http://mdpi.com/rss/ Latest open access articles published at http://www.mdpi.com/ http://mdpi.com/1422-0067/11/3/1180/ The present work is an experimental study of the performance of a recently designed immobilized enzyme: inulinase from Aspergillus sp. covalently immobilized on Sepabeads. The aim of the work is to test the new biocatalyst in conditions of industrial interest and to assess the feasibility of the process in a fluidized bed bioreactor (FBBR). The catalyst was first tested in a batch reactor at standard conditions and in various sets of conditions of interest for the process. Once the response of the catalyst to different operating conditions was tested and the operational stability assessed, one of the sets of conditions tested in batch was chosen for tests in FBBR. Prior to reaction tests, preliminary fluidization tests were realized in order to define an operating range of admissible flow rates. As a result, the FBR was run at different feed flow rates in a closed cycle configuration and its performance was compared to that of the batch system. The FBBR proved to be performing and suitable for scale up to large fructose production. http://mdpi.com/1422-0067/11/3/1180/ Fri, 19 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET International Journal of Molecular Sciences 2010-03-19 11 3 Article 1180 1189 1422-0067 Fructose Production by Inulinase Covalently Immobilized on Sepabeads in Batch and Fluidized Bed Bioreactor 2010-03-19 doi: 10.3390/ijms11031180 Ricca Calabrò Curcio Basso Gardossi Iorio http://mdpi.com/1422-0067/11/3/1162/ FePt nanoparticles (NPs) were assembled on aluminum oxide substrates, and their ferromagnetic properties were studied before and after thermal annealing. For the first time, phosph(on)ates were used as an adsorbate to form self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) on alumina to direct the assembly of NPs onto the surface. The Al2O3 substrates were functionalized with aminobutylphosphonic acid (ABP) or phosphonoundecanoic acid (PNDA) SAMs or with poly(ethyleneimine) (PEI) as a reference. FePt NPs assembled on all of these monolayers, but much less on unmodified Al2O3, which shows that ligand exchange at the NPs is the most likely mechanism of attachment. Proper modification of the Al2O3 surface and controlling the immersion time of the modified Al2O3 substrates into the FePt NP solution resulted in FePt NPs assembly with controlled NP density. Alumina substrates were patterned by microcontact printing using aminobutylphosphonic acid as the ink, allowing local NP assembly. Thermal annealing under reducing conditions (96%N2/4%H2) led to a phase change of the FePt NPs from the disordered FCC phase to the ordered FCT phase. This resulted in ferromagnetic behavior at room temperature. Such a process can potentially be applied in the fabrication of spintronic devices. http://mdpi.com/1422-0067/11/3/1162/ Fri, 19 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET International Journal of Molecular Sciences 2010-03-19 11 3 Article 1162 1179 1422-0067 Monolayer-directed Assembly and Magnetic Properties of FePt Nanoparticles on Patterned Aluminum Oxide 2010-03-19 doi: 10.3390/iijms11031162 Yildirim Gang Kinge Reinhoudt Blank van der Wiel Rijnders Huskens http://mdpi.com/1422-8599/2010/1/M668/ A simple method for the synthesis of a pyrazolyl thiazole derivative containing a piperonal moiety was developed. Thus, 2-{5-(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)-1-[4-(4-chlorophenyl)-1,3-thiazol-2-yl]-4,5-dihydro-1H-pyrazol-3-yl}pyrazine was synthesized using microwave irradiation and characterized by NMR, IR and LCMS data. http://mdpi.com/1422-8599/2010/1/M668/ Fri, 19 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Molbank 2010-03-19 2010 1 Short Note M668 1422-8599 2-{5-(1,3-Benzodioxol-5-yl)-1-[4-(4-chlorophenyl)-1,3-thiazol-2-yl]-4,5-dihydro-1H-pyrazol-3-yl}pyrazine 2010-03-19 doi: 10.3390/M668 Jothikrishnan Narasimhan Shafi http://mdpi.com/2073-8994/2/1/366/ In this paper, we study the influence of hard supersymmetry breaking terms in a N = 1, d = 4 supersymmetric model, in S1 × R3 spacetime topology. It is shown that when the radius of the compact dimension is large supersymmetry is unbroken, and dynamically breaks as the radius decreases. We point out that this resembles the inverse symmetry breaking of continuous symmetries at finite temperature (however, in the case of supersymmetry, the role of the temperature is played by the compact dimension’s radius). Furthermore, we also find a universality in the dependence of the critical length Lc as a function of a coupling g3, after comparing all cases. http://mdpi.com/2073-8994/2/1/366/ Fri, 19 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Symmetry 2010-03-19 2 1 Article 366 387 2073-8994 Inverse Supersymmetry Breaking in S1 × R3 2010-03-19 doi: 10.3390/sym2010366 Oikonomou http://mdpi.com/2073-8994/2/1/345/ Generating functions play important roles in theory of orthogonal polynomials. In particular, it is important to consider generating functions that have symmetry. This paper is a survey on generating functions that define unitary operators. First, classical generating functions that define unitary operators are discussed. Next, group theoretical approach to generating functions that have unitarity are discussed. http://mdpi.com/2073-8994/2/1/345/ Fri, 19 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Symmetry 2010-03-19 2 1 Review 345 365 2073-8994 Symmetry in Generating Functions 2010-03-19 doi: 10.3390/sym2010345 Watanabe http://mdpi.com/1996-1944/3/3/2087/ Olefin metathesis using ruthenium carbene complexes is a useful method in synthetic organic chemistry. Enyne metathesis is also catalyzed by these complexes and various carbo- and heterocycles could be synthesized from the corresponding enynes. Dienyne metathesis, cross enyne metathesis and ring-opening enyne metathesis have been further developed. Various complicated compounds, such as the natural products and the related biologically active substances, could be synthesized using these metatheses reactions. Skeletal reorganization using the transition metals and metallotropic rearrangement are also discussed. http://mdpi.com/1996-1944/3/3/2087/ Fri, 19 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Materials 2010-03-19 3 3 Review 2087 2140 1996-1944 Recent Progress on Enyne Metathesis: Its Application to Syntheses of Natural Products and Related Compounds 2010-03-19 doi: 10.3390/ma3032087 Mori http://mdpi.com/1996-1944/3/3/2069/ Two new mesogenic monomers, namely 3,3’-dimethoxy-4,4’-di(hydroxyhexoxy)-N-benzylidene-o-Tolidine (Ia) and 4,4’-di(6-hydroxyhexoxy)-N-benzylidene-o-Tolidine (IIa), were reacted with cadmium sulfide (CdS) via an in situ chemical precipitation method in ethanol to produce CdS nanocomposites. A series of different mass compositions of CdS with Ia and IIa ranging from 0.1:1.0 to 1.0:1.0 (w/w) were prepared and characterized using X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Raman spectroscopy, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR), Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), Polarizing Optical Microscopy (POM) and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) and Photoluminescence Spectroscopy (PL). XRD showed that the broad peaks are ascribed to the formation of cubic CdS nanoparticles in both Ia and IIa. The average particle size for both nanocomposites was less than 5 nm with a narrower size distribution when compared with pure CdS nanoparticles. The analyses from POM and DSC demonstrated that mass composition from 0.1:1.0 up to 0.5:1.0 of CdS:Ia nanocomposites showed their enantiotropic nematic phase. On the other hand, polarizing optical microscopy (POM) for IIa nanocomposites showed that the liquid crystal property vanished completely when the mass composition was at 0.2:1.0. PL emissions for CdS: Ia or IIa nanocomposites indicated deep trap defects occurred in these both samples. The PL results revealed that addition of CdS to Ia monomers suppressed the photoluminescence intensity of Ia. However, the introduction of CdS to IIa monomers increased the photoluminescence and was at a maximum when the mass composition was 0.3:1.0, then decreased in intensity as more CdS was added. The XPS results also showed that the stoichiometric ratios of S/Cd were close to 1.0:1.0 for both types of nanocomposites for a mass composition of 1.0:1.0 (CdS:matrix). http://mdpi.com/1996-1944/3/3/2069/ Fri, 19 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Materials 2010-03-19 3 3 Article 2069 2086 1996-1944 Thermal and Optical Properties of CdS Nanoparticles in Thermotropic Liquid Crystal Monomers 2010-03-19 doi: 10.3390/ma3032069 Lee Mohammed Belmahi Assouar Rinnert Alnot http://mdpi.com/1996-1944/3/3/2053/ This paper reviews the synthesis, structure and applications of metal fluoride nanoparticles, with particular focus on rare earth (RE) doped fluoride nanoparticles obtained by our research group. Nanoparticles were produced by precipitation methods using the ligand ammonium di-n-octadecyldithiophosphate (ADDP) that allows the growth of shells around a core particle while simultaneously avoiding particle aggregation. Nanoparticles were characterized on their structure, morphology, and luminescent properties. We discuss the synthesis, properties, and application of heavy metal fluorides; specifically LaF3:RE and PbF2, and group IIA fluorides. Particular attention is given to the synthesis of core/shell nanoparticles, including selectively RE-doped LaF3/LaF3, and CaF2/CaF2 core/(multi-)shell nanoparticles, and the CaF2-LaF3 system. http://mdpi.com/1996-1944/3/3/2053/ Fri, 19 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Materials 2010-03-19 3 3 Review 2053 2068 1996-1944 Preparation and Characterization of Rare Earth Doped Fluoride Nanoparticles 2010-03-19 doi: 10.3390/ma3032053 Jacobsohn Kucera James Sprinkle DiMaio Kokuoz Yazgan-Kukouz DeVol Ballato http://mdpi.com/1424-8220/10/3/2262/ We have fabricated organic field-effect transistors (OFETs) with regioregular poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) operable at low-voltages in liquid solutions, suitable for in vitro biosensing applications. Measurements in electrolytes have shown that the performance of the transistors did not deteriorate and they can be directly used as ionsensitive transducers. Furthermore, more complex media have been tested, with the perspective of cell analysis. Degradation effects acting on the device operating in liquid could be partly compensated by adopting an alternate current measuring mode. http://mdpi.com/1424-8220/10/3/2262/ Fri, 19 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Sensors 2010-03-19 10 3 Article 2262 2273 1424-8220 Organic ISFET Based on Poly (3-hexylthiophene) 2010-03-19 doi: 10.3390/s100302262 Scarpa Idzko Yadav Thalhammer http://mdpi.com/1660-3397/8/3/763/ The proposed biosynthetic pathways to ladder polyethers of polyketide origin and oxasqualenoids of terpenoid origin share a dramatic epoxide-opening cascade as a key step. Polycyclic structures generated in these biosynthetic pathways display biological effects ranging from potentially therapeutic properties to extreme lethality. Much of the structural complexity of ladder polyether and oxasqualenoid natural products can be traced to these hypothesized cascades. In this review we summarize how such epoxide-opening cascade reactions have been used in the synthesis of ladder polyethers and oxasqualenoid natural products. http://mdpi.com/1660-3397/8/3/763/ Fri, 19 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Marine Drugs 2010-03-19 8 3 Review 763 809 1660-3397 Synthesis of Marine Polycyclic Polyethers via Endo-Selective Epoxide-Opening Cascades 2010-03-19 doi: 10.3390/md8030763 Vilotijevic Jamison http://mdpi.com/1422-0067/11/3/1155/ Ganglioside mimicry by C. jejuni lipo-oligosaccharides (LOS) could induce the production of autoantibodies against gangliosides and the development of Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS). The LOS biosynthesis region exhibits significant variation with different strains. Using PCR amplifications of genes from published LOS loci and sequencing the LOS biosynthesis loci, the eight GBS-associated C. jejuni strains from HeBei could be classified into four classes. The expression of sialylated LOS structures (class A) or non-sialylated LOS structures(class F, H and P) in the C. jejuni LOS is considered to be two different factors for the induction of GBS. http://mdpi.com/1422-0067/11/3/1155/ Fri, 19 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET International Journal of Molecular Sciences 2010-03-19 11 3 Article 1155 1161 1422-0067 Characteristics of Lipo-Oligosaccharide Loci of Campylobacter jejuni Isolates Associated with Guillain-Barré Syndrome from Hebei, China 2010-03-19 doi: 10.3390/ijms11031155 Jiang Zhang Liu Tian Gu Zhang http://mdpi.com/1660-4601/7/3/1205/ Over evolutionary time humans have developed a complex biological relationship with soils. Here we describe modes of soil exposure and their biological implications. We consider two types of soil exposure, the first being the continuous exposure to airborne soil, and the second being dietary ingestion of soils, or geophagy. It may be assumed that airborne dust and ingestion of soil have influenced the evolution of particular DNA sequences which control biological systems that enable individual organisms to take advantage of, adapt to and/or protect against exposures to soil materials. We review the potential for soil exposure as an environmental source of epigenetic signals which may influence the function of our genome in determining health and disease. http://mdpi.com/1660-4601/7/3/1205/ Fri, 19 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2010-03-19 7 3 Review 1205 1223 1660-4601 Impact of Direct Soil Exposures from Airborne Dust and Geophagy on Human Health 2010-03-19 doi: 10.3390/ijerph7031205 Sing Sing http://mdpi.com/1996-1944/3/3/2037/ Octithiophene sterically segregated by annelation with bicyclo[2.2.2]octene (BCO) units was synthesized to study the unimolecular properties of longer oligothiophene dications. For the preparation of such longer oligomers, a new route for the synthesis of the monomer annelated with BCO unit at the 3,4-positions of thiophene ring was developed. Attempted synthesis of octithiophene 1(8T) fully annelated with BCO units was hampered by low solubility of the product, and octithiophene 2(8T) having octyl groups instead of the BCO units at the second rings from the both ends of 1(8T) was synthesized to solve the solubility problem. Neutral 2(8T) has a lower planarity due to the steric repulsion between the octyl substituents and the neighboring thiophene units. However, dication 2(8T)2+, which was obtained as a stable salt by chemical two-electron oxidation with NO+SbF6-, has a planar quinoid structure, as judged from a linear correlation between the inverse chain length and the absorption energy for 1(nT)2+ (n = 3,4,6) and 2(8T)2+. Based on the comparison with the calculated absorption spectra and the result of ESR inactive properties, 2(8T)2+ appears to have a singlet ground state with open-shell biradical character rather than a closed-shell singlet structure. http://mdpi.com/1996-1944/3/3/2037/ Fri, 19 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Materials 2010-03-19 3 3 Article 2037 2052 1996-1944 Synthesis and Properties of Octithiophene Dication Sterically Segregated by Annelation with Bicyclo[2.2.2]octene Units 2010-03-19 doi: 10.3390/ma3032037 Nishinaga Yamazaki Tateno Iyoda Komatsu http://mdpi.com/1996-1944/3/3/2027/ The charge ordered organic salt θ-(BEDT-TTF)2CsZn(SCN)4 exhibits a giant nonlinear conduction at low temperatures. The voltage-current characteristics of this compound are similar to those of a thyristor device, after which we named it the organic thyristor. This material shows current oscillation in the presense of