Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains4010003

Authors: Chukwuebuka Francis Ikenga-Metuh Abel Yeboah-Ofori

Background: Blockchain technology has emerged as a transformative communication solution for securing distributed systems. However, several vulnerabilities exist during transactions, including latency and network congestion issues during mempool processing, topology weaknesses, cross-chain bridge exploits, and cryptographic weaknesses. These vulnerabilities have led to attacks that have threatened system integrity, including Block Extractable Value (BEV) attacks, Maximal Extractable Value (MEV) attacks, sandwich attacks, liquidation, and Decentralized Finance (DeFi) reordering attacks, among others. Thus, implementing a robust security framework based on the Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability (CIA) triad remains critical for addressing modern blockchain technology threats. Objective: This paper examines blockchain technology, its various vulnerabilities, and attacks to determine how criminals exploit the system during transactions. Further, it evaluates its impact on users. Then, implement a blockchain attack in a “MasterChain” virtual environment to demonstrate how vulnerable spots can be practically exploited and discuss the application of the CIA security triad through modern cryptographic primitives. Methods: The approach considers Hevner’s design science framework, which emphasizes creating innovative artifacts that address identified problems while contributing to the knowledge base through rigorous evaluation. Furthermore, we developed a MasterChain tool using Python with Flask for distributed node communication, utilizing the Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm (ECDSA) with the Standards for Efficient Cryptography Prime 256-bit Koblitz curve 1 (secp256k1) for digital signatures and Secure Hash Algorithm 3 (SHA-3) (Keccak-256) hashing for block integrity. Results: show how the CIA has been implemented to provide secure communication through ECDSA-based transactions, SHA-3 chain integrity verification, and a multi-node distributed architecture, respectively. The performance analysis shows that ECDSA provides 256-bit security with 64-byte signatures compared to 2048-bit Rivest–Shamir–Adleman (RSA)’s 256-byte signatures, achieving a 75% reduction in bandwidth overhead. SHA-3 provides immunity to length extension attacks while maintaining equivalent collision resistance to SHA-256. Conclusions: The MasterChain framework provides a practical foundation for implementing blockchain security that addresses both classical and emerging vulnerabilities. The adoption of ECDSA and SHA-3 (Keccak-256) positions the system favourably for modern blockchain applications, while providing insights into the cryptographic trade-offs between performance, security, and compatibility.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains4010002

Authors: Mitra Madanchian Hamed Taherdoost

Traditional Human Resource Management (HRM) systems are criticized for lacking transparency, being inefficient, and offering ample opportunities for fraud because of their centralized design and reliance on manual processes. This work proposes a blockchain-enabled framework for HRM that enhances the transparency, trust, and global mobility of talents by integrating distributed ledgers, consensus protocols, and smart contract networks into Human Resources (HR) functions. A four-layer theoretical model—data, consensus, smart contract, and application layers—is developed and comparatively examined against traditional HR systems to show how blockchain principles can be systematically mapped into HR processes. This study shows how blockchain-driven HRM can ensure tamper-evident employee records, automate contractual and payroll operations, and enhance auditability and compliance. By informing the framework with established technology adoption perspectives, this paper extends both the theoretical and managerial understanding of blockchain in HR. In comparison with previous studies that were limited to either recruitment or credential verification, this article presents an overarching, cross-layer synthesis that connects blockchain architectures with end-to-end HR functions, thus providing a clear conceptual foundation for its future enterprise adoption in the digital economy.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains4010001

Authors: Syed Wasif Abbas Hamdani Kamran Ali Zia Muhammad

In recent years, the convergence of advanced technologies has enabled real-time data access and sharing across diverse devices and networks, significantly amplifying cybersecurity risks. For organizations with digital infrastructures, network security is crucial for mitigating potential cyber-attacks. They establish security policies to protect systems and data, but employees may intentionally or unintentionally bypass these policies, rendering the network vulnerable to internal and external threats. Detecting these policy violations is challenging, requiring frequent manual system checks for compliance. This paper addresses key challenges in safeguarding digital assets against evolving threats, including rogue access points, man-in-the-middle attacks, denial-of-service (DoS) incidents, unpatched vulnerabilities, and AI-driven automated exploits. We propose a Blockchain-Enhanced Network Scanning and Monitoring (BENSAM) Framework, a multi-layered system that integrates advanced network scanning with a structured database for asset management, policy-driven vulnerability detection, and remediation planning. Key enhancements include device profiling, user activity monitoring, network forensics, intrusion detection capabilities, and multi-format report generation. By incorporating blockchain technology, and leveraging immutable ledgers and smart contracts, the framework ensures tamper-proof audit trails, decentralized verification of policy compliance, and automated real-time responses to violations such as alerts; actual device isolation is performed by external controllers like SDN or NAC systems. The research provides a detailed literature review on blockchain applications in domains like IoT, healthcare, and vehicular networks. A working prototype of the proposed BENSAM framework was developed that demonstrates end-to-end network scanning, device profiling, traffic monitoring, policy enforcement, and blockchain-based immutable logging. This implementation is publicly released and is available on GitHub. It analyzes common network vulnerabilities (e.g., open ports, remote access, and disabled firewalls), attacks (including spoofing, flooding, and DDoS), and outlines policy enforcement methods. Moreover, the framework anticipates emerging challenges from AI-driven attacks such as adversarial evasion, data poisoning, and transformer-based threats, positioning the system for the future integration of adaptive mechanisms to counter these advanced intrusions. This blockchain-enhanced approach streamlines security analysis, extends the framework for AI threat detection with improved accuracy, and reduces administrative overhead by integrating multiple security tools into a cohesive, trustworthy, reliable solution.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains3040014

Authors: Julien Riposo

Trust in financial institutions hinges on the ability to prove solvency, yet recent crises have exposed the limits of audits and opaque governance. We introduce a practical protocol that enables crypto-exchanges and other financial actors to demonstrate real-time solvency without continuous third-party oversight, while preserving transparency and regulatory alignment. Complemented by a Particles model that fragments transactions to protect privacy and enhance liquidity, this framework integrates solvency, privacy, and governance into a unified standard. We argue that it represents a potential revolution in the financial industry.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains3040013

