the drainage area as well as the local slope). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water-Induced Landslides: Prediction and Control)
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