dc voltage, which arises from a mechanism different from conventional oscillating circuits, because the oscillation appears in a sample that does not show negative derivative resistance. We have performed a standard circuit analysis, and show that the voltage-current curve is “blurred” in the high current region, and the oscillation occurs in the blurred region. This type of oscillation has never been reported, and a possible origin for this is suggested. http://mdpi.com/1996-1944/3/3/2027/ Fri, 19 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Materials 2010-03-19 3 3 Article 2027 2036 1996-1944 A Mechanism of DC-AC Conversion in the Organic Thyristor 2010-03-19 doi: 10.3390/ma3032027 Suko Terasaki Mori Mori http://mdpi.com/1660-3397/8/3/741/ The human genome encodes nine functional voltage-gated Na+ channels. Three of them, namely Nav1.5, Nav1.8, and Nav1.9, are resistant to nanomolar concentrations of tetrodotoxin (TTX; IC50 ≥ 1 μM). The other isoforms, which are predominantly expressed in the skeletal muscle and nervous system, are highly sensitive to TTX (IC50 ~ 10 nM). During the last two decades, it has become evident that in addition to the major cardiac isoform Nav1.5, several of those TTX sensitive isoforms are expressed in the mammalian heart. Whereas immunohistochemical and electrophysiological methods demonstrated functional expression in various heart regions, the physiological importance of those isoforms for cardiac excitation in higher mammals is still debated. This review summarizes our knowledge on the systemic cardiovascular effects of TTX in animals and humans, with a special focus on cardiac excitation and performance at lower concentrations of this marine drug. Altogether, these data strongly suggest that TTX sensitive Na+ channels, detected more recently in various heart tissues, are not involved in excitation phenomena in the healthy adult heart of higher mammals. http://mdpi.com/1660-3397/8/3/741/ Fri, 19 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Marine Drugs 2010-03-19 8 3 Review 741 762 1660-3397 Effects of Tetrodotoxin on the Mammalian Cardiovascular System 2010-03-19 doi: 10.3390/md8030741 Zimmer http://mdpi.com/1660-3397/8/3/728/ Sensory neurons in the dorsal root ganglion express two kinds of tetrodotoxin resistant (TTX-R) isoforms of voltage-gated sodium channels, NaV1.8 and NaV1.9. These isoforms play key roles in the pathophysiology of chronic pain. Of special interest is NaV1.9: our previous studies revealed a unique property of the NaV1.9 current, i.e., the NaV1.9 current shows a gradual and notable up-regulation of the peak amplitude during recording (“spontaneous augmentation of NaV1.9”). However, the mechanism underlying the spontaneous augmentation of NaV1.9 is still unclear. In this study, we examined the effects of protein kinases A and C (PKA and PKC), on the spontaneous augmentation of NaV1.9. The spontaneous augmentation of the NaV1.9 current was significantly suppressed by activation of PKA, whereas activation of PKA did not affect the voltage dependence of inactivation for the NaV1.9 current. On the contrary, the finding that activation of PKC can affect the voltage dependence of inactivation for NaV1.9 in the perforated patch recordings, where the augmentation does not occur, suggests that the effects of PMA are independent of the augmentation process. These results indicate that the spontaneous augmentation of NaV1.9 was regulated directly by PKA, and indirectly by PKC. http://mdpi.com/1660-3397/8/3/728/ Fri, 19 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Marine Drugs 2010-03-19 8 3 Article 728 740 1660-3397 Regulation of the Spontaneous Augmentation of NaV1.9 in Mouse Dorsal Root Ganglion Neurons: Effect of PKA and PKC Pathways 2010-03-19 doi: 10.3390/md8030728 Kakimura Zheng Uryu Ogata http://mdpi.com/1660-4601/7/3/1186/ Branching processes are stochastic individual-based processes leading consequently to a bottom-up approach. In addition, since the state variables are random integer variables (representing population sizes), the extinction occurs at random finite time on the extinction set, thus leading to fine and realistic predictions. Starting from the simplest and well-known single-type Bienaymé-Galton-Watson branching process that was used by several authors for approximating the beginning of an epidemic, we then present a general branching model with age and population dependent individual transitions. However contrary to the classical Bienaymé-Galton-Watson or asymptotically Bienaymé-Galton-Watson setting, where the asymptotic behavior of the process, as time tends to infinity, is well understood, the asymptotic behavior of this general process is a new question. Here we give some solutions for dealing with this problem depending on whether the initial population size is large or small, and whether the disease is rare or non-rare when the initial population size is large. http://mdpi.com/1660-4601/7/3/1186/ Fri, 19 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2010-03-19 7 3 Article 1186 1204 1660-4601 Branching Processes: Their Role in Epidemiology 2010-03-19 doi: 10.3390/ijerph7031204 Jacob http://mdpi.com/1420-3049/15/3/1973/ Conjugate addition reaction of various nucleophiles across the vinyl group of 2-chloro-4-vinylpyrimidine, 2-chloro-4-(1-phenylvinyl)pyrimidine and 2-chloro-4-vinylquinazoline provides the corresponding 2-chloro-4-(2-substituted ethyl)pyrimidines and 2-chloro-4-(2-substituted ethyl)quinazolines. Treatment of these products, without isolation, with N-methylpiperazine results in nucleophilic displacement of chloride and yields the corresponding 2,4-disubstituted pyrimidines and quinazolines. http://mdpi.com/1420-3049/15/3/1973/ Fri, 19 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Molecules 2010-03-19 15 3 Article 1973 1984 1420-3049 Conjugate Addition of Nucleophiles to the Vinyl Function of 2-Chloro-4-vinylpyrimidine Derivatives 2010-03-19 doi: 10.3390/molecules15031973 Raux Klenc Blake Sączewski Strekowski http://mdpi.com/2072-4292/2/3/794/ Satellite observations of the oceans have great potential to improve the quality and predictive power of numerical ocean models and are frequently used in model skill assessment as well as data assimilation. In this study we introduce and compare various measures for the quantitative comparison of satellite images and model output that have not been used in this context before. We devised a series of test to compare their performance, including their sensitivity to noise and missing values, which are ubiquitous in satellite images. Our results show that two of our adapted measures, the Adapted Gray Block distance and the entropic distance D2, perform better than the commonly used root mean square error and image correlation. http://mdpi.com/2072-4292/2/3/794/ Fri, 19 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Remote Sensing 2010-03-19 2 3 Article 794 818 2072-4292 Introduction and Assessment of Measures for Quantitative Model-Data Comparison Using Satellite Images 2010-03-19 doi: 10.3390/rs2030794 Mattern Fennel Dowd http://mdpi.com/1420-3049/15/3/1967/ Quaternary pyridinium salts with chains ranging from C8 to C20 belong in the large group of cationic surfactants. In this paper, the preparation of such cationic surface active agents based on the pyridinium moiety and differing in the length of the N-alkyl chain is described. Additionally, HPLC technique was established to distinguish each prepared pyridinium analogue. This study represents universal method for preparation and identification of quaternary pyridinium detergents. http://mdpi.com/1420-3049/15/3/1967/ Fri, 19 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Molecules 2010-03-19 15 3 Communication 1967 1972 1420-3049 Preparation of the Pyridinium Salts Differing in the Length of the N-Alkyl Substituent 2010-03-19 doi: 10.3390/molecules15031967 Marek Stodulka Cabal Soukup Pohanka Korabecny Musilek Kuca http://mdpi.com/1422-0067/11/3/1141/ A shortcoming of most correlation distance methods based on the composition vectors without alignment developed for phylogenetic analysis using complete genomes is that the “distances” are not proper distance metrics in the strict mathematical sense. In this paper we propose two new correlation-related distance metrics to replace the old one in our dynamical language approach. Four genome datasets are employed to evaluate the effects of this replacement from a biological point of view. We find that the two proper distance metrics yield trees with the same or similar topologies as/to those using the old “distance” and agree with the tree of life based on 16S rRNA in a majority of the basic branches. Hence the two proper correlation-related distance metrics proposed here improve our dynamical language approach for phylogenetic analysis. http://mdpi.com/1422-0067/11/3/1141/ Thu, 18 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET International Journal of Molecular Sciences 2010-03-18 11 3 Article 1141 1154 1422-0067 Proper Distance Metrics for Phylogenetic Analysis Using Complete Genomes without Sequence Alignment 2010-03-18 doi: 10.3390/ijms11031141 Yu Zhan Han Wang Anh Chu http://mdpi.com/1424-8247/3/3/725/ Theophylline (3-methyxanthine) has been used to treat airway diseases for over 70 years. It was originally used as a bronchodilator but the relatively high doses required are associated with frequent side effects, so its use declined as inhaled β2-agonists became more widely used. More recently it has been shown to have anti-inflammatory effects in asthma and COPD at lower concentrations. The molecular mechanism of bronchodilatation is inhibition of phosphodiesterase(PDE)3 and PDE4, but the anti-inflammatory effect may be due to histone deacetylase (HDAC) activation, resulting in switching off of activated inflammatory genes. Through this mechanism theophylline also reverses corticosteroid resistance and this may be of particular value in severe asthma and COPD where HDAC2 activity is markedly reduced. Theophylline is given systemically (orally as slow-release preparations for chronic treatment and intravenously for acute exacerbations of asthma) and blood concentrations are determined mainly by hepatic metabolism, which may be increased or decreased in several diseases and by concomitant drug therapy. Theophylline is now usually used as an add-on therapy in asthma patients not well controlled on inhaled corticosteroids and in COPD patients with severe disease not controlled by bronchodilator therapy. Side effects are related to plasma concentrations and include nausea, vomiting and headaches due to PDE inhibition and at higher concentrations to cardiac arrhythmias and seizures due to adenosine A1-receptor antagonism. http://mdpi.com/1424-8247/3/3/725/ Thu, 18 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Pharmaceuticals 2010-03-18 3 3 Review 725 747 1424-8247 Theophylline 2010-03-18 doi: 10.3390/ph3030725 Barnes http://mdpi.com/1999-4915/2/3/731/ Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) is a human and livestock pathogen endemic to sub-Saharan Africa. We have developed a T7-dependent system for the efficient production of RVFV-like particles (RVF-VLPs) based on the virulent ZH-501 strain of RVFV. The RVF-VLPs are capable of performing a single round of infection, allowing for the study of viral replication, assembly, and infectivity. We demonstrate that these RVF-VLPs are antigenically indistinguishable from authentic RVFV and respond similarly to a wide array of known and previously unknown chemical inhibitors. This system should be useful for screening for small molecule inhibitors of RVFV replication. http://mdpi.com/1999-4915/2/3/731/ Thu, 18 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Viruses 2010-03-18 2 3 Article 731 747 1999-4915 A Novel System for Identification of Inhibitors of Rift Valley Fever Virus Replication 2010-03-18 doi: 10.3390/v2030731 Piper Gerrard http://mdpi.com/1424-8220/10/3/2242/ The paper belongs to the studies that deal with the effectiveness of the particular event-based sampling scheme compared to the conventional periodic sampling as a reference. In the present study, the event-based sampling according to a constant energy of sampling error is analyzed. This criterion is suitable for applications where the energy of sampling error should be bounded (i.e., in building automation, or in greenhouse climate monitoring and control). Compared to the integral sampling criteria, the error energy criterion gives more weight to extreme sampling error values. The proposed sampling principle extends a range of event-based sampling schemes and makes the choice of particular sampling criterion more flexible to application requirements. In the paper, it is proved analytically that the proposed event-based sampling criterion is more effective than the periodic sampling by a factor defined by the ratio of the maximum to the mean of the cubic root of the signal time-derivative square in the analyzed time interval. Furthermore, it is shown that the sampling according to energy criterion is less effective than the send-on-delta scheme but more effective than the sampling according to integral criterion. On the other hand, it is indicated that higher effectiveness in sampling according to the selected event-based criterion is obtained at the cost of increasing the total sampling error defined as the sum of errors for all the samples taken. http://mdpi.com/1424-8220/10/3/2242/ Thu, 18 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Sensors 2010-03-18 10 3 Article 2242 2261 1424-8220 Efficiency of Event-Based Sampling According to Error Energy Criterion 2010-03-18 doi: 10.3390/s100302242 Miskowicz http://mdpi.com/1424-8220/10/3/2217/ Temperature in an urban area exhibits a complicated pattern due to complexity of infrastructure. Despite geographical proximity, structures of a group of buildings and streets affect changes in temperature. To investigate the pattern of fine-grained distribution of temperature, we installed a densely distributed sensor network called UScan. In this paper, we describe the system architecture of UScan as well as experience learned from installing 200 sensors in downtown Tokyo. The field experiment of UScan system operated for two months to collect long-term urban temperature data. To analyze the collected data in an efficient manner, we propose a lightweight clustering methodology to study the correlation between the pattern of temperature and various environmental factors including the amount of sunshine, the width of streets, and the existence of trees. The analysis reveals meaningful results and asserts the necessity of fine-grained deployment of sensors in an urban area. http://mdpi.com/1424-8220/10/3/2217/ Thu, 18 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Sensors 2010-03-18 10 3 Article 2217 2241 1424-8220 A Deployment of Fine-Grained Sensor Network and Empirical Analysis of Urban Temperature 2010-03-18 doi: 10.3390/s100302217 Thepvilojanapong Ono Tobe http://mdpi.com/1420-3049/15/3/1958/ Using a cell-based cytotoxicity assay three new cytotoxic azaphilones, including two stereoisomers and designated monapurones A-C (1-3), were isolated from the extract of Monascus purpureus-fermented rice (red yeast rice). Their structures were elucidated by detailed interpretation of spectroscopic and chemical data. The relative configurations were assigned on the basis of analysis of NOE data, and the absolute configurations were determined by direct comparison of their CD spectra with those of known azaphilones and chemical correlations. In the in vitro assays, monapurones A-C (1-3) showed selective cytotoxicity against human cancer cell line A549 with IC50 values of 3.8, 2.8 and 2.4mM respectively, while exhibiting no significant toxicity to normal MRC-5 and WI-38 cells at the same concentration. http://mdpi.com/1420-3049/15/3/1958/ Thu, 18 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Molecules 