Authors: Yuxiang Xu Wenjuan Yu Yuqian Wan Zhongming Zhang

This study addresses critical challenges in managing the transportation of spent nuclear fuel, including inadequate data transparency, stringent confidentiality requirements, and a lack of trust among collaborating parties—issues prevalent in traditional centralized management systems. Given the high risks involved, balancing data confidentiality with regulatory transparency is imperative. To overcome these limitations, a technical framework integrating blockchain technology and the Internet of Things (IoT) is proposed, featuring a multi-tiered consortium chain architecture. This system utilizes IoT sensors for real-time data collection, which is immutably recorded on the blockchain, while a hierarchical data structure (operational, supervisory, and public layers) manages access for diverse stakeholders. This approach significantly enhances data immutability, enables real-time multi-sensor data integration, improves decentralized transparency, and increases resilience compared to traditional systems. It should be noted that the proposed framework is a theoretical study and has not yet been implemented or empirically validated, with practical deployment reserved for future work. Ultimately, this blockchain-IoT framework improves the safety, transparency, and efficiency of spent fuel transportation, effectively resolving the conflict between confidentiality and transparency in nuclear data management and offering significant practical implications.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains3040012

Authors: Samia Sayed Muammar Shahrear Famous Rashed Mazumder Risala Tasin Khan M. Shamim Kaiser Mohammad Shahadat Hossain Karl Andersson Rahamatullah Khondoker

Blockchain is an emerging technology that is being used to create innovative solutions in many areas, including healthcare. Nowadays healthcare systems face challenges, especially with security, trust, and remote data access. As patient records are digitized and medical systems become more interconnected, the risk of sensitive data being exposed to cyber threats has grown. In this evolving time for healthcare, it is important to find a balance between the advantages of new technology and the protection of patient information. The combination of blockchain–InterPlanetary File System technology and conventional electronic health record (EHR) management has the potential to transform the healthcare industry by enhancing data security, interoperability, and transparency. However, a major issue that still exists in traditional healthcare systems is the continuous problem of remote data unavailability. This research examines practical methods for safely accessing patient data from any location at any time, with a special focus on IPFS servers and blockchain technology in addition to group signature encryption. Essential processes like maintaining the confidentiality of medical records and safe data transmission could be made easier by these technologies. Our proposed framework enables secure, remote access to patient data while preserving accessibility, integrity, and confidentiality using Ethereum blockchain, IPFS, and group signature encryption, demonstrating hospital-scale scalability and efficiency. Experiments show predictable throughput reduction with file size (200 → 90 tps), controlled latency growth (90 → 200 ms), and moderate gas increase (85k → 98k), confirming scalability and efficiency under varying healthcare workloads. Unlike prior blockchain–IPFS–encryption frameworks, our system demonstrates hospital-scale feasibility through the practical integration of group signatures, hierarchical key management, and off-chain erasure compliance. This design enables scalable anonymous authentication, immediate blocking of compromised credentials, and efficient key rotation without costly re-encryption.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains3040011

Authors: Tapasi Bhattacharjee Amalendu Singha Mahapatra Debashis De Asmita Chowdhury

The electronic judicial evidence preservation systems face various challenges including regulatory control, data exchange, poor credibility, etc. To address these issues, a blockchain-based judicial evidence preservation framework, JudicBlock, is proposed in the present study. It combines the scalability of the Interplanetary File System with the transparency and security of public blockchain. By decentralizing data management and using cryptographic integrity, the system ensures reliable chronological tracking of investigative changes. Unlike traditional approaches, JudicBlock incorporates smart contracts and advanced consensus mechanisms to enforce strict access controls with secure collaboration among the stakeholders. The simulation results show that JudicBlock provides better results over traditional ELR (electronic law records) storage schemes in terms of mining cost, query fetching time, block processing IPFS (Interplanetary file systems) throughput, etc. At a USD 6 mining cost, it appends an average of 23,601 transactions. For 25 blocks, the average query fetching time is 0.852 ms with the cache support of 32 KB. The proposed scheme achieves an average ELR uploading latency improvement of 6.79% over traditional schemes. The results indicate the efficacy of the proposed scheme over the conventional schemes.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains3030010

Authors: Shrawan Kumar Sharma Firoj Parwej

The integration of blockchain technology into healthcare offers a robust solution to challenges in secure data sharing, privacy protection, and operational efficiency. Effective exchange of sensitive patient information among hospitals, clinics, insurers, and researchers is essential for better outcomes and medical advancements. Traditional centralized systems often suffer from data breaches, inefficiency, and poor interoperability. This paper presents a blockchain-based secure data-sharing framework tailored for healthcare, addressing these limitations. The framework employs a hybrid blockchain model, combining private and public blockchains: the private chain ensures fast transactions and controlled access, while the public chain fosters transparency and trust. Advanced cryptographic methods—such as asymmetric encryption, hashing, and digital signatures—safeguard patient data and maintain integrity throughout the datalifecycle. Smart contracts automate processes like consent management, access control, and auditing, ensuring dynamic permission enforcement without intermediaries. Role-based access control (RBAC) further limits access to authorized entities, enhancing privacy. To tackle interoperability, standardized data formats and protocols enable smooth communication across diverse healthcare systems. Large files, such as medical images, are stored off-chain, with only essential metadata and logs on the blockchain. This approach optimizes performance, scalability, and suitability for large-scale healthcare deployments.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains3020009

Authors: Massimo Maresca Luca Andreoli Pierpaolo Baglietto

We examine the use of a Geometric Distribution for pre-calculating the publication deadlines of blocks in a simulation of proof-of-work Blockchain. Specifically, we focus on Discrete-Event Simulation, where the simulator identifies events to be simulated, calculates their deadlines, places them in an Event Queue ordered by deadline, and processes them sequentially. In Blockchain, these events include the publication and reception of a block by each Miner. While a Geometric Distribution allows the calculation of block publication deadlines in the absence of Difficulty updates, in the case of evolving Difficulty, it must be extended to a non-homogeneous Geometric Distribution. To address this issue, we introduce the Geometric Distribution with a Variable Probability, a non-homogeneous Geometric Distribution that enables the calculation of block publication deadlines in the presence of Difficulty Regulation—a distinctive feature of proof-of-work Blockchain. We then present the architecture and operating principles of a Discrete-Event Simulator based on this distribution, along with simulation results that validate our approach.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains3020008

Authors: Muntasir Jaodun Khawla Bouafia

Blockchain technology has evolved beyond financial transactions to revolutionize trust systems. This paper presents a blockchain-based model for decentralized rental agreements and dispute resolution (DRADR). By leveraging smart contracts and implementing two distinct arbitration approaches, our model offers flexible solutions for rental agreement automation, transparency enhancement, and impartial dispute resolution. Our study provides a comprehensive technical analysis of both approaches through theoretical frameworks, smart contract implementation, game-theoretic modeling, and comparative evaluation across multiple legal jurisdictions. We explore the potential of blockchain technology to address long-standing challenges in traditional rental systems, such as power imbalances, inefficiencies, and legal disputes. Key contributions include the integration of decentralized and local justice systems; a detailed game-theoretic analysis of strategic behaviors; and comparative insights into gas efficiency, economic viability, and jurisdictional adaptability across both arbitration approaches. This research paves the way for a more equitable and transparent rental market and contributes to the broader acceptance of blockchain-based solutions in everyday transactions.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains3020007

Authors: Butrus Mbimbi David Murray Michael Wilson

This research presents a novel framework and experimental results that combine zero-knowledge proofs (ZKPs) with private blockchain technology to safeguard whistleblower privacy while ensuring secure digital evidence submission and verification. For example, whistleblowers involved in corporate fraud cases can submit sensitive financial records anonymously while maintaining the credibility of the evidence. The proposed framework introduces several key innovations, including a private blockchain implementation utilising proof-of-work (PoW) consensus to ensure immutable storage and thorough scrutiny of submitted evidence, with mining difficulty dynamically aligned to the sensitivity of the data. It also features an adaptive difficulty mechanism that automatically adjusts computational requirements based on the sensitivity of the evidence, providing tailored protection levels. In addition, a unique two-phase validation process is incorporated, which generates a digital signature from the evidence alongside random challenges, significantly improving security and authenticity. The integration of ZKPs enables iterative hash-based verification between parties (Prover and Verifier) while maintaining the complete privacy of the source data. This research investigates the whistleblower’s niche in traditional digital evidence management systems (DEMSs), prioritising privacy without compromising evidence integrity. Experimental results demonstrate the framework’s effectiveness in preserving anonymity while assuring the authenticity of the evidence, making it useful for judicial systems and organisations handling sensitive disclosures. This paper signifies notable progress in secure whistleblowing systems, offering a way to juggle transparency with informant confidentiality.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains3010006

Authors: Piotr Stolarski Elżbieta Lewańska Witold Abramowicz

The paper presents business models (BMs) for blockchain-based businesses. The paper is a study of IT-aligned BMs categorized by the concepts and possibilities of blockchain business applications. The research aimed to recognize and analyze the extent and directions in which blockchain architectures influence the means of conducting businesses. A set of almost 40,000 decentralized applications is examined to justify the rationale behind the presented analysis. This is an argumentative study that uses the design-oriented approach, as it is suitable for addressing real-world problems, like analyzing business models, while ensuring that artifacts are created and evaluated under methodological standards. Firstly, the concept of a business model is analyzed. Then, a theoretical analysis of different business models is made to identify the ones that are well aligned with the decentralized vision of business and the ones that are obsolete or inoperative from the blockchain business-conducting perspective. In the end, the outcome is applied to examples of existing business startups. Fifteen identified BMs in 7 business sector groups are recognized and 55 cases are detected.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains3010005

Authors: Oshoke Samson Igonor Muhammad Bilal Amin Saurabh Garg

Blockchain technology has risen in recent years from its initial application in finance to gain prominence across diverse sectors, including digital forensics. The possible application of blockchain technology to digital forensics is now becoming increasingly explored with many researchers now looking into the unique inherent properties that blockchain possesses to address the inherent challenges in this sector such as evidence tampering, the lack of transparency, and inadmissibility in court. Despite the increasing interest in integrating blockchain technology into the field of digital forensics and its domains, no systematic literature review currently exists to provide a holistic perspective on this integration. It is a challenge to find a comprehensive resource that examines how blockchain is being applied to enhance the digital forensics process. This paper provides a systematic literature review to explore the application of blockchain technology in digital forensics, focusing on its potential to address these challenges and enhance forensic methodologies. Through a rigorous review process, this paper examines selected studies to identify diverse frameworks, methodologies, and blockchain-driven enhancements applied to digital forensic investigations. The discussion highlights how blockchain properties such as immutability, transparency, and automation have been leveraged to improve evidence management and forensic workflows. Furthermore, this paper explores the common applications of blockchain-based forensic solutions across various domains and phases while addressing the associated limitations and challenges. Open issues and future research directions, including unexplored domains and operational gaps, are also discussed. This study provides valuable insights for researchers, investigators, and policymakers by offering a comprehensive overview of the state of the art in blockchain-based digital forensics, summarizing key contributions and limitations, and identifying pathways for advancing the field.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains3010004