2010-03-18 15 3 Article 1958 1966 1420-3049 New Cytotoxic Azaphilones from Monascus purpureus-Fermented Rice (Red Yeast Rice) 2010-03-18 doi: 10.3390/molecules15031958 Li Shang Li Liu Zheng Jin http://mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/3/462/ Electricity is perhaps the most versatile energy carrier in modern economies, and it is therefore fundamentally linked to human and economic development. Electricity growth has outpaced that of any other fuel, leading to ever-increasing shares in the overall mix. This trend is expected to continue throughout the following decades, as large—especially rural—segments of the world population in developing countries start to climb the “energy ladder” and become connected to power grids. Electricity therefore deserves particular attention with regard to its contribution to global greenhouse gas emissions, which is reflected in the ongoing development of low-carbon technologies for power generation. The focus of this updated review of electricity-generating technologies is twofold: (a) to provide more technical information than is usually found in global assessments on critical technical aspects, such as variability of wind power, and (b) to capture the most recent findings from the international literature. This report covers eight technologies. Seven of these are generating technologies: hydro-, nuclear, wind, photovoltaic, concentrating solar, geothermal and biomass power. The remaining technology is carbon capture and storage. This selection is fairly representative for technologies that are important in terms of their potential capacity to contribute to a low-carbon world economy. http://mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/3/462/ Thu, 18 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Energies 2010-03-18 3 3 Review 462 591 1996-1073 Current State of Development of Electricity-Generating Technologies: A Literature Review 2010-03-18 doi: 10.3390/en3030462 Lenzen http://mdpi.com/2072-6643/2/3/355/ Long chain fatty acids influence inflammation through a variety of mechanisms; many of these are mediated by, or at least associated with, changes in fatty acid composition of cell membranes. Changes in these compositions can modify membrane fluidity, cell signaling leading to altered gene expression, and the pattern of lipid mediator production. Cell involved in the inflammatory response are typically rich in the n-6 fatty acid arachidonic acid, but the contents of arachidonic acid and of the n-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) can be altered through oral administration of EPA and DHA. Eicosanoids produced from arachidonic acid have roles in inflammation. EPA also gives rise to eicosanoids and these often have differing properties from those of arachidonic acid-derived eicosanoids. EPA and DHA give rise to newly discovered resolvins which are anti-inflammatory and inflammation resolving. Increased membrane content of EPA and DHA (and decreased arachidonic acid content) results in a changed pattern of production of eicosanoids and resolvins. Changing the fatty acid composition of cells involved in the inflammatory response also affects production of peptide mediators of inflammation (adhesion molecules, cytokines etc.). Thus, the fatty acid composition of cells involved in the inflammatory response influences their function; the contents of arachidonic acid, EPA and DHA appear to be especially important. The anti-inflammatory effects of marine n-3 PUFAs suggest that they may be useful as therapeutic agents in disorders with an inflammatory component. http://mdpi.com/2072-6643/2/3/355/ Thu, 18 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Nutrients 2010-03-18 2 3 Review 355 374 2072-6643 Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Inflammatory Processes 2010-03-18 doi: 10.3390/nu2030355 Calder http://mdpi.com/1660-4601/7/3/1174/ http://mdpi.com/1660-4601/7/3/1174/ Thu, 18 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2010-03-18 7 3 Article 1174 1185 1660-4601 Can the Blood Alcohol Concentration Be a Predictor for Increased Hospital Complications in Trauma Patients Involved in Motor Vehicle Crashes? 2010-03-18 doi: 10.3390/ijerph7031174 Kapur Rajamanickam Fleming http://mdpi.com/2072-6651/2/3/353/ Mycotoxigenic fungi colonizing food matrices are inevitably competing with a wide range of other resident fungi. The outcomes of these interactions are influenced by the prevailing environmental conditions and the competing species. We have evaluated the competitiveness of F. culmorum and A. carbonarius in the grain and grape food chain for their in vitro and in situ dominance in the presence of other fungi, and the effect that such interactions have on colony interactions, growth and deoxynivalenol (DON) and ochratoxin A (OTA) production. The Index of Dominance shows that changes in water activity (aw) and temperature affect the competitiveness of F. culmorum and A. carbonarius against up to nine different fungi. Growth of both mycotoxigenic species was sometimes inhibited by the presence of other competing fungi. For example, A. niger uniseriate and biseriate species decreased growth of A. carbonarius, while Aureobasidium pullulans and Cladosporium species stimulated growth. Similar changes were observed when F. graminearum was interacting with other grain fungi such as Alternaria alternata, Cladopsorium herbarum and Epicoccum nigrum. The impact on DON and OTA production was very different. For F. culmorum, the presence of other species often inhibited DON production over a range of environmental conditions. For A.carbonarius, on a grape–based medium, the presence of certain species resulted in a significant stimulation of OTA production. However, this was influenced by both temperature and aw level. This suggests that the final mycotoxin concentrations observed in food matrices may be due to complex interactions between species and the environmental history of the samples analyzed. http://mdpi.com/2072-6651/2/3/353/ Thu, 18 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Toxins 2010-03-18 2 3 Article 353 366 2072-6651 Environmental Factors and Interactions with Mycobiota of Grain and Grapes: Effects on Growth, Deoxynivalenol and Ochratoxin Production by Fusarium culmorum and Aspergillus carbonarius 2010-03-18 doi: 10.3390/toxins2030353 Magan Aldred Hope Mitchell http://mdpi.com/1996-1944/3/3/1981/ Organic/inorganic nanohybrid materials have attracted particular scientific and technological interest because they combine the properties of the organic and the inorganic component. Inorganic nanoparticles exhibit interesting electrical, optical, magnetic and/or catalytic properties, which are related with their nano-scale dimensions. However, their high surface-to-volume ratio often induces agglomeration and leads to the loss of their attractive properties. Surface modification of the inorganic nano-objects with physically or chemically end-tethered polymer chains has been employed to overcome this problem. Covalent tethered polymer chains are realized by three different approaches: the “grafting to”, the “grafting from” and the “grafting through” method. This article reviews the synthesis of end-grafted polymer chains onto inorganic nanoparticles using “controlled/living” polymerization techniques, which allow control over the polymer characteristics and the grafting density of the end-tethered polymer chains. http://mdpi.com/1996-1944/3/3/1981/ Thu, 18 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Materials 2010-03-18 3 3 Review 1981 2026 1996-1944 End-Grafted Polymer Chains onto Inorganic Nano-Objects 2010-03-18 doi: 10.3390/ma3031981 Achilleos Vamvakaki http://mdpi.com/1660-4601/7/3/1153/ Applied research in a public health setting seeks to provide professionals with insights and knowledge into complex environmental issues to guide actions that reduce inequalities and improve health. We describe ten environmental case studies that explore the public perception of health risk. We employed logical analysis of components of each case study and comparative information to generate new evidence. The findings highlight how concerns about environmental issues measurably affect people’s wellbeing and led to the development of new understanding about the benefits of taking an earlier and more inclusive approach to risk communication that can now be tested further. http://mdpi.com/1660-4601/7/3/1153/ Thu, 18 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2010-03-18 7 3 Article 1153 1173 1660-4601 Real or Illusory? Case Studies on the Public Perception of Environmental Health Risks in the North West of England 2010-03-18 doi: 10.3390/ijerph7031153 Stewart Luria Reid Lyons Jarvis http://mdpi.com/1422-0067/11/3/1114/ Changes in the laser induced molecular dissociation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (TCE) were studied using a range of intensities and standard laser wavelengths with nanosecond and femtosecond pulse durations. TCE contains C-H, C-C and C-Cl bonds and selective bond breakage of one or more of these bonds is of scientific interest. Using laser ionization time of flight mass spectrometry, it was found that considerable variation of fragment ion peak heights as well as changes in relative peak ratios is possible by varying the laser intensity (by attenuation), wavelength and pulse duration using standard laser sources. The nanosecond laser dissociation seems to occur via C-Cl bond breakage, with significant fragmentation and only a few large mass ion peaks observed. In contrast, femtosecond laser dissociative ionization results in many large mass ion peaks. Evidence is found for various competing dissociation and ionization pathways. Variation of the nanosecond laser intensity does not change the fragmentation pattern, while at high femtosecond intensities large changes are observed in relative ion peak sizes. The total ionization yield and fragmentation ratios are presented for a range of wavelengths and intensities, and compared to the changes observed due to a linear chirp variation. http://mdpi.com/1422-0067/11/3/1114/ Wed, 17 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET International Journal of Molecular Sciences 2010-03-17 11 3 Article 1114 1140 1422-0067 Comparative Study of the Dissociative Ionization of 1,1,1 Trichloroethane Using Nanosecond and Femtosecond Laser Pulses 2010-03-17 doi: 10.3390/ijms11031114 du Plessis Strydom Botha http://mdpi.com/2071-1050/2/3/812/ In this paper, design for change is explored as a means of contributing to socio-economic equity while minimising environmental damage. To create a material culture capable of accommodating technological progress and aesthetic development while also adhering to the principles of sustainability, it becomes important to recognise the potential role of design for change. This theme is explored here by considering design within an integrated strategy that includes mass- and local-scale manufacturing, service provision and re-manufacture. General design objectives are developed that provide a basis for generating ‘critical design’ concepts. Engagement in the process of designing requires a transmutation from generalisations to specific design decisions. This process enriches our understandings of design for change and the concepts presented here articulate the ideas via form, function, materials and aesthetics. In doing so, they provide tangible expressions of the strategic implications. These ‘temporal objects’, which in this case rely on a relatively stable technology, highlight the importance of localisation and more distributed forms of innovation. In addition, they clarify the designer’s role in developing useful things that are capable of being continually transformed through time, with continuous use of technological components and changing aesthetic components that, through creative employment of materials, have virtually no detrimental environmental impacts. http://mdpi.com/2071-1050/2/3/812/ Wed, 17 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Sustainability 2010-03-17 2 3 Article 812 832 2071-1050 Temporal Objects—Design, Change and Sustainability 2010-03-17 doi: 10.3390/su2030812 Walker http://mdpi.com/1996-1944/3/3/1928/ Recent advances in biotechnology demonstrate that peptides and proteins are the basis of a new generation of drugs. However, the transportation of protein drugs in the body is limited by their high molecular weight, which prevents the crossing of tissue barriers, and by their short lifetime due to immuno response and enzymatic degradation. Moreover, the ability to selectively deliver drugs to target organs, tissues or cells is a major challenge in the treatment of several human diseases, including cancer. Indeed, targeted delivery can be much more efficient than systemic application, while improving bioavailability and limiting undesirable side effects. This review describes how the use of targeted nanocarriers such as nanoparticles and liposomes can improve the pharmacokinetic properties of protein drugs, thus increasing their safety and maximizing the therapeutic effect. http://mdpi.com/1996-1944/3/3/1928/ Wed, 17 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Materials 2010-03-17 3 3 Review 1928 1980 1996-1944 Targeted Delivery of Protein Drugs by Nanocarriers 2010-03-17 doi: 10.3390/ma3031928 Solaro Chiellini Battisti http://mdpi.com/1424-8220/10/3/2202/ We have studied the long and short term stability of electrolytic Ag/AgCl electrodes fabricated from Ag wire that has been subjected to a range of different annealing conditions. At elevated temperatures, the presence of oxygen during the annealing process has been shown to be detrimental to the performance of electrodes produced. This phenomenon has been attributed to the dissolution of oxygen in the Ag lattice leading to structural changes in the Ag/AgCl electrode material. Electrodes prepared from Ag wire annealed in the absence of oxygen have shown no appreciable change in performance throughout the temperature range employed. This work has resulted in an improved understanding of the optimum annealing conditions required for Ag used in the preparation of electrolytic Ag/AgCl reference electrodes. This work has positive implications for the accuracy of Harned cell measurements of pH. http://mdpi.com/1424-8220/10/3/2202/ Wed, 17 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Sensors 2010-03-17 10 3 Article 2202 2216 1424-8220 Effect of Silver Annealing Conditions on the Performance of Electrolytic Silver/Silver Chloride Electrodes used in Harned Cell Measurements of pH 2010-03-17 doi: 10.3390/s100302202 Brewer Brown http://mdpi.com/1422-8599/2010/1/M667/ A novel compound, 5,5'-(1,4-phenylenedimethylylidene)bis(1,3-diethyl-2-thioxodihydropyrimidine-4,6(1H,5H)-dione) (3) has been synthesized by condensation of 1,3-diethyl-2-thiobarbituric acid and terephthalaldehyde in anhydrous ethanol in the presence of pyridine. The structure of this compound was established by elemental analysis, IR, 1H-NMR, 13C-NMR and EI-MS spectral analysis. http://mdpi.com/1422-8599/2010/1/M667/ Wed, 17 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Molbank 2010-03-17 2010 1 Short Note M667 1422-8599 5,5'-(1,4-Phenylenedimethylylidene)bis(1,3-diethyl-2-thioxodihydropyrimidine-4,6(1H,5H)-dione) 2010-03-17 doi: 10.3390/M667 Asiri Khan http://mdpi.com/1422-8599/2010/1/M666/ The title compound, 5-[(3,5-dimethyl-1-phenyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)methylene]-1,3-diethyl-2-thioxodihydropyrimidine-4,6(1H,5H)-dione, has been synthesized by condensation of 1,3-diethyl-2-thiobarbituric acid and 3,5-dimethyl-1-phenylpyrazole-4-carbaldehyde in ethanol in the presence of pyridine. The structure of this new compound was confirmed by elemental analysis, IR, 1H-NMR, 13C-NMR and EI-MS spectral analysis. http://mdpi.com/1422-8599/2010/1/M666/ Wed, 17 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Molbank 2010-03-17 2010 1 Short Note M666 1422-8599 5-[(3,5-Dimethyl-1-phenyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)methylene]-1,3-diethyl-2-thioxodihydropyrimidine-4,6(1H,5H)-dione 2010-03-17 doi: 10.3390/M666 Asiri Khan http://mdpi.com/1420-3049/15/3/1932/ Lipid vesicles spontaneously fuse and assemble into a lipid bilayer on planar or spherical silica surfaces and other substrates. The supported lipid bilayers (SLBs) maintain characteristics of biological membranes, and are thus considered to be biomembrane mimetic systems that are stable because of the underlying substrate. Examples of their shared characteristics with biomembranes include lateral fluidity, barrier formation to ions and molecules, and their ability to incorporate membrane proteins into them. Biomimetic silica microspheres consisting of SLBs on solid or porous silica microspheres have been utilized for different biosensing applications. The advantages of such biomimetic microspheres for biosensing include their increased surface area to volume ratio which improves the detection limits of analytes, and their amenability for miniaturization, multiplexing and high throughput screening. This review presents examples and formats of using such biomimetic solid or porous silica microspheres in biosensing. http://mdpi.com/1420-3049/15/3/1932/ Wed, 17 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Molecules 2010-03-17 15 3 Review 1932 1957 1420-3049 Biomimetic Silica Microspheres in Biosensing 2010-03-17 doi: 10.3390/molecules15031932 Chemburu Fenton Lopez Zeineldin http://mdpi.com/1420-3049/15/3/1918/ In this manuscript, we report clear evidence for the generation of aromatic cation radicals produced by using [hydroxy(tosyloxy)iodo]benzene (HTIB) in fluoroalcohol solvents such as 2,2,2-trifluoroethanol (TFE) and 1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoro-2-propanol (HFIP). The single-electron-transfer (SET) oxidation ability of HTIB to give cation radicals was first established by ESR and UV measurements. The reaction was broadly applied to various thiophenes, and unique thienyliodonium salts were directly synthesized by this method in excellent yields without the production of any harmful byproducts. http://mdpi.com/1420-3049/15/3/1918/ Wed, 17 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Molecules 2010-03-17 15 3 Article 1918 1931 1420-3049 Enhanced Reactivity of [Hydroxy(tosyloxy)iodo]benzene in Fluoroalcohol Media. Efficient Direct Synthesis of Thienyl(aryl)iodonium Salts 2010-03-17 doi: 10.3390/molecules15031918 Ito Ogawa Yamaoka Fujioka Dohi Kita http://mdpi.com/1424-8220/10/3/2188/ The Helicopter Adaptive Aircraft (HADA) is a morphing aircraft which is able to take-off as a helicopter and, when in forward flight, unfold the wings that are hidden under the fuselage, and transfer the power from the main rotor to a propeller, thus morphing from a helicopter to an airplane. In this process, the reliable folding and unfolding of the wings is critical, since a failure may determine the ability to perform a mission, and may even be catastrophic. This paper proposes a virtual sensor based Fault Detection, Identification and Recovery (FDIR) system to increase the reliability of the HADA aircraft. The virtual sensor is able to capture the nonlinear interaction between the folding/unfolding wings aerodynamics and the HADA airframe using the navigation sensor measurements. The proposed FDIR system has been validated using a simulation model of the HADA aircraft, which includes real phenomena as sensor noise and sampling characteristics and turbulence and wind perturbations. http://mdpi.com/1424-8220/10/3/2188/ Wed, 17 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Sensors 2010-03-17 10 3 Article 2188 2201 1424-8220 Virtual Sensor for Failure Detection, Identification and Recovery in the Transition Phase of a Morphing Aircraft 2010-03-17 doi: 10.3390/s100302188 Heredia Ollero http://mdpi.com/2071-1050/2/3/783/ Renewable energy sources (RES) have significant potential to contribute to the economic, social and environmental energy sustainability of small islands. They improve access to energy for most of the population, they also reduce emissions of local and global pollutants and they may create local socioeconomic development opportunities. The aim of this paper is to provide a review of the theoretical and empirical literature on the contribution of RES to the energy sustainability of islands, focusing on the main results and the methodologies used. Papers are classified according to their coverage of the three dimensions of the triangular approach to sustainability (economic, environmental and social). The review also takes into account whether and how the procedural sustainability has been tackled in those papers. It is acknowledged that although several topics have been covered by the existing literature, there are promising avenues for future research on several fronts, both thematic and methodological. http://mdpi.com/2071-1050/2/3/783/ Wed, 17 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Sustainability 2010-03-17 2 3 Review 783 811 2071-1050 Contribution of Renewable Energy Sources to the Sustainable Development of Islands: An Overview of the Literature and a Research Agenda 2010-03-17 doi: 10.3390/su2030783 Jaramillo-Nieves del Río http://mdpi.com/2072-4292/2/3/777/ This paper presents the results of snow cover monitoring studies in Liaoning Province, northeastern China, using MODIS data. Snow cover plays an important role in both the regional water balance and soil moisture properties during the early spring in northeastern China. In addition, heavy snowfalls commonly trigger hazards such as flooding, caused by rapid snow melt, or crop failure, resulting from fluctuations in soil temperature associated with changes in the snow cover. The latter is a function of both regional, or global, climatic changes, as well as fluctuations in the albedo resulting from variations in the Snow Covered Area (SCA). These impacts are crucial to human activities, especially to those living in middle-latitude areas such as Liaoning Province. Thus, SCA monitoring is currently an important tool in studies of global climate change, particularly because satellite remote sensing data provide timely and efficient snow cover information for large areas. In this study, MODIS L1B data, MODIS Daily Snow Products (MOD10A1) and MODIS 8-day Snow Products (MOD10A2) were used to monitor the SCA of Liaoning Province over the winter months of November–April, 2006–2008. The effects of cloud masking and forest masking on the snow monitoring results were also assessed. The results show that the SCA percentage derived from MODIS L1B data is relatively consistent, but slightly higher than that obtained from MODIS Snow Products. In situ data from 25 snow stations were used to assess the accuracy of snow cover monitoring from the SCA compared to the results from MODIS Snow Products. The studies found that the SCA results were more reliable than MODIS Snow Products in the study area. http://mdpi.com/2072-4292/2/3/777/ Wed, 17 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Remote Sensing 2010-03-17 2 3 Article 777 793 2072-4292 Snow Cover Monitoring Using MODIS Data in Liaoning Province, Northeastern China 2010-03-17 doi: 10.3390/rs2030777 Zhang Yan Lu http://mdpi.com/1660-4601/7/3/1139/ Cancer cluster investigations rarely receive significant public health resource allocations due to numerous inherent challenges and the limited success of past efforts. In 2008, a cluster of polycythemia vera, a rare blood cancer with unknown etiology, was identified in northeast Pennsylvania. A multidisciplinary group of federal and state agencies, academic institutions, and local healthcare providers subsequently developed a multifaceted research portfolio designed to better understand the cause of the cluster. This research agenda represents a unique and important opportunity to demonstrate that cancer cluster investigations can produce desirable public health and scientific outcomes when necessary resources are available. http://mdpi.com/1660-4601/7/3/1139/ Wed, 17 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2010-03-17 7 3 Communication 1139 1152 1660-4601 A Multidisciplinary Investigation of a Polycythemia Vera Cancer Cluster of Unknown Origin 2010-03-17 doi: 10.3390/ijerph7031139 Seaman Dearwent Gable Lewis Metcalf Orloff Tierney Zhu Logue Marchetto Ostroff Hoffman Xu Carey Erlich Gerhard Roda Iannuzzo Lewis Mellow Mulvihill Myles Wu Frank Gross-Davis Klotz Lynch Weissfeld Weinberg Cole http://mdpi.com/1660-3397/8/3/705/ Bacteria in marine environments are often under extreme conditions of e.g., pressure, temperature, salinity, and depletion of micronutrients, with survival and proliferation often depending on the ability to produce biologically active compounds. Some marine bacteria produce biosurfactants, which help to transport hydrophobic low water soluble substrates by increasing their bioavailability. However, other functions related to heavy metal binding, quorum sensing and biofilm formation have been described. In the case of metal ions, bacteria developed a strategy involving the release of binding agents to increase their bioavailability. In the particular case of the Fe3+ ion, which is almost insoluble in water, bacteria secrete siderophores that form soluble complexes with the ion, allowing the cells to uptake the iron required for cell functioning. Adaptive changes in the lipid composition of marine bacteria have been observed in response to environmental variations in pressure, temperature and salinity. Some fatty acids, including docosahexaenoic and eicosapentaenoic acids, have only been reported in prokaryotes in deep-sea bacteria. Cell membrane permeability can also be adapted to extreme environmental conditions by the production of hopanoids, which are pentacyclic triterpenoids that have a function similar to cholesterol in eukaryotes. Bacteria can also produce molecules that prevent the attachment, growth and/or survival of challenging organisms in competitive environments. The production of these compounds is particularly important in surface attached strains and in those in biofilms. The wide array of compounds produced by marine bacteria as an adaptive response to demanding conditions makes them suitable candidates for screening of compounds with commercially interesting biological functions. Biosurfactants produced by marine bacteria may be helpful to increase mass transfer in different industrial processes and in the bioremediation of hydrocarbon-contaminated sites. Siderophores are necessary e.g., in the treatment of diseases with metal ion imbalance, while antifouling compounds could be used to treat man-made surfaces that are used in marine environments. New classes of antibiotics could efficiently combat bacteria resistant to the existing antibiotics. The present work aims to provide a comprehensive review of the metabolites produced by marine bacteria in order to cope with intrusive environments, and to illustrate how such metabolites can be advantageously used in several relevant areas, from bioremediation to health and pharmaceutical sectors. http://mdpi.com/1660-3397/8/3/705/ Wed, 17 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Marine Drugs 2010-03-17 8 3 Review 705 727 1660-3397 Production of Metabolites as Bacterial Responses to the Marine Environment 2010-03-17 doi: 10.3390/md8030705 de Carvalho Fernandes http://mdpi.com/1996-1944/3/3/1913/ The freeze-casting of porous materials has received a great deal of attention during the past few years. This simple process, where a material suspension is simply frozen and then sublimated, provides materials with unique porous architectures, where the porosity is almost a direct replica of the frozen solvent crystals. This review focuses on the recent results on the process and the derived porous structures with regards to the biomaterials applications. Of particular interest is the architecture of the materials and the versatility of the process, which can be readily controlled and applied to biomaterials applications. A careful control of the starting formulation and processing conditions is required to control the integrity of the structure and resulting properties. Further in vitro and in vivo investigations are required to validate the potential of this new class of porous materials. http://mdpi.com/1996-1944/3/3/1913/ Wed, 17 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Materials 2010-03-17 3 3 Review 1913 1927 1996-1944 Freeze-Casting of Porous Biomaterials: Structure, Properties and Opportunities 2010-03-17 doi: 10.3390/ma3031913 Deville http://mdpi.com/1660-4601/7/3/1121/ Our study aimed to describe the association between food patterns and gender, parental education, physical activity, sleeping and obesity in 1976 children aged 5−10 years old. Dietary intake was measured by a semi quantitative food frequency questionnaire; body mass index was calculated and categorized according to the IOTF classification. Factor analysis and generalized linear models were applied to identify food patterns and their associations. TV viewing and male gender were significant positive predictors for fast-food, sugar sweetened beverages and pastry pattern, while a higher level of maternal education and longer sleeping duration were positively associated with a dietary patterns that included fruit and vegetables. http://mdpi.com/1660-4601/7/3/1121/ Wed, 17 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2010-03-17 7 3 Article 1121 1138 1660-4601 Food Patterns According to Sociodemographics, Physical Activity, Sleeping and Obesity in Portuguese Children 2010-03-17 doi: 10.3390/ijerph7031121 Moreira Santos Padrão Cordeiro Bessa Valente Barros Teixeira Mitchell Lopes Moreira http://mdpi.com/1996-1944/3/3/1904/ A model donor-acceptor oligomer consisting of benzodithiophene-diketone and thiophene has been investigated with regard to its molecular packing and opto-electronic properties. The crystal structure suggests that the packing is dominated by charge-transfer interactions between the electron-rich part of the molecule and the electron-poor part. A series of observations corroborate this assumption, among them are a charge-transfer band in the film absorption spectra and exceptionally low π-π distances. A detailed analysis of the energetic levels of the present system reveals that only the HOMO level of the acceptor is shifted by conjugation to the donor. The results can contribute to the development of improved materials for organic electronics. http://mdpi.com/1996-1944/3/3/1904/ Wed, 17 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Materials 2010-03-17 3 3 Communication 1904 1912 1996-1944 Charge-Transfer Controlled Crystallization of a Model Oligomer for Donor-Acceptor-Polythiophenes 2010-03-17 doi: 10.3390/ma3031904 Rieger Enkelmann Müllen http://mdpi.com/1424-8220/10/3/2169/ The oscillation frequencies of charged particles in a Penning trap can serve as sensors for spectroscopy when additional field components are introduced to the magnetic and electric fields used for confinement. The presence of so-called “magnetic bottles” and specific electric anharmonicities creates calculable energy-dependences of the oscillation frequencies in the radiofrequency domain which may be used to detect the absorption or emission of photons both in the microwave and optical frequency domains. The precise electronic measurement of these oscillation frequencies therefore represents an optical sensor for spectroscopy. We discuss possible applications for precision laser and microwave spectroscopy and their role in the determination of magnetic moments and excited state lifetimes. Also, the trap-assisted measurement of radiative nuclear de-excitations in the X-ray domain is discussed. This way, the different applications range over more than 12 orders of magnitude in the detectable photon energies, from below μeV in the microwave