Authors: Stamatis Papangelou Klitos Christodoulou Antonios Inglezakis

Decentralization is a core principle of blockchain technology and Decentralized Autonomous Organizations (DAOs), enhancing security and resilience by distributing control across a network. Traditional metrics like the Gini coefficient and Nakamoto coefficient often fall short in capturing the complex dynamics of decentralization. This paper introduces the Apokedro decentralization index, a metric that evaluates decentralization by considering the probabilities of all possible subsets of nodes that could collectively centralize control. These concepts from game theory, such as the Nash equilibrium, and the Apokedro index, when incorporated, provide a nuanced assessment of centralization risks. Key contributions include the mathematical formulation of the index, an efficient computational algorithm utilizing pruning techniques, and benchmarking experiments that compare the index performance against traditional metrics across various statistical distributions. The Apokedro index offers a comprehensive tool for measuring decentralization in blockchain networks and DAOs.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains3010003

Authors: Weilin Chan Keke Gai Jing Yu Liehuang Zhu

The education sector has witnessed a significant shift towards digitising student records, with relevant data now stored in centralized data repositories. While traditional identity management solutions in education are functional, they often face various challenges, including data privacy concerns, limited portability, and reliability challenges. As the volume of student data continues to grow, inadequate data management practices have led to several problems. These include students losing control and empowerment over their educational information, increased vulnerability to potential data breaches and unauthorized access, a lack of transparency and accountability, data silos and inconsistencies, and administrative inefficiencies. To address these limitations, the implementation of a blockchain-assisted self-sovereign identity (Ba-SSI) concept in the education system presents a viable solution. Self-sovereign identity (SSI) represents a paradigm shift from traditional centralized identity systems, allowing individuals to maintain full control of their identity data without relying on centralized authorities. By leveraging the decentralized nature, SSI frameworks can ensure security, interoperability, and scalability, thereby improving user-centric identity management. This survey paper explores the potential of Ba-SSI within the context of education. It thoroughly reviews the current state of digital identity management in education, highlighting the limitations of conventional systems and the emerging role of blockchain technology in addressing these challenges. The paper discusses the fundamental principles of blockchain technology and how it can be utilized to enhance security, interoperability, and scalability in identity management. Additionally, it examines the insights and benefits of this approach for the education system. Finally, the paper concludes by addressing the issues, challenges, benefits, and future research directions in this domain, underscoring the potential of Ba-SSI solutions to revolutionize the management and empowerment of student data within the education sector.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains3010002

Authors: Mariano Basile Giovanni Nardini Pericle Perazzo Gianluca Dini

Despite the many consensus algorithms being used in blockchains, proof of work (PoW) is still the most common nowadays. The state-of-the-art mining strategy for PoW-based blockchain protocols consists of including as many transactions as possible in a block to maximize the block reward. Unfortunately, this strategy maximizes the block orphaning probability too. Recently, we proposed a rational mining strategy aimed at carefully balancing the trade-off between the block reward and the risk of block orphaning. In this work, we present PROACTION, a PROfitable transACTions selectION greedy algorithm that implements such a strategy. We evaluate the algorithm both analytically and experimentally on Bitcoin by assuming a variable random percentage of winning miners adopting PROACTION. Experiments show that when executing PROACTION, miners gain higher long-term rewards than when using the state-of-the-art strategy. The gain is in the order of the block orphaning probability. This result is particularly relevant for those PoW-based blockchain protocols in which such a probability is significant.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains3010001

Authors: Zounkaraneni Ngoupayou Limbepe Keke Gai Jing Yu

Federated learning (FL) has emerged as an efficient machine learning (ML) method with crucial privacy protection features. It is adapted for training models in Internet of Things (IoT)-related domains, including smart healthcare systems (SHSs), where the introduction of IoT devices and technologies can arise various security and privacy concerns. However, as FL cannot solely address all privacy challenges, privacy-enhancing technologies (PETs) and blockchain are often integrated to enhance privacy protection in FL frameworks within SHSs. The critical questions remain regarding how these technologies are integrated with FL and how they contribute to enhancing privacy protection in SHSs. This survey addresses these questions by investigating the recent advancements on the combination of FL with PETs and blockchain for privacy protection in smart healthcare. First, this survey emphasizes the critical integration of PETs into the FL context. Second, to address the challenge of integrating blockchain into FL, it examines three main technical dimensions such as blockchain-enabled model storage, blockchain-enabled aggregation, and blockchain-enabled gradient upload within FL frameworks. This survey further explores how these technologies collectively ensure the integrity and confidentiality of healthcare data, highlighting their significance in building a trustworthy SHS that safeguards sensitive patient information.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains2040021

Authors: Butrus Mbimbi David Murray Michael Wilson

The proliferation of Internet of Things (IoT) devices has facilitated the exchange of information among individuals and devices. This development has introduced several challenges, including increased vulnerability to potential cyberattacks and digital forensics. IoT forensic investigations need to be managed in a forensically sound manner using a standard framework. However, adopting traditional digital forensics tools introduces various challenges, such as identifying all IoT devices and users at the crime scene. Therefore, collecting evidence from these devices is a major problem. This paper proposes a permissioned blockchain integration solution for IoT forensics (PBCIS-IoTF) that aims to observe data transactions within the blockchain. The PBCIS-IoTF framework designs and tests Hyperledger blockchains simulated with a Raspberry Pi device and chaincode to address the challenges of IoT forensics. This blockchain is deployed using multiple nodes within the network to avoid a single point of failure. The authenticity and integrity of the acquired evidence are analysed by comparing the SHA-256 hash metadata in the blockchain of all peers within the network. We further integrate webpage access with the blockchain to capture the forensics data from the user’s IoT devices. This allows law enforcement and a court of law to access forensic evidence directly and ensures its authenticity and integrity. PBCIS-IoTF shows high authenticity and integrity across all peers within the network.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains2040020

Authors: Masabah Bint E. Islam Muhammad Haseeb Hina Batool Nasir Ahtasham Zia Muhammad