domain to beyond MeV in the X-ray domain. http://mdpi.com/1424-8220/10/3/2169/ Tue, 16 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Sensors 2010-03-16 10 3 Article 2169 2187 1424-8220 Trapped Ion Oscillation Frequencies as Sensors for Spectroscopy 2010-03-16 doi: 10.3390/s100302169 Vogel Quint Nörtershäuser http://mdpi.com/2073-4336/1/1/34/ Experimental and empirical evidence shows that the utility an individual derives from a certain state depends on the reference state she compares it to. According to economic theory, the reference state is determined by past, present and future outcomes of either the individual herself or her reference group. The experiment described in this paper suggests that, in addition, reference states depend to a significant degree on environmental factors not relevant for outcomes. It indicates that reference states - and hence utility - can relatively easily be influenced without changing people’s outcomes, e.g., through priming. http://mdpi.com/2073-4336/1/1/34/ Tue, 16 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Games 2010-03-16 1 1 Article 34 52 2073-4336 The Influence of Priming on Reference States 2010-03-16 doi: 10.3390/g1010034 Matthey http://mdpi.com/1424-8220/10/3/2150/ Wireless Sensor Networks are presented as devices for signal sampling and reconstruction. Within this framework, the qualitative and quantitative influence of (i) signal granularity, (ii) spatial distribution of sensors, (iii) sensors clustering, and (iv) signal reconstruction procedure are assessed. This is done by defining an error metric and performing a Monte Carlo experiment. It is shown that all these factors have significant impact on the quality of the reconstructed signal. The extent of such impact is quantitatively assessed. http://mdpi.com/1424-8220/10/3/2150/ Tue, 16 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Sensors 2010-03-16 10 3 Article 2150 2168 1424-8220 Data Driven Performance Evaluation of Wireless Sensor Networks 2010-03-16 doi: 10.3390/s100302150 Frery Ramos Alencar-Neto Nakamura Loureiro http://mdpi.com/1424-8220/10/3/2129/ This paper presents a two stage algorithm for real-time estimation of instantaneous tremor parameters from gyroscope recordings. Gyroscopes possess the advantage of providing directly joint rotational speed, overcoming the limitations of traditional tremor recording based on accelerometers. The proposed algorithm first extracts tremor patterns from raw angular data, and afterwards estimates its instantaneous amplitude and frequency. Real-time separation of voluntary and tremorous motion relies on their different frequency contents, whereas tremor modelling is based on an adaptive LMS algorithm and a Kalman filter. Tremor parameters will be employed to drive a neuroprosthesis for tremor suppression based on biomechanical loading. http://mdpi.com/1424-8220/10/3/2129/ Tue, 16 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Sensors 2010-03-16 10 3 Article 2129 2139 1424-8220 Real-Time Estimation of Pathological Tremor Parameters from Gyroscope Data 2010-03-16 doi: 10.3390/s100302129 Gallego Rocon Roa Moreno Pons http://mdpi.com/1422-0067/11/3/1103/ Dye sensitized solar cell (DSSC) is the only solar cell that can offer both the flexibility and transparency. Its efficiency is comparable to amorphous silicon solar cells but with a much lower cost. This review not only covers the fundamentals of DSSC but also the related cutting-edge research and its development for industrial applications. Most recent research topics on DSSC, for example, applications of nanostructured TiO2, ZnO electrodes, ionic liquid electrolytes, carbon nanotubes, graphene and solid state DSSC have all been included and discussed. http://mdpi.com/1422-0067/11/3/1103/ Tue, 16 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET International Journal of Molecular Sciences 2010-03-16 11 3 Review 1103 1113 1422-0067 Dye Sensitized Solar Cells 2010-03-16 doi: 10.3390/ijms11031103 Wei http://mdpi.com/1424-8220/10/3/2119/ Enzymatic amperometric procedures for measuring arsenic, based on the inhibitive action of this metal on acetylcholinesterase enzyme activity, have been developed. Screen-printed carbon electrodes (SPCEs) were used with acetylcholinesterase covalently bonded directly to its surface. The amperometric response of acetylcholinesterase was affected by the presence of arsenic ions, which caused a decrease in the current intensity. The experimental optimum working conditions of pH, substrate concentration and potential applied, were established. Under these conditions, repeatability and reproducibility of biosensors were determined, reaching values below 4% in terms of relative standard deviation. The detection limit obtained for arsenic was 1.1 × 10−8 M for Ach/SPCE biosensor. Analysis of the possible effect of the presence of foreign ions in the solution was performed. The method was applied to determine levels of arsenic in spiked tap water samples. http://mdpi.com/1424-8220/10/3/2119/ Tue, 16 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Sensors 2010-03-16 10 3 Article 2119 2128 1424-8220 Immobilization of Acetylcholinesterase on Screen-Printed Electrodes. Application to the Determination of Arsenic(III) 2010-03-16 doi: 10.3390/s100302119 Sanllorente-Méndez Domínguez-Renedo Arcos-Martínez http://mdpi.com/1422-0067/11/3/1090/ Catostomid fishes (suckers) have duplicate copies of the growth hormone gene and other nuclear genes, due to a genome duplication event early in the group’s history. Yet, paralogs of GH in suckers are more than 90% conserved in nucleotide (nt) and amino acid (aa) sequence. Within paralogs across species, variation in nt and aa sequence averages 3.33% and 4.46% for GHI, and 3.22% and 2.43% for GHII, respectively. Selection tests suggest that the two GH paralogs are under strong purifying selection. Consensus trees from phylogenetic analysis of GH coding region data for 23 species of suckers, other cypriniform fishes and outgroups resolved cypriniform relationships and relationships among GHI sequences of suckers more or less consistently with analyses based on other molecular data. However, the analysis failed to resolve all sucker GHI and GHII sequences as monophyletic sister groups. This unexpected topology did not differ significantly from topologies constrained to make all GH sequences monophyletic. We attribute this result either to limitations in our GHII data set or convergent adaptive changes in GHII of tribe Catostomini. http://mdpi.com/1422-0067/11/3/1090/ Tue, 16 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET International Journal of Molecular Sciences 2010-03-16 11 3 Article 1090 1102 1422-0067 Evolutionary Divergence of Duplicate Copies of the Growth Hormone Gene in Suckers (Actinopterygii: Catostomidae) 2010-03-16 doi: 10.3390/ijms11031090 Bart Jr. Reneau Doosey Bell http://mdpi.com/1420-3049/15/3/1903/ Styrylquinoline derivatives are demonstrated to be HIV-1 integrase inhibitors. On the basis of our previous CoMFA analysis of a series of styrylquinoline derivatives, N-[(2-substituted-styryl)-5-chloro-8-hydroxyquinolin-7-yl]-benzenesulfonamide derivatives were designed and synthesized,and their possible HIV IN inhibitory activity was evaluated. http://mdpi.com/1420-3049/15/3/1903/ Tue, 16 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Molecules 2010-03-16 15 3 Article 1903 1917 1420-3049 Design, Synthesis and Anti-HIV Integrase Evaluation of N-(5-Chloro-8-Hydroxy-2-Styrylquinolin-7-yl)Benzenesulfonamide Derivatives 2010-03-16 doi: 10.3390/molecules15031903 Jiao He Zeng Tan Hu Wang http://mdpi.com/1420-3049/15/3/1898/ The focus of this paper was to identify a cheaper solvent from among diesel fuel, kerosene, sulfolane or a mixture of sulfolane and cyclohexanol for the preparation of cyanuric acid heterocyclization of urea. To obtain a higher yield, the effects of catalyst (sodium, ammonium, calcium and zinc salts) and temperature (160 °C to 220 °C) on the trimerization of urea were also carefully studied. We established the optimal reaction conditions and further validated them in our scale-up experiments. http://mdpi.com/1420-3049/15/3/1898/ Tue, 16 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Molecules 2010-03-16 15 3 Article 1898 1902 1420-3049 Liquid-Phase Synthesis of Cyanuric Acid from Urea 2010-03-16 doi: 10.3390/molecules15031898 She Yu Huang Li Li http://mdpi.com/1424-8220/10/3/2107/ Fibrinogen can transform fibrin through an agglutination reaction, finally forming fibrin polymer with grid structure. The density and viscosity of the reaction system changes drastically during the course of agglutination. In this research, we apply an independently-developed piezoelectric agglutination sensor to detect the fibrinogen agglutination reaction in patients with coronary heart diseases. The terminal judgment method of determining plasma agglutination reaction through piezoelectric agglutination sensor was established. In addition, the standard curve between plasma agglutination time and fibrinogen concentration was established to determinate fibrinogen content quantitatively. The results indicate the close correlation between the STAGO paramagnetic particle method and the method of piezoelectric agglutination sensor for the detection of Fibrinogen. The correlation coefficient was 0.91 (γ = 0.91). The determination can be completed within 10 minutes. The fibrinogen concentration in the coronary heart disease group was significantly higher than that of the healthy control group (P < 0.05). The results reveal that high fibrinogen concentration is closely correlated to the incurrence, development and prognosis of coronary heart diseases. Compared with other traditional methods, the method of piezoelectric agglutination sensor has some merits such as operation convenience, small size, low cost, quick detecting, good precision and the common reacting agents with paramagnetic particle method. http://mdpi.com/1424-8220/10/3/2107/ Tue, 16 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Sensors 2010-03-16 10 3 Article 2107 2118 1424-8220 Quantitative Determination of Fibrinogen of Patients with Coronary Heart Diseases through Piezoelectric Agglutination Sensor 2010-03-16 doi: 10.3390/s100302107 Chen Hua Fu Liu Chen Cai http://mdpi.com/1660-4601/7/3/1105/ For over 30 years it has been established that the Entamoeba histolytica protozoan included two biologically and genetically different species, one with a pathogenic phenotype called E. histolytica and the other with a non-pathogenic phenotype called Entamoeba dispar. Both of these amoebae species can infect humans. E. histolytica has been considered as a potential pathogen that can cause serious damage to the large intestine (colitis, dysentery) and other extraintestinal organs, mainly the liver (amebic liver abscess), whereas E. dispar is a species that interacts with humans in a commensal relationship, causing no symptoms or any tissue damage. This paradigm, however, should be reconsidered or re-evaluated. In the present work, we report the detection and genotyping of E. dispar sequences of DNA obtained from patients with amebic liver abscesses, including the genotyping of an isolate obtained from a Brazilian patient with a clinical diagnosis of intestinal amebiasis that was previously characterized as an E. dispar species. The genetic diversity and phylogenetic analysis performed by our group has shown the existence of several different genotypes of E. dispar that can be associated to, or be potentiality responsible for intestinal or liver tissue damage, similar to that observed with E. histolytica. http://mdpi.com/1660-4601/7/3/1105/ Tue, 16 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2010-03-16 7 3 Article 1105 1120 1660-4601 Human Amebiasis: Breaking the Paradigm? 2010-03-16 doi: 10.3390/ijerph7031105 Ximénez Cerritos Rojas Dolabella Morán Shibayama González Valadez Hernández Valenzuela Limón Partida Silva http://mdpi.com/1660-3397/8/3/678/ Increasingly over the past century, seasonal fish kills associated with toxic blooms of Prymnesium parvum have devastated aquaculture and native fish, shellfish, and mollusk populations worldwide. Protracted blooms of P. parvum can result in major disturbances to the local ecology and extensive monetary losses. Toxicity of this alga is attributed to a collection of compounds known as prymnesins, which exhibit potent cytotoxic, hemolytic, neurotoxic and ichthyotoxic effects. These secondary metabolites are especially damaging to gill-breathing organisms and they are believed to interact directly with plasma membranes, compromising integrity by permitting ion leakage. Several factors appear to function in the activation and potency of prymnesins including salinity, pH, ion availability, and growth phase. Prymnesins may function as defense compounds to prevent herbivory and some investigations suggest that they have allelopathic roles. Since the last extensive review was published, two prymnesins have been chemically characterized and ongoing investigations are aimed at the purification and analysis of numerous other toxic metabolites from this alga. More information is needed to unravel the mechanisms of prymnesin synthesis and the significance of these metabolites. Such work should greatly improve our limited understanding of the physiology and biochemistry of P. parvum and how to mitigate its blooms. http://mdpi.com/1660-3397/8/3/678/ Tue, 16 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Marine Drugs 2010-03-16 8 3 Review 678 704 1660-3397 Prymnesins: Toxic Metabolites of the Golden Alga, Prymnesium parvum Carter (Haptophyta) 2010-03-16 doi: 10.3390/md8030678 Manning La Claire http://mdpi.com/1422-8599/2010/1/M665/ The title compound, 1-{[(3,4-dimethylisoxazol-5-yl)imino]methyl}-2-naphthol has been synthesized by condensation of 5-amino-3,4-dimethylisoxazole and 2-hydroxy-1-naphthaledhyde in ethanol. The structure of this new compound was confirmed by elemental analysis, IR, 1H-NMR, 13C-NMR and EI-MS spectral analysis. http://mdpi.com/1422-8599/2010/1/M665/ Tue, 16 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Molbank 2010-03-16 2010 1 Short Note M665 1422-8599 1-{[(3,4-Dimethylisoxazol-5-yl)imino]methyl}-2-naphthol 2010-03-16 doi: 10.3390/M665 Asiri Khan http://mdpi.com/1420-3049/15/3/1891/ A new triterpenoid saponin was isolated from Pulsatilla cernua, along with eight known triterpenoids and triterpenoid glycosides. The new compound was identified as 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)-α-L-arabinopyranosyl-bayogenin-28-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→4)-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→6)-β-D-glucopyranosyl ester (1) on the basis of 1D, 2D-NMR techniques, including COSY, HMBC, and HMQC correlations, MS analysis, as well as chemical methods. http://mdpi.com/1420-3049/15/3/1891/ Tue, 16 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Molecules 2010-03-16 15 3 Communication 1891 1897 1420-3049 A New Triterpenoid Saponin from Pulsatilla cernua 2010-03-16 doi: 10.3390/molecules15031891 Xu Bai Liu Liu Xu Xie Si Zhou Liu Xu http://mdpi.com/1422-8599/2010/1/M664/ A new compound, 1,3,5-tris-(2,3-dihydro-1H-1,5-benzodiazepin-4-yl)-1,2,3,4,5,6-hexahydro-s-triazine was obtained by the reaction of ortho-phenylenediamine 1 with 1,3,5-triacryl-1,2,3,4,5,6-hexahydro-1,3,5-triazine 2. Spectroscopic (IR, 1H-NMR, 13C-NMR and MS) data are supplied to support the proposed structure for the title compound. http://mdpi.com/1422-8599/2010/1/M664/ Tue, 16 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Molbank 2010-03-16 2010 1 Short Note M664 1422-8599 1,3,5-Tris-(2,3-dihydro-1H-1,5-benzodiazepin-4-yl)-1,2,3,4,5,6-hexahydro-s-triazine 2010-03-16 doi: 10.3390/M664 Insuasty Garcia Abonia Nogueras Cobo http://mdpi.com/1996-1944/3/3/1888/ Chemical pulps are produced by chemical delignification of lignocelluloses such as wood or annual non-woody plants. After pulping (e.g., kraft pulping), the remaining lignin is removed by bleaching to produce a high quality, bright paper. The goal of bleaching is to remove lignin from the pulp without a negative effect on the cellulose; for this reason, delignification should be performed in a highly selective manner. New environmentally-friendly alternatives to conventional chlorine-based bleaching technologies (e.g., oxygen, ozone, or peroxide bleaching) have been suggested or implemented. In an attempt to find inorganic agents that mimic the action of highly selective lignin-degrading enzymes and that can be applicable in industrial conditions, the researchers have focused on polyoxometalates (POMs), used either as regenerable redox reagents (in anaerobic conditions) or as catalysts (in aerobic conditions) of oxidative delignification. The aim of this paper is to review the basic concepts of POM delignification in these two processes. http://mdpi.com/1996-1944/3/3/1888/ Tue, 16 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Materials 2010-03-16 3 3 Review 1888 1903 1996-1944 Polyoxometalates in Oxidative Delignification of Chemical Pulps: Effect on Lignin 2010-03-16 doi: 10.3390/ma3031888 Bujanovic Ralph Reiner Hirth Atalla http://mdpi.com/1660-3397/8/3/658/ In this review, we focus on processes, organs and systems targeted by the marine toxins yessotoxin (YTX), okadaic acid (OA) and palytoxin (PTX). The effects of YTX and their basis are analyzed from data collected in the mollusc Mytilus galloprovincialis, the annelid Enchytraeus crypticus, Swiss CD1 mice and invertebrate and vertebrate cell cultures. OA and PTX, two toxins with a better established mode of action, are analyzed with regard to their effects on development. The amphibian Xenopus laevis is used as a model, and the Frog Embryo Teratogenesis Assay-Xenopus (FETAX) as the experimental protocol. http://mdpi.com/1660-3397/8/3/658/ Tue, 16 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Marine Drugs 2010-03-16 8 3 Review 658 677 1660-3397 Targets and Effects of Yessotoxin, Okadaic Acid and Palytoxin: A Differential Review 2010-03-16 doi: 10.3390/md8030658 Franchini Malagoli Ottaviani http://mdpi.com/1996-1944/3/3/1863/ Collagen is the most widely distributed class of proteins in the human body. The use of collagen-based biomaterials in the field of tissue engineering applications has been intensively growing over the past decades. Multiple cross-linking methods were investigated and different combinations with other biopolymers were explored in order to improve tissue function. Collagen possesses a major advantage in being biodegradable, biocompatible, easily available and highly versatile. However, since collagen is a protein, it remains difficult to sterilize without alterations to its structure. This review presents a comprehensive overview of the various applications of collagen-based biomaterials developed for tissue engineering, aimed at providing a functional material for use in regenerative medicine from the laboratory bench to the patient bedside. http://mdpi.com/1996-1944/3/3/1863/ Tue, 16 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Materials 2010-03-16 3 3 Review 1863 1887 1996-1944 Collagen-Based Biomaterials for Tissue Engineering Applications 2010-03-16 doi: 10.3390/ma3031863 Parenteau-Bareil Gauvin Berthod http://mdpi.com/1099-4300/12/3/578/ The differential Shannon entropy of information theory can change under a change of variables (coordinates), but the thermodynamic entropy of a physical system must be invariant under such a change. This difference is puzzling, because the Shannon and Gibbs entropies have the same functional form. We show that a canonical change of variables can, indeed, alter the spatial component of the thermodynamic entropy just as it alters the differential Shannon entropy. However, there is also a momentum part of the entropy, which turns out to undergo an equal and opposite change when the coordinates are transformed, so that the total thermodynamic entropy remains invariant. We furthermore show how one may correctly write the change in total entropy for an isothermal physical process in any set of spatial coordinates. http://mdpi.com/1099-4300/12/3/578/ Tue, 16 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Entropy 2010-03-16 12 3 Article 578 590 1099-4300 Thermodynamic and Differential Entropy under a Change of Variables 2010-03-16 doi: 10.3390/e12030578 Hnizdo Gilson http://mdpi.com/1099-4300/12/3/570/ The adsorption of anthracene (C14H10), at the mercury electrode/ethylene glycol (EG) solution interface, is characterized by a low and almost constant capacity (about 8 μF cm−2) region (capacitive “pit” or “plateau”) in capacity vs. potential curves, upon selection of suitable values of temperature, bulk concentration and applied potential values. This result is rationalized assuming the occurrence of a 2D phase transition between two distinct adsorbed phases: (i) a “disordered” phase, characterized by a flat “parallel” disposition of the aromatic moiety on the electrode surface (ii) an “ordered” phase, characterized by a “perpendicular” disposition of the aromatic moiety on the electrode surface. The experimental evidence is rationalized by considering the chemical potential as an explicit function of the “electric field/adsorbed molecule” interaction. Such a modelistic approach enables the determination of the relevant standard entropy variation. http://mdpi.com/1099-4300/12/3/570/ Tue, 16 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Entropy 2010-03-16 12 3 Article 570 577 1099-4300 Entropy Variation in the Two-dimensional Phase Transition of Anthracene Adsorbed at the Hg Electrode/Ethylene Glycol Solution Interface 2010-03-16 doi: 10.3390/e12030570 Fontanesi http://mdpi.com/1424-8247/3/3/702/ Affective disorders represent the most common psychiatric diseases, with substantial co-morbidity existing between major depressive disorders (MDD) and anxiety disorders. The lack of truly novel acting compounds has led to non-monoaminergic based research and hypotheses in recent years. The large number of brain neuropeptides, characterized by discrete synthesis sites and multiple receptors, represent likely research candidates for novel therapeutic targets. The present review summarises the available preclinical and human evidence regarding the neuropeptide, oxytocin, and its implications in the aetiology and treatment of MDD. While the evidence is not conclusive at present additional studies are warranted to determine whether OXT may be of therapeutic benefit in subsets of MDD patients such as those with comorbid anxiety symptoms and low levels of social attachment. http://mdpi.com/1424-8247/3/3/702/ Tue, 16 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Pharmaceuticals 2010-03-16 3 3 Review 702 724 1424-8247 Oxytocin and Major Depressive Disorder: Experimental and Clinical Evidence for Links to Aetiology and Possible Treatment 2010-03-16 doi: 10.3390/ph3030702 Slattery Neumann http://mdpi.com/1999-4923/2/1/61/ The effect of Pgp induction in rats by pregnenolone 16α-carbonitrile (PCN) (3 days, 35 mg/kg/d, p.o.) on digoxin pharmacokinetics and intestinal transport has been assessed. After intravenous or oral digoxin dosing the arterial and hepatic portal vein (oral) AUC(0-24h) were significantly reduced by PCN pre-treatment. Biliary digoxin clearance increased 2-fold following PCN treatment. PCN significantly increased net digoxin secretion (2.05- and 4.5-fold respectively) in ileum and colon but not in duodenum or jejunum. This increased secretion correlated with increased Pgp protein expression in ileum and colon. Both intestinal and biliary excretion therefore contribute to altered digoxin disposition following PCN. http://mdpi.com/1999-4923/2/1/61/ Mon, 15 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Pharmaceutics 2010-03-15 2 1 Article 61 77 1999-4923 The Effects of Pregnenolone 16α-Carbonitrile Dosing on Digoxin Pharmacokinetics and Intestinal Absorption in the Rat 2010-03-15 doi: 10.3390/pharmaceutics2010061 Lowes Haslam Fihn Hilgendorf Karlsson Simmons Ungell http://mdpi.com/1999-4907/1/1/25/ We evaluated the effects of site preparation treatments on growth of lodgepole pine and white spruce in north-eastern British Columbia, Canada. These treatments can provide yield gains of up to 10 percent for lodgepole pine and white spruce at 60 and 80 years, respectively (estimated using TASS). Stands of these two species are showing a Type 1 response. Using growth multipliers, based on measurements collected at ages 10 to 20 results in inflated estimates of potential yield responses while the age-shift method provides the most appropriate estimates of yield gains when measured during the first 20 years of growth. http://mdpi.com/1999-4907/1/1/25/ Mon, 15 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Forests 2010-03-15 1 1 Article 25 48 1999-4907 Yield Implications of Site Preparation Treatments for Lodgepole Pine and White Spruce in Northern British Columbia 2010-03-15 doi: 10.3390/f1010025 Cortini Comeau Boateng Bedford http://mdpi.com/1424-8220/10/3/2088/ Conductometric semiconducting metal oxide gas sensors have been widely used and investigated in the detection of gases. Investigations have indicated that the gas sensing process is strongly related to surface reactions, so one of the important parameters of gas sensors, the sensitivity of the metal oxide based materials, will change with the factors influencing the surface reactions, such as chemical components, surface-modification and microstructures of sensing layers, temperature and humidity. In this brief review, attention will be focused on changes of sensitivity of conductometric semiconducting metal oxide gas sensors due to the five factors mentioned above. http://mdpi.com/1424-8220/10/3/2088/ Mon, 15 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Sensors 2010-03-15 10 3 Review 2088 2106 1424-8220 Metal Oxide Gas Sensors: Sensitivity and Influencing Factors 2010-03-15 doi: 10.3390/s100302088 Wang Yin Zhang Xiang Gao http://mdpi.com/2073-4425/1/1/9/ In this review, we discuss findings from studies carried out over the past 20+ years that document the occurrence of asymmetric introgressive hybridization in a plant clade. In particular, analyses of natural and experimental hybridization have demonstrated the consistent introgression of genes from Iris fulva into both Iris brevicaulis and Iris hexagona. Furthermore, our analyses have detected certain prezygotic and postzygotic barriers to reproduction that appear to contribute to the asymmetric introgression. Finally, our studies have determined that a portion of the genes transferred apparently affects adaptive traits. http://mdpi.com/2073-4425/1/1/9/ Mon, 15 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Genes 2010-03-15 1 1 Review 9 22 2073-4425 Asymmetric Introgressive Hybridization Among Louisiana Iris Species 2010-03-15 doi: 10.3390/genes1010009 Arnold Tang Knapp Martin http://mdpi.com/1424-8220/10/3/2064/ Deployment quality and cost are two conflicting aspects in wireless sensor networks. Random deployment, where the monitored field is covered by randomly and uniformly deployed sensor nodes, is an appropriate approach for large-scale network applications. However, their successful applications depend considerably on the deployment quality that uses the minimum number of sensors to achieve a desired coverage. Currently, the number of sensors required to meet the desired coverage is based on asymptotic analysis, which cannot meet deployment quality due to coverage overestimation in real applications. In this paper, we first investigate the coverage overestimation and address the challenge of designing coverage-guaranteed deployment strategies. To overcome this problem, we propose two deployment strategies, namely, the Expected-area Coverage Deployment (ECD) and BOundary Assistant Deployment (BOAD). The deployment quality of the two strategies is analyzed mathematically. Under the analysis, a lower bound on the number of deployed sensor nodes is given to satisfy the desired deployment quality. We justify the correctness of our analysis through rigorous proof, and validate the effectiveness of the two strategies through extensive simulation experiments. The simulation results show that both strategies alleviate the coverage overestimation significantly. In addition, we also evaluate two proposed strategies in the context of target detection application. The comparison results demonstrate that if the target appears at the boundary of monitored region in a given random deployment, the average intrusion distance of BOAD is considerably shorter than that of ECD with the same desired deployment quality. In contrast, ECD has better performance in terms of the average intrusion distance when the invasion of intruder is from the inside of monitored region. http://mdpi.com/1424-8220/10/3/2064/ Mon, 15 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Sensors 2010-03-15 10 3 Article 2064 2087 1424-8220 Coverage-Guaranteed Sensor Node Deployment Strategies for Wireless Sensor Networks 2010-03-15 doi: 10.3390/s100302064 Fan Wang Huang Sun Sha http://mdpi.com/2073-8994/2/1/320/ When liquid molecules are confined in a narrow gap between smooth surfaces, their dynamic properties are completely different from those of the bulk. The molecular motions are highly restricted and the system exhibits solid-like responses when sheared slowly. This solidification behavior is very dependent on the molecular geometry (shape) of liquids because the solidification is induced by the packing of molecules into ordered structures in confinement. This paper reviews the measurements of confined structures and friction of symmetric and asymmetric liquid lubricants using the surface forces apparatus. The results show subtle and complex friction mechanisms at the molecular scale. http://mdpi.com/2073-8994/2/1/320/ Mon, 15 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Symmetry 2010-03-15 2 1 Review 320 345 2073-8994 Nanotribology of Symmetric and Asymmetric Liquid Lubricants 2010-03-15 doi: 10.3390/sym2010320 Yamada http://mdpi.com/2073-4336/1/1/18/ Explaining human cooperation in large groups of non-kin is a major challenge to both rational choice theory and the theory of evolution. Recent research suggests that group cooperation can be explained by positing that cooperators can punish non-cooperators or cheaters. The experimental evidence comes from public goods games in which group members are fully informed about the behavior of all others and cheating occurs in full view. We demonstrate that under more realistic information conditions, where cheating is less obvious, punishment is much less effective in enforcing cooperation. Evidently, the explanatory power of punishment is constrained by the visibility of cheating. http://mdpi.com/2073-4336/1/1/18/ Mon, 15 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Games 2010-03-15 1 1 Article 18 33 2073-4336 Punishment, Cooperation, and Cheater Detection in “Noisy” Social Exchange 2010-03-15 doi: 10.3390/g1010018 Bornstein Weisel http://mdpi.com/2073-8994/2/1/284/ The NICSzz-scan curves of aromatic organic, inorganic and “all-metal” molecules in conjunction with symmetry-based selection rules provide efficient diagnostic tools of the σ-, π- and/or double (σ + π)-aromaticity. The NICSzz-scan curves of σ-aromatic molecules are symmetric around the z-axis, having half-band widths approximately less than 3 Å with the induced diatropic ring current arising from Tx,y-allowed transitions involving exclusively σ-type molecular orbitals. Broad NICSzz-scan curves (half-band width approximately higher than 3 Å) characterize double (σ + π)-aromaticity, the chief contribution to the induced diatropic ring current arising from Tx,y-allowed transitions involving both σ- and π-type molecular orbitals. NICSzz-scan curves exhibiting two maxima at a certain distance above and below the molecular plane are