The integrity of global elections is increasingly under threat from artificial intelligence (AI) technologies. As AI continues to permeate various aspects of society, its influence on political processes and elections has become a critical area of concern. This is because AI language models are far from neutral or objective; they inherit biases from their training data and the individuals who design and utilize them, which can sway voter decisions and affect global elections and democracy. In this research paper, we explore how AI can directly impact election outcomes through various techniques. These include the use of generative AI for disseminating false political information, favoring certain parties over others, and creating fake narratives, content, images, videos, and voice clones to undermine opposition. We highlight how AI threats can influence voter behavior and election outcomes, focusing on critical areas, including political polarization, deepfakes, disinformation, propaganda, and biased campaigns. In response to these challenges, we propose a Blockchain-based Deepfake Authenticity Verification Framework (B-DAVF) designed to detect and authenticate deepfake content in real time. It leverages the transparency of blockchain technology to reinforce electoral integrity. Finally, we also propose comprehensive countermeasures, including enhanced legislation, technological solutions, and public education initiatives, to mitigate the risks associated with AI in electoral contexts, proactively safeguard democracy, and promote fair elections.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains2040019

Authors: Veneta Aleksieva Hristo Valchanov Venelin Maleshkov Aydan Haka

Blockchain technologies have the potential to fundamentally change logistics and supply chain management. By leveraging the capabilities of blockchain technology, businesses can increase efficiency, reduce costs, and improve security and trust in operations. However, there are still difficulties to overcome in terms of uptake and implementation. This article examines the various blockchain technologies applicable in the field of logistics, presents the benefits and limitations of blockchain technologies in this aspect, and offers a summary of the existing technologies used in the logistics sector. According to this, blockchain-based models applicable both to a specific stage of the logistics process (e.g., transportation of goods, materials, and feedstocks; management of warehouse operations; cargo tracking; etc.) and related insurance services have been proposed. The proposed models have been tested in a lab environment on the HyperLedger Fabric platform, and the results show that they are fully functional.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains2040018

Authors: Xueyan Tang Lingzhi Shi

When migrating smart contracts from one blockchain platform to another, there are potential security risks. This is because different blockchain platforms have different environments and characteristics for executing smart contracts. The focus of this paper is to study the security risks associated with the migration of smart contracts from Ethereum to Arbitrum. We collected relevant data and analyzed smart contract migration cases to explore the differences between Ethereum and Arbitrum in areas such as Arbitrum cross-chain messaging, block properties, contract address alias, and gas fees. From the 36 types of smart contract migration cases we identified, we selected four typical types of cases and summarized their security risks. The research shows that smart contracts deployed on Ethereum may face certain potential security risks during migration to Arbitrum, mainly due to issues inherent in public blockchain characteristics, such as outdated off-chain data obtained by the inactive sequencer, logic errors based on time, failed permission checks, and denial of service (DOS) attacks. To mitigate these security risks, we proposed avoidance methods and provided considerations for users and developers to ensure a secure migration process. It is worth noting that this study is the first to conduct an in-depth analysis of the secure migration of smart contracts from Ethereum to Arbitrum.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains2040017

Authors: Sohel Ahmed Joni Rabiul Rahat Nishat Tasnin Partho Ghose Md. Ashraf Uddin John Ayoade

The integrity of democratic processes relies on secure and reliable election systems, yet achieving this reliability is challenging. This paper introduces the Post-Quantum Secured Multiparty Computed Hierarchical Authoritative Consensus Blockchain (PQMPCHAC-Bchain), a novel e-voting system designed to overcome the limitations of current Biometric Electronic Voting Machine (EVM) systems, which suffer from trust issues due to closed-source designs, cyber vulnerabilities, and regulatory concerns. Our primary objective is to develop a robust, scalable, and secure e-voting framework that enhances transparency and trust in electoral outcomes. Key contributions include integrating hierarchical authorization and access control with a novel consensus mechanism for proper electoral governance. We implement blockchain sharding techniques to improve scalability and propose a multiparty computed token generation system to prevent fraudulent voting and secure voter privacy. Post-quantum cryptography is incorporated to safeguard against potential quantum computing threats, future-proofing the system. Additionally, we enhance authentication through a deep learning-based face verification model for biometric validation. Our performance analysis indicates that the PQMPCHAC-Bchain e-voting system offers a promising solution for secure elections. By addressing critical aspects of security, scalability, and trust, our proposed system aims to advance the field of electronic voting. This research contributes to ongoing efforts to strengthen the integrity of democratic processes through technological innovation.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains2030016

Authors: Maria-Victoria Vladucu Hailun Wu Jorge Medina Khondaker M. Salehin Ziqian Dong Roberto Rojas-Cessa

Blockchain has emerged as a solution for ensuring accurate and truthful environmental variable monitoring needed for the management of pollutants and natural resources. The immutability property of blockchain helps protect the measured data on pollution and natural resources to enable truthful reporting and effective management and control of polluting agents. However, specifics on what to measure, how to use blockchain, and highlighting which blockchain frameworks have been adopted need to be explored to fill the research gaps. Therefore, we review existing works on the use of blockchain for monitoring and managing environmental variables in this paper. Specifically, we examine existing blockchain applications on greenhouse gas emissions, solid and plastic waste, food waste, food security, water usage, and the circular economy and identify what motivates the adoption of blockchain, features sought, used blockchain frameworks and consensus algorithms, and the adopted supporting technologies to complement data sensing and reporting. We conclude the review by identifying practical works that provide implementation details for rapid adoption and remaining challenges that merit future research.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains2030015

Authors: Rula Almadadha

Blockchain technology has revolutionized numerous industries, including that of financial accounting. However, its potential to support environmental, social, and corporate governance (ESG) objectives remains underexplored. This paper addresses this gap by investigating how blockchain’s decentralized and tamper-resistant characteristics can enhance green financial instruments, investment strategies, and climate-related financial disclosures. By leveraging these unique features of blockchain and applying knowledge discovery from data (KDD) methods, we uncover patterns and establish rules that highlight blockchain’s role in promoting transparency, accountability, and sustainability within the financial sector. Through a comprehensive analysis of literature, case studies, and real-world examples, this paper not only presents a balanced perspective on the integration of blockchain into financial accounting but also underscores its transformative potential in advancing ESG initiatives. The use of KDD provides novel insights into the effectiveness and implementation strategies of blockchain for ESG, making this study a pioneering resource for academics, professionals, and policymakers seeking to understand and harness blockchain’s impact on ESG in financial accounting.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains2030014