typical for (σ + π)-aromatics where the π-diatropic ring current overwhelms the σ-type one. In the absence of any contribution from the σ-diatropic ring current, the NICSzz(0) value is close to zero and the molecule exhibits pure π-aromaticity. http://mdpi.com/2073-8994/2/1/284/ Mon, 15 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Symmetry 2010-03-15 2 1 Article 284 319 2073-8994 Diagnosis of the σ-, π- and (σ+π)-Aromaticity by the Shape of the NICSzz-Scan Curves and Symmetry-Based Selection Rules 2010-03-15 doi: 10.3390/sym2010284 Tsipis Depastas Tsipis http://mdpi.com/1424-8247/3/3/679/ A small library of truncated neomycin-conjugates is prepared by consecutive removal of 2,6-diaminoglucose rings, oxidation-reductive amination of ribose, oxidation-conjugation of aminopyridine/aminoquinoline and finally dimerization. The dimeric conjugates were evaluated for antibacterial activity with a unique hemocyanin-based biosensor. Based on the outcome of these results, a second-generation set of monomeric conjugates was prepared and found to display significant antibacterial activity, in particular with respect to kanamycin-resistant E. coli. http://mdpi.com/1424-8247/3/3/679/ Mon, 15 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Pharmaceuticals 2010-03-15 3 3 Article 679 701 1424-8247 2-Deoxystreptamine Conjugates by Truncation–Derivatization of Neomycin 2010-03-15 doi: 10.3390/ph3030679 Aslam Tabares Andreoni Canters Rutjes van Delft http://mdpi.com/1424-8220/10/3/2054/ Metal cutting processes are important due to increased consumer demands for quality metal cutting related products (more precise tolerances and better product surface roughness) that has driven the metal cutting industry to continuously improve quality control of metal cutting processes. This paper presents optimum surface roughness by using milling mould aluminium alloys (AA6061-T6) with Response Ant Colony Optimization (RACO). The approach is based on Response Surface Method (RSM) and Ant Colony Optimization (ACO). The main objectives to find the optimized parameters and the most dominant variables (cutting speed, feedrate, axial depth and radial depth). The first order model indicates that the feedrate is the most significant factor affecting surface roughness. http://mdpi.com/1424-8220/10/3/2054/ Mon, 15 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Sensors 2010-03-15 10 3 Article 2054 2063 1424-8220 Response Ant Colony Optimization of End Milling Surface Roughness 2010-03-15 doi: 10.3390/s100302054 Kadirgama Noor Alla http://mdpi.com/1420-3049/15/3/1882/ A variety of novel bicyclic and tricyclic pyrimidine derivatives was obtained via reaction of 6-amino-2-thioxo-1H-pyrimidine-4-one (1) with a different reagents. The antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activities of some of the synthesized compounds were tested. http://mdpi.com/1420-3049/15/3/1882/ Mon, 15 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Molecules 2010-03-15 15 3 Article 1882 1890 1420-3049 Synthesis of Certain Pyrimidine Derivatives as Antimicrobial Agents and Anti-Inflammatory Agents 2010-03-15 doi: 10.3390/molecules15031882 Mohamed Awad Sayed http://mdpi.com/1420-3049/15/3/1873/ Many studies indicate that traditional Chinese herbs are beneficial in the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases. Evodia rutaecarpa (‘Wu-Chu-Yu’)remains the most popular and multi-purpose herb traditionally used in China for treatment of headache, abdominal pain, postpartum hemorrhage, dysentery and amenorrhea. Rutaecarpine is one of the intriguing indolopyridoquinazoline alkaloids isolated from ‘Wu-Chu-Yu’. Rutaecarpine has been shown to have cardiovascular biological effects such as inotropic and chronotropic, vasorelaxant, anti-platelet aggregation and anti-inflammatory effects. Furthermore, it has been reported that rutaecarpine has beneficial effects on some cardiovascular diseases. This review summarizes data on the cardiovascular pharmacological actions of rutaecarpine the published over the recent years, aiming to provide more evidence supporting its use in the treatment of cardiovascular diseases. http://mdpi.com/1420-3049/15/3/1873/ Mon, 15 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Molecules 2010-03-15 15 3 Review 1873 1881 1420-3049 Pharmacological Effects of Rutaecarpine as a Cardiovascular Protective Agent 2010-03-15 doi: 10.3390/molecules15031873 Jia Hu http://mdpi.com/1420-3049/15/3/1825/ The role of vitamin A and its metabolites in the life processes starting with the historical background and its up to date information is discussed in the introduction. Also the role of 11Z-retinal in vision and retinoic acid in the biological processes is elucidated. The essential role of isotopically enriched systems in the progress of vision research, nutrition research etc. is discussed. In part B industrial commercial syntheses of vitamin A by the two leading companies Hoffmann-La Roche (now DSM) and BASF are discussed. The knowledge obtained via these pioneering syntheses has been essential for the further synthetic efforts in vitamin A field by other scientific groups. The rest of the paper is devoted to the synthetic efforts of the Leiden group that gives an access to the preparation of site directed high level isotope enrichment in retinals. First the synthesis of the retinals with deuterium incorporation in the conjugated side chain is reviewed. Then, 13C-labeled retinals are discussed. This is followed by the discussion of a convergent synthetic scheme that allows a rational access to prepare any isotopomer of retinals. The schemes that provide access to prepare any possible isotope enriched chemically modified systems are discussed. Finally, nor-retinals and bridged retinals that give access to a whole (as yet incomplete) library of possible isotopomers are reviewed. http://mdpi.com/1420-3049/15/3/1825/ Mon, 15 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Molecules 2010-03-15 15 3 Review 1825 1872 1420-3049 Synthesis and Use of Stable Isotope Enriched Retinals in the Field of Vitamin A 2010-03-15 doi: 10.3390/molecules15031825 Dawadi Lugtenburg http://mdpi.com/1996-1944/3/3/1845/ The combination of nanodiamond (ND) with biomolecular mass spectrometry (MS) makes rapid, sensitive detection of biopolymers from complex biosamples feasible. Due to its chemical inertness, optical transparency and biocompatibility, the advantage of NDs in MS study is unique. Furthermore, functionalization on the surfaces of NDs expands their application in the fields of proteomics and genomics for specific requirements greatly. This review presents methods of MS analysis based on solid phase extraction and elution on NDs and different application examples including peptide, protein, DNA, glycan and others. Owing to the quick development of nanotechnology, surface chemistry, new MS methods and the intense interest in proteomics and genomics, a huge increase of their applications in biomolecular MS analysis in the near future can be predicted. http://mdpi.com/1996-1944/3/3/1845/ Mon, 15 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Materials 2010-03-15 3 3 Review 1845 1862 1996-1944 Application of Nanodiamonds in Biomolecular Mass Spectrometry 2010-03-15 doi: 10.3390/ma3031845 Kong Cheng http://mdpi.com/1996-1944/3/3/1833/ One of the principal challenges in the field of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine is the formation of functional microvascular networks capable of sustaining tissue constructs. Complex tissues and vital organs require a means to support oxygen and nutrient transport during the development of constructs both prior to and after host integration, and current approaches have not demonstrated robust solutions to this challenge. Here, we present a technology platform encompassing the design, construction, cell seeding and functional evaluation of tissue equivalents for wound healing and other clinical applications. These tissue equivalents are comprised of biodegradable microfluidic scaffolds lined with microvascular cells and designed to replicate microenvironmental cues necessary to generate and sustain cell populations to replace dermal and/or epidermal tissues lost due to trauma or disease. Initial results demonstrate that these biodegradable microfluidic devices promote cell adherence and support basic cell functions. These systems represent a promising pathway towards highly integrated three-dimensional engineered tissue constructs for a wide range of clinical applications. http://mdpi.com/1996-1944/3/3/1833/ Mon, 15 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Materials 2010-03-15 3 3 Article 1833 1844 1996-1944 Tissue Equivalents Based on Cell-Seeded Biodegradable Microfluidic Constructs 2010-03-15 doi: 10.3390/ma3031833 Borenstein Megley Wall Pritchard Truong Kaplan Tao Herman http://mdpi.com/1424-2818/2/3/395/ Complex systems science has contributed to our understanding of ecology in important areas such as food webs, patch dynamics and population fluctuations. This has been achieved through the use of simple measures that can capture the difference between order and disorder and simple models with local interactions that can generate surprising behaviour at larger scales. However, close examination reveals that commonly applied definitions of complexity fail to accommodate some key features of ecological systems, a fact that will limit the contribution of complex systems science to ecology. We highlight these features of ecological complexity—such as diversity, cross-scale interactions, memory and environmental variability—that continue to challenge classical complex systems science. Further advances in these areas will be necessary before complex systems science can be widely applied to understand the dynamics of ecological systems. http://mdpi.com/1424-2818/2/3/395/ Mon, 15 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Diversity 2010-03-15 2 3 Article 395 410 1424-2818 Ecological Systems as Complex Systems: Challenges for an Emerging Science 2010-03-15 doi: 10.3390/d2030395 Anand Gonzalez Guichard Kolasa Parrott http://mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/3/450/ For years, the interest of the UDR1 research group has focused on the development of a Hybrid Series (HS) vehicle, different from the standard one thanks to the use of a Gas Turbine set (GT) as a thermal engine. The reason for this choice resides in the opportunity to reduce weight and dimensions, in comparison to a traditional Internal Combustion Engine (ICE). It is not possible to use the GT engine set directly for the vehicle traction, therefore the UDR1 HS configuration shows the GT set connected with the electric generator only. The result is that the traction is purely electric. The resulting engine configuration is a commonly defined Hybrid Series. Many efforts are spent in the definition of a generic scientific method to define the correct ratio (Degree of Hybridization) between the installed power of the battery pack and that of the GT electric generator, which simultaneously guarantees the life of the battery pack and the capacity of the vehicle to complete a common mission without lack of energy or stopping. This article reports a method to define the power ratio between battery pack and GT generator, applied to a recent commission for the development of a mini city bus. http://mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/3/450/ Mon, 15 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Energies 2010-03-15 3 3 Article 450 461 1996-1073 Procedure for the Design of a Hybrid-Series Vehicle and the Hybridization Degree Choice 2010-03-15 doi: 10.3390/en3030450 Capata Coccia http://mdpi.com/1099-4300/12/3/554/ The paper addresses the methods of description of friction-induced self-healing at the interface between two solid bodies. A macroscopic description of self-healing is based on a Turing system for the transfer of matter that leads to self-organization at the interface in the case of an unstable state. A microscopic description deals with a kinetic model of the process and entropy production during self-organization. The paper provides a brief overview of the Turing system approach and statistical kinetic models. The relation between these methods and the description of the self-healing surfaces is discussed, as well as results of their application. The analytical considerations are illustrated by numerical simulations. http://mdpi.com/1099-4300/12/3/554/ Mon, 15 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Entropy 2010-03-15 12 3 Article 554 569 1099-4300 Turing Systems, Entropy, and Kinetic Models for Self-Healing Surfaces 2010-03-15 doi: 10.3390/e12030554 Kagan http://mdpi.com/1660-3397/8/3/629/ Cyanobacterial cyclopeptides, including microcystins and nodularins, are considered a health hazard to humans due to the possible toxic effects of high consumption. From a pharmacological standpoint, microcystins are stable hydrophilic cyclic heptapeptides with a potential to cause cellular damage following uptake via organic anion-transporting polypeptides (OATP). Their intracellular biological effects involve inhibition of catalytic subunits of protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) and PP2, glutathione depletion and generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Interestingly, certain OATPs are prominently expressed in cancers as compared to normal tissues, qualifying MC as potential candidates for cancer drug development. In the era of targeted cancer therapy, cyanotoxins comprise a rich source of natural cytotoxic compounds with a potential to target cancers expressing specific uptake transporters. Moreover, their structure offers opportunities for combinatorial engineering to enhance the therapeutic index and resolve organ-specific toxicity issues. In this article, we revisit cyanobacterial cyclopeptides as potential novel targets for anticancer drugs by summarizing existing biomedical evidence, presenting structure-activity data and discussing developmental perspectives. http://mdpi.com/1660-3397/8/3/629/ Mon, 15 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Marine Drugs 2010-03-15 8 3 Review 629 657 1660-3397 Cyanobacterial Cyclopeptides as Lead Compounds to Novel Targeted Cancer Drugs 2010-03-15 doi: 10.3390/md8030629 Sainis Fokas Vareli Tzakos Kounnis Briasoulis http://mdpi.com/1660-3397/8/3/608/ The marine environment is extremely diverse, with huge variations in pressure and temperature. Nevertheless, life, especially microbial life, thrives throughout the marine biosphere and microbes have adapted to all the divergent environments present. Large scale DNA sequence based approaches have recently been used to investigate the marine environment and these studies have revealed that the oceans harbor unprecedented microbial diversity. Novel gene families with representatives only within such metagenomic datasets represent a large proportion of the ocean metagenome. The presence of so many new gene families from these uncultured and highly diverse microbial populations represents a challenge for the understanding of and exploitation of the biology and biochemistry of the ocean environment. The application of new metagenomic and single cell genomics tools offers new ways to explore the complete metabolic diversity of the marine biome. http://mdpi.com/1660-3397/8/3/608/ Mon, 15 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Marine Drugs 2010-03-15 8 3 Review 608 628 1660-3397 Marine Metagenomics: New Tools for the Study and Exploitation of Marine Microbial Metabolism 2010-03-15 doi: 10.3390/md8030608 Kennedy Flemer Jackson Lejon Morrissey O’Gara Dobson http://mdpi.com/1660-3397/8/3/594/ The lactate dehydrogenases (LDHs) in hagfish have been estimated to be the prototype of those in higher vertebrates. The effects of high hydrostatic pressure from 0.1 to 100 MPa on LDH activities from three hagfishes were examined. The LDH activities of Eptatretus burgeri, living