Authors: Woon Kwan Tse Xuechen Dai Yat Ming Lee Danqi Lu

Blockchain technology is now an advanced and innovative database technology and the attributes of blockchains are apparent in a variety of industries, especially in the financial industry. One of the most famous blockchain use cases, cryptocurrencies, has provoked much interest in social network users and customers. According to CoinMarketCap’s information, the global crypto market capitalization has reached around USD 2.37 T and there are around 9975 different cryptocurrencies available in the market. Despite the fact that academia and industry have paid much attention towards the blockchain direction, there is not much research on the factors that influence customer acceptability. This paper studies blockchains from a different angle, probing the factors prompting customers to use financial applications that utilize blockchain technology. We established the model and sorted the individual factors of perceived information security, technology awareness and privacy and found that users’ acceptance is significantly affected by information security and technology awareness, while privacy does not significantly influence users. According to the findings, we provide useful insights for application developers, conclude by presenting the limitations of the research and provide guidelines for future research.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains2030013

Authors: Shezon Saleem Mohammed Abdul

Blockchain technology promises transformative potential across diverse sectors, facilitating innovations in areas ranging from finance to healthcare. Despite its many promising applications, several barriers—including scalability challenges, regulatory complexities, and technical hurdles—limit its widespread adoption. This systematic literature review delves into scalability enhancements and explores the legal and regulatory landscapes impacting blockchain deployment in ten key sectors: IoT, healthcare, finance, education, social media, genomics, supply chain, vehicular networks, e-voting, and tourism. These sectors were selected based on their significant engagement with blockchain technology and their prominence in the analyzed literature. We examine key technological advancements such as Layer-2 techniques, sharding, consensus algorithm optimization, and rollups, and discuss their implications for throughput, latency, and compliance with regulatory standards such as the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). The review details these technological and regulatory developments and discusses their broader implications for industry and academia, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research and innovation. By identifying gaps in current research and suggesting future directions, this study serves as a roadmap for researchers, practitioners, and policymakers to develop secure, scalable, and compliant blockchain systems. Our comprehensive examination provides valuable insights into enhancing the efficiency, security, and regulatory compliance of blockchain technology.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains2030012

Authors: Josepha Witt Mareike Schoop

Blockchain Technology (BCT) offers several possible applications in the field of electronic commerce (e-commerce), such as decentralised marketplaces or payments in cryptocurrencies. Even though these applications of BCT have already been explored in the academic literature, a comprehensive collection along the whole e-commerce value chain is still missing. Furthermore, the existing comprehensive reviews are based on the academic literature whilst the evolution and further development of BCT is highly driven by practitioners. Therefore, we aim to understand how and why BCT is used in e-commerce based on a qualitative content analysis of news articles, i.e., we apply scientific methods to content which reports the latest developments in the field. As a result, we describe the multiple application domains of BCT along the e-commerce value chain. Subsequently, we discuss the main underlying principles of BCT usage across all the value chain steps.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains2030011

Authors: Bidah Alkhaldi Alauddin Al-Omary

Supply chain bottlenecks in port operations lead to significant delays and inefficiencies. Blockchain technology emerges as a viable solution, offering tamper-resistant ledgers, secure transactions, and automation capabilities. While considerable research on developing blockchain-based solutions currently exist, there is a lack of studies that specifically focus on optimizing port document management to speed up supply chain operations. In this paper, a supply-blockchain functional prototype for optimizing port operations using Hyperledger Fabric is introduced. In terms of core functionality, the prototype allows initiation of smart contract corresponding to functions such as creating and editing port-related documents, minimizing manual interventions and enhancing efficiency to reduce port congestion. Furthermore, it provides live tracking of completed events and transactions, facilitating transparency and streamlined oversight. The permissioned nature of Hyperledger Fabric ensures security and robust access controls, aligning well with sensitive port operations. Hyperledger Firefly and its connector framework was used as the middleware to facilitate blockchain integration and various functions of the prototype, while chaincode developed using Go language was used to package and deploy smart contracts. The supply-blockchain framework was used as the theoretical framework for prototype development, and agile project management was adopted to ensure timely completion. The results based on functional and performance testing demonstrate the prototype’s potential in alleviating port documentation bottlenecks and quickly delivering benefits to key stakeholders.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains2030010

Authors: Junaid Arshad Muhammad Talha Bilal Saleem Zoha Shah Huzaifa Zaman Zia Muhammad

The increasing reliance on computer networks and blockchain technology has led to a growing concern for cybersecurity and privacy. The emergence of zero-day vulnerabilities and unexpected exploits has highlighted the need for innovative solutions to combat these threats. Bug bounty programs have gained popularity as a cost-effective way to crowdsource the task of identifying vulnerabilities, providing a secure and efficient means of enhancing cybersecurity. This paper provides a comprehensive survey of various free and paid bug bounty programs in the computer networks and blockchain industry, evaluating their effectiveness, impact, and credibility. The study explores the structure, incentives, and nature of vulnerabilities uncovered by these programs, as well as their unique value proposition. A comparative analysis is conducted to identify advantages and disadvantages, highlighting the strengths and weaknesses of each program. The paper also examines the role of ethical hackers in bug bounty programs and their contributions to strengthening cybersecurity and privacy. Finally, the study concludes with recommendations for addressing the challenges faced by bug bounty programs and suggests potential future directions to enhance their impact on computer networks and blockchain security.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains2020009

Authors: Hongyi Bian Wensheng Zhang Carl K. Chang

The decentralized nature of blockchain enables data traceability, transparency, and immutability as complementary security features to the existing Internet of Things (IoT) systems. These Blockchain-based IoT (BIoT) systems aim to mitigate security risks such as malicious control, data leakage, and dishonesty often found in traditional cloud-based, vendor-specific IoT networks. As we steadily advance into the era of situation-aware IoT, the use of machine learning (ML) techniques has become essential for synthesizing situations based on sensory contexts. However, the challenge to integrate learning-based situation awareness with BIoT systems restricts the full potential of such integration. This is primarily due to the conflicts between the deterministic nature of smart contracts and the non-deterministic nature of machine learning, as well as the high costs of conducting machine learning on blockchain. To address the challenge, we propose a framework named Situ-Oracle. With the framework, a computation oracle of the blockchain ecosystem is leveraged to provide situation analysis as a service, based on Recurrent Neural Network (RNN)-based learning models tailored for the Situ model, and specifically designed smart contracts are deployed as intermediary communication channels between the IoT devices and the computation oracle. We used smart homes as a case study to demonstrate the framework design. Subsequently, system-wide evaluations were conducted over a physically constructed BIoT system. The results indicate that the proposed framework achieves better situation analysis accuracy (above 95%) and improves gas consumption as well as network throughput and latency when compared to baseline systems (on-chain learning or off-chain model verification). Overall, the paper presents a promising approach for improving situation analysis for BIoT systems, with potential applications in various domains such as smart homes, healthcare, and industrial automation.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains2020008

Authors: Elif Calik Malika Bendechache

As blockchain becomes more widely used, a growing number of application fields are becoming interested in blockchain to benefit from its decentralised nature, invariability, security, transparency, quick transaction capabilities, and cost-effectiveness. Blockchain has a wide range of applications and uses in healthcare. Distributed ledger technology facilitates the secure transfer of patient medical records, manages the medicine supply chain, and creates an efficient, transparent, safe, and effective way of communicating data across global healthcare. The organ transplantation process (OTP) is one of the healthcare areas that benefit from the use of such technology to make its process more secure and transparent. In this article, we put forward a systematic literature review analysis on the application of blockchain to the OTP. Additionally, we address and highlight the barriers and challenges that arise while using blockchain technology for the OTP. We also offer some suggestions for future developments that would enhance blockchain’s implementation in the OTP domain.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains2020007

Authors: Vojislav B. Mišić Jelena Mišić Xiaolin Chang

Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance (PBFT) is the protocol of choice for many applications that require distributed consensus between a number of participant nodes. While PBFT assumes a single voting committee, many applications recognize different groups of participants that need to reach a consensus separately before accepting a proposal. To this end, we propose to count the votes by separate groups or committees of participating nodes, instead of all together as in the original PBFT. We then investigate the performance impact of this approach on the mean time to accept a data block and the number of nodes involved in making the final decision. Our results indicate that the proposed solutions impose a slight performance penalty which may be countermanded by reducing the quorum numbers needed in different subsets of the original committee.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains2020006

Authors: Reyan M. Zein Hossana Twinomurinzi

Blockchain technology is increasingly being recognized for its pivotal role in enhancing security, immutability, and transparency across government sectors, notably in land registration (LR) processes. This research emphasizes the need for contextually adapted blockchain technology solutions, particularly in resource-constrained and culturally diverse settings. Utilizing the elaborated action design research method, this study presents a Hyperledger-based blockchain technology system tailored for Sudan’s LR, addressing technical challenges, evaluation frameworks, privacy measures, and deployment strategies. This system not only facilitates secure and transparent land transactions from planning to certificate issuance, but also integrates the management of land sales, significantly reducing the need for intermediaries. By providing a detailed exploration of the system’s goals, technical hurdles, and practical deployment insights, this research contributes valuable knowledge to the implementation of blockchain technology in LR, with findings that are applicable to similar contexts globally. This study underscores the importance of customizing blockchain solutions to meet the unique requirements of different environments, thereby advancing digital government in resource-constrained settings.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains2020005

Authors: Christina Erler Ann-Marit Bauer Friedrich Gauger Wilhelm Stork

Many Blockchain-based approaches have been published in the field of health data management applications (HDMAs). However, no comprehensive guideline exists to guide the multiple and interdependent design decisions to develop such systems. This paper aims to support the HDMA system design processes by introducing a novel decision model. The model considers all relevant requirements, from regulatory context to user needs and trust considerations. To generate the decision model, we define a taxonomy that organizes previously published approaches by their technical design features and combines it with the trust assumptions of the participating actors according to the STRIDE method. The model aims to support a cohesive overall system design by addressing Blockchain type, off-chain storage, identity and access management, security decisions, and the specific use case of data donation. A group of experts evaluated the decision tree and its utility is demonstrated in three representative use cases. Special attention is paid to the use case of data donation via a data trustee, which is examined in detail.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains2010004

Authors: Peng Zhang Peilin Wu Yuhong Liu Ye Chen Yuanliang Li Jun Yan Mohsen Ghafouri

The rapid expansion of transactive energy has transformed traditional electricity consumers into producers, engaging in local energy trading. In the context of distributed energy transactions, blockchain technology has been increasingly applied to facilitate transaction transparency and reliability. However, due to the challenges in collecting accurate energy transmission data from power lines, most existing studies on the blockchain-based transactive energy market are still vulnerable to security attacks, such as malicious users misreporting energy prices, refusing to pay or refusing to transmit energy. Therefore, based on the co-simulation platform PEMT-CoSim and a blockchain, we establish a blockchain-based, reputation-aware secure transactive energy market (STEM) by introducing a reputation scheme to evaluate the trustworthiness of all prosumers and designing reputation-aware, multi-round double auction and energy transmission algorithms to detect and penalize malicious attacks. Furthermore, we run comprehensive experiments for different use cases. The results show that even with malicious participants, the proposed system can guarantee the interests of the honest participants and improve the robustness and effectiveness of the energy market.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains2010003