at 45–60 m, were completely lost at 5 MPa. In contrast, LDH-A and -B in Eptatretus okinoseanus maintained 70% of their activities even at 100 MPa. These results show that the deeper the habitat, the higher the tolerance to pressure. To elucidate the molecular mechanisms for adaptation to high pressure, we compared the amino acid sequences and three-dimensional structures of LDHs in these hagfish. There were differences in six amino acids (6, 10, 20, 156, 269, and 341). These amino acidresidues are likely to contribute to the stability of the E. okinoseanus LDH under high-pressure conditions. The amino acids responsible for the pressure tolerance of hagfish are the same in both human and hagfish LDHs, and one substitution that occurred as an adaptation during evolution is coincident with that observed in a human disease. Mutation of these amino acids can cause anomalies that may be implicated in the development of human diseases. http://mdpi.com/1660-3397/8/3/594/ Mon, 15 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Marine Drugs 2010-03-15 8 3 Review 594 607 1660-3397 Structure and Function of Lactate Dehydrogenase from Hagfish 2010-03-15 doi: 10.3390/md8030594 Nishiguchi Ito Okada http://mdpi.com/1660-4601/7/3/1093/ : In this article we provide an overview of the newest data concerning the effect of non-alcoholic constituents of alcoholic beverages, especially of beer, on pancreatic secretion, and their possible role in alcoholic pancreatitis and pancreatic carcinoma. The data indicate that non-alcoholic constituents of beer stimulate pancreatic enzyme secretion in humans and rats, at least in part, by direct action on pancreatic acinar cells. Some non-alcoholic compounds of beer, such as quercetin, resveratrol, ellagic acid or catechins, have been shown to be protective against experimentally induced pancreatitis by inhibiting pancreatic secretion, stellate cell activation or by reducing oxidative stress. Quercetin, ellagic acid and resveratrol also show anti-carcinogenic potential in vitro and in vivo. However, beer contains many more non-alcoholic ingredients. Their relevance in beer-induced functional alterations of pancreatic cells leading to pancreatitis and pancreatic cancer in humans needs to be further evaluated. http://mdpi.com/1660-4601/7/3/1093/ Mon, 15 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2010-03-15 7 3 Review 1093 1104 1660-4601 Beer and its Non-Alcoholic Compounds: Role in Pancreatic Exocrine Secretion, Alcoholic Pancreatitis and Pancreatic Carcinoma 2010-03-15 doi: 10.3390/ijerph7031093 Gerloff Singer Feick http://mdpi.com/1660-4601/7/3/1076/ The conventional view is that alcohol metabolism is carried out by ADH1 (Class I) in the liver. However, it has been suggested that another pathway plays an important role in alcohol metabolism, especially when the level of blood ethanol is high or when drinking is chronic. Over the past three decades, vigorous attempts to identify the enzyme responsible for the non-ADH1 pathway have focused on the microsomal ethanol oxidizing system (MEOS) and catalase, but have failed to clarify their roles in systemic alcohol metabolism. Recently, using ADH3-null mutant mice, we demonstrated that ADH3 (Class III), which has a high Km and is a ubiquitous enzyme of ancient origin, contributes to systemic alcohol metabolism in a dose-dependent manner, thereby diminishing acute alcohol intoxication. Although the activity of ADH3 toward ethanol is usually low in vitro due to its very high Km, the catalytic efficiency (kcat/Km) is markedly enhanced when the solution hydrophobicity of the reaction medium increases. Activation of ADH3 by increasing hydrophobicity should also occur in liver cells; a cytoplasmic solution of mouse liver cells was shown to be much more hydrophobic than a buffer solution when using Nile red as a hydrophobicity probe. When various doses of ethanol are administered to mice, liver ADH3 activity is dynamically regulated through induction or kinetic activation, while ADH1 activity is markedly lower at high doses (3–5 g/kg). These data suggest that ADH3 plays a dynamic role in alcohol metabolism, either collaborating with ADH1 or compensating for the reduced role of ADH1. A complex two-ADH model that ascribes total liver ADH activity to both ADH1 and ADH3 explains the dose-dependent changes in the pharmacokinetic parameters (b, CLT, AUC) of blood ethanol very well, suggesting that alcohol metabolism in mice is primarily governed by these two ADHs. In patients with alcoholic liver disease, liver ADH3 activity increases, while ADH1 activity decreases, as alcohol intake increases. Furthermore, ADH3 is induced in damaged cells that have greater hydrophobicity, whereas ADH1 activity is lower when there is severe liver disease. These data suggest that chronic binge drinking and the resulting liver disease shifts the key enzyme in alcohol metabolism from low-Km ADH1 to high-Km ADH3, thereby reducing the rate of alcohol metabolism. The interdependent increase in the ADH3/ADH1 activity ratio and AUC may be a factor in the development of alcoholic liver disease. However, the adaptive increase in ADH3 sustains alcohol metabolism, even in patients with alcoholic liver cirrhosis, which makes it possible for them to drink themselves to death. Thus, the regulation of ADH3 activity may be important in preventing alcoholism development. http://mdpi.com/1660-4601/7/3/1076/ Mon, 15 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2010-03-15 7 3 Review 1076 1092 1660-4601 A New View of Alcohol Metabolism and Alcoholism—Role of the High-Km Class Ⅲ Alcohol Dehydrogenase (ADH3) 2010-03-15 doi: 10.3390/ijerph7031076 Haseba Ohno http://mdpi.com/2071-1050/2/3/757/ This paper proposes a framework based on which innovations in wind power technologies can be evaluated from the standpoint of their contribution to diffusion expansion. The framework helps build up a missing link between the technical literature on innovations and policy-oriented contributions concerned with the diffusion potential of wind power in national energy systems. The ideas are applied for the evaluation of wind technology innovations adopted in Spain. The framework can help policy-makers prioritize their innovation objectives and funding, so as to support the adoption of innovations that deserve the highest priority, given the country’s resources and energy system characteristics. http://mdpi.com/2071-1050/2/3/757/ Mon, 15 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Sustainability 2010-03-15 2 3 Article 757 782 2071-1050 Wind Technology: A Framework for the Evaluation of Innovations’ Impacts on the Diffusion Potential 2010-03-15 doi: 10.3390/su2030757 Dinica http://mdpi.com/2072-6643/2/3/340/ Equol, one of the main metabolites of daidzein, is a chiral compound with pleiotropic effects on cellular signaling. This property may induce activation/inhibition of the estrogen receptors (ER) a or b, and therefore, explain the beneficial/deleterious effects of equol on estrogen-dependent diseases. With its asymmetric centre at position C-3, equol can exist in two enantiomeric forms (R- and S-equol). To elucidate the yet unclear mechanisms of ER activation/inhibition by equol, we performed a comprehensive analysis of ERa and ERb transactivation by racemic equol, as well as by enantiomerically pure forms. Racemic equol was prepared by catalytic hydrogenation from daidzein and separated into enantiomers by chiral HPLC. The configuration assignment was performed by optical rotatory power measurements. The ER-induced transactivation by R- and S-equol (0.1–10 µM) and 17b-estradiol (E2, 10 nM) was studied using transient transfections of ERa and ERb in CHO, HepG2 and HeLa cell lines. R- and S-equol induce ER transactivation in an opposite fashion according to the cellular context. R-equol and S-equol are more potent in inducing ERa in an AF-2 and AF-1 permissive cell line, respectively. Involvement of ERa transactivation functions (AF-1 and AF-2) in these effects has been examined. Both AF-1 and AF-2 are involved in racemic equol, R-equol and S-equol induced ERa transcriptional activity. These results could be of interest to find a specific ligand modulating ER transactivation and could contribute to explaining the diversity of equol actions in vivo. http://mdpi.com/2072-6643/2/3/340/ Mon, 15 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Nutrients 2010-03-15 2 3 Communication 340 354 2072-6643 Comparative Effects of R- and S-equol and Implication of Transactivation Functions (AF-1 and AF-2) in Estrogen Receptor-Induced Transcriptional Activity 2010-03-15 doi: 10.3390/nu2030340 Shinkaruk Carreau Flouriot Bennetau-Pelissero Potier http://mdpi.com/1996-1944/3/3/1803/ Parylene is a family of chemically vapour deposited polymer with material properties that are attractive for biomedicine and nanobiotechnology. Chemically inert parylene “peel-off” stencils have been demonstrated for micropatterning biomolecular arrays with high uniformity, precise spatial control down to nanoscale resolution. Such micropatterned surfaces are beneficial in engineering biosensors and biological microenvironments. A variety of substituted precursors enables direct coating of functionalised parylenes onto biomedical implants and microfluidics, providing a convenient method for designing biocompatible and bioactive surfaces. This article will review the emerging role and applications of parylene as a biomaterial for surface chemical modification and provide a future outlook. http://mdpi.com/1996-1944/3/3/1803/ Mon, 15 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Materials 2010-03-15 3 3 Review 1803 1832 1996-1944 Surface Engineering and Patterning Using Parylene for Biological Applications 2010-03-15 doi: 10.3390/ma3031803 Tan Craighead http://mdpi.com/1424-8247/3/3/667/ Hybridoma-derived idiotype vaccines have been used for the experimental treatment of human lymphoma over the last twenty years, providing evidence of biological efficacy, clinical efficacy and clinical benefit. However, the product that has come closer to regulatory approval is unlikely to clear that hurdle due to the insufficiently robust data obtained in a recently closed clinical trial. This review aims at discussing the reasons for hybridoma-derived idiotype vaccines, more difficult to produce but also more successful than recombinant idiotype vaccines so far, are unlikely to gain regulatory approval. In particular, it is necessary to examine the many peculiar features of this therapeutic approach in a broader context, with special attention to concepts like customized active immunotherapy and randomization. Most published trials based on hybridoma-derived idiotype vaccines are being analyzed, together with the yet non-peer reviewed data from the only randomized study conducted so far with this product, and with the main trials on recombinant idiotype vaccines for thorough comparison. All in all, the sole randomized trial ever conducted on hybridoma-derived idiotype vaccines failed to achieve its primary clinical end point because of an insufficient accrual and because the statistical significance achieved was not as stringent as required for regulatory approval. http://mdpi.com/1424-8247/3/3/667/ Mon, 15 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Pharmaceuticals 2010-03-15 3 3 Review 667 678 1424-8247 Hybridoma-Derived Idiotype Vaccine for Lymphoma: Approval Must Wait 2010-03-15 doi: 10.3390/ph3030667 Bendandi http://mdpi.com/1424-8220/10/3/2027/ There are increasing applications that require precise calibration of cameras to perform accurate measurements on objects located within images, and an automatic algorithm would reduce this time consuming calibration procedure. The method proposed in this article uses a pattern similar to that of a chess board, which is found automatically in each image, when no information regarding the number of rows or columns is supplied to aid its detection. This is carried out by means of a combined analysis of two Hough transforms, image corners and invariant properties of the perspective transformation. Comparative analysis with more commonly used algorithms demonstrate the viability of the algorithm proposed, as a valuable tool for camera calibration. http://mdpi.com/1424-8220/10/3/2027/ Mon, 15 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Sensors 2010-03-15 10 3 Article 2027 2044 1424-8220 Automatic Chessboard Detection for Intrinsic and Extrinsic Camera Parameter Calibration 2010-03-15 doi: 10.3390/s100302027 de la Escalera Armingol http://mdpi.com/1422-0067/11/3/1082/ Oxidized metabolites of dopamine known as dopamine quinone derivatives are thought to play a pivotal role in the degeneration of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson’s disease. Although such quinone derivatives are usually produced via the autoxidation of catecholamines, tyrosinase, which is a key enzyme in melanin biosynthesis via the production of DOPA and subsequent molecules, can potentially accelerate the induction of catecholamine quinone derivatives by its oxidase activity. We have developed neuronal cell lines in which the expression of human tyrosinase was inducible. Overexpression of tyrosinase resulted in increased intracellular dopamine content in association with the formation of melanin pigments in neuronal somata, which eventually causes apoptotic cell death. This cellular model will provide a useful tool for detailed analyses of the neurotoxicity of oxidized catechol metabolites. http://mdpi.com/1422-0067/11/3/1082/ Fri, 12 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET International Journal of Molecular Sciences 2010-03-12 11 3 Review 1082 1089 1422-0067 Tyrosinase-Expressing Neuronal Cell Line as in Vitro Model of Parkinson’s Disease 2010-03-12 doi: 10.3390/ijms11031082 Hasegawa http://mdpi.com/1424-8220/10/3/2045/ An enzymatic reaction was employed as a means to enhance the sensitivity of an immunosensor based on localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR). The reaction occurs after intermolecular binding between an antigen and an antibody on gold nano-island (NI) surfaces. For LSPR sensing, the gold NI surface was fabricated on glass substrates using vacuum evaporation and heat treatment. The interferon-g (IFN-g) capture antibody was immobilized on the gold NIs, followed by binding of IFN-g to the antibody. Subsequently, a biotinylated antibody and a horseradish peroxidase (HRP) conjugated with avidin were simultaneously introduced. A solution of 4-chloro-1-naphthol (4-CN) was then used for precipitation; precipitation was the result of the enzymatic reaction catalyzed the HRP on gold NIs. The LSPR spectra were obtained after each binding process. Using this method, the enzyme-catalyzed precipitation reaction on the gold NI surface was found to effectively amplify the change in the signal of the LSPR immunosensor after intermolecular binding. http://mdpi.com/1424-8220/10/3/2045/ Fri, 12 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Sensors 2010-03-12 10 3 Article 2045 2053 1424-8220 Signal Amplification by Enzymatic Reaction in an Immunosensor Based on Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance (LSPR) 2010-03-12 doi: 10.3390/s100302045 Lee Lee Jung Ahn Kim Shin http://mdpi.com/2072-6694/2/1/165/ A review of the natural behavior of cutaneous melanoma, clinical and pathological factors, prognostic indicators, some basic research and the present and possible futuristic strategies in the management of this disease are presented. While surgery remains to be the most effective therapeutic approach in the management of early primary lesions, there is no standard adjuvant therapy after surgical resection, or for metastatic disease. http://mdpi.com/2072-6694/2/1/165/ Fri, 12 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Cancers 2010-03-12 2 1 Review 165 189 2072-6694 Biology of Human Cutaneous Melanoma 2010-03-12 doi: 10.3390/cancers2010165 Elias Hasskamp Sharma