Authors: Zijun Wang Keke Gai

Federated learning (FL) has garnered significant attention as a novel machine learning technique that enables collaborative training among multiple parties without exposing raw local data. In comparison to traditional neural networks or linear models, decision tree models offer higher simplicity and interpretability. The integration of FL technology with decision tree models holds immense potential for performance enhancement and privacy improvement. One current challenge is to identify methods for training and prediction of decision tree models in the FL environment. This survey addresses this issue and examines recent efforts to integrate federated learning and decision tree technologies. We review research outcomes achieved in federated decision trees and emphasize that data security and communication efficiency are crucial focal points for FL. The survey discusses key findings related to data privacy and security issues, as well as communication efficiency problems in federated decision tree models. The primary research outcomes of this paper aim to provide theoretical support for the engineering of federated learning with decision trees as the underlying training model.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains2010002

Authors: Yunwei Guo Haochen Liang Liehuang Zhu Keke Gai

Payment channels serve as an effective solution to the scalability problem of cryptocurrencies, which significantly increase transaction rates by allowing users to conduct large-scale offline transactions off-chain without posting everything to the blockchain. However, the existing payment channels lack privacy protection for the transaction amount and the linking relationship between the two parties to the transaction. Therefore, in order to address the scalability and privacy issues of cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin, this paper proposes a zk-SNARKs-based anonymous payment channel (zk-APC), which supports an unlimited number of off-chain payments between the payer and the payee and protects the privacy of the participants. Specifically, the proposed scheme achieves relational anonymity and amount privacy for both on-chain and off-chain transactions in the payment channel through utilizing zero-knowledge proof (zk-SNARKs) and commitment schemes. This paper proves that the proposed method is more effective than similar schemes through a performance evaluation.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains2010001

Authors: Vojislav B. Mišić Soosan Naderi Mighan Jelena Mišić Xiaolin Chang

Proof-of-Stake (PoS) protocols are widely accepted as a viable substitute for the Proof-of-Work-based consensus, which is why recent blockchain-based cryptocurrencies and applications, most notably Ethereum 2.0, are using some variant of PoS as the basis for the consensus protocol. However, the implementation of PoS protocols in Ethereum 2.0 are not without its share of problems and vulnerabilities, especially with respect to the malicious behavior of validator nodes. In this paper, we first review the basic tenets of PoS protocols. We then discuss some of the recently described attacks on the Ethereum 2.0 consensus, and we also show that some of the design rationales adopted in PoS implementation—the decentralization of the voting process in particular—have, in actuality, enabled attacks that can be launched at a very low cost to the attacker. We also propose simple remedies that can reduce or eliminate the impact of those attacks and can evaluate the performance of the Ethereum 2.0 consensus when these remedies are applied.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains1020008

Authors: Yiwei Lai Jingyi Yang Mingzhe Liu Yibei Li Shanlin Li

The emergence of the World Wide Web has revolutionized online communication, aiming to achieve global information sharing and communication. However, the current Web 2.0 architecture, which relies on centralized platforms, presents limitations such as restricted user rights, data privacy concerns, and dependence on centralized institutions. Web3, as a concept describing the next evolutionary stage of the internet, offers a solution to these issues by reshaping the internet infrastructure. Web3 provides a foundation for autonomous digital experiences and drives the advancement of the digital economy. This paper offers a thorough exploration of Web3, covering its key technologies, applications, challenges, and opportunities. We begin by introducing the core technologies behind Web3, followed by an exploration of its prominent applications. Finally, we analyze the challenges faced by Web3 and discuss potential research opportunities to address these challenges in the future. In summary, this study comprehensively elaborates on Web3 and lays a solid foundation for subsequent research work, encouraging researchers to explore new frontiers.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains1020007

Authors: Yusuke Tomatsu Wenlin Han

Bitcoin, the most valuable and energy-consuming cryptocurrency, has recently been at the center of a heated debate over its environmental impact. This controversy has caught the public’s attention, prompting us to investigate the energy consumption of Bitcoin. In this paper, we have conducted a review of the literature on various aspects of Bitcoin mining, including its mechanisms, energy consumption, mining sites, and the potential for renewable energy use. Our findings reveal that the power consumption of Bitcoin is bound to increase with the continued adoption of the proof-of-work (PoW) consensus algorithm. Nonetheless, the growing availability of affordable renewable energy sources worldwide brings hope that Bitcoin mining will shift towards cleaner energy in the near future.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains1020006

Authors: Hamed Taherdoost

Utilizing the fundamental characteristics of the decentralization, immutability, and transparency of blockchain technology, the healthcare industry has made notable advancements in incorporating it over the past five years. This review examines the progress and challenges encountered in this critical study by assessing 124 articles published by MDPI between 2018 and the current date. Examining blockchain’s potential uses, like safe data exchange and interoperability in supply chain management and electronic health records, provides exciting new directions for the future of healthcare. Blockchain technology can greatly increase efficiency and cost-effectiveness by guaranteeing data integrity, protecting patient privacy, and reducing administrative procedures. This paper objectively evaluates blockchain’s advancement in healthcare through a thorough analysis of real-world applications and research projects. By highlighting both its advantages and disadvantages, this analysis seeks to add to the continuing conversation about how blockchain will influence the way healthcare is managed and delivered in the future.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains1020005

Authors: Nazanin Moosavi Hamed Taherdoost

Blockchain technology is a promising technology that attracts popularity among researchers. However, it was first introduced with digital currencies, particularly Bitcoin, but nowadays, it is also known as one of the most frequently used techniques for securing networks. This systematic review research identifies studies that use blockchain for their security challenges. In addition, different fields in blockchain usage, blockchain categorization type, consensus mechanism, smart contract usage, and integration with other software-based algorithms are also investigated. Our results maintain that the Internet of Things (IoT) is the main field in which blockchain provides security.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains1010004

Authors: William George Tareq Al-Ansari

Blockchain has found wide acceptance not just in the DeFi and Crypto space, but also in digital supply chains, non-monetary transactions, and governance. Amongst many, the food supply chain is riddled with lots of inefficiencies and untraceable corruption. Hence, many have investigated the integration of blockchain technology into the food system. This paper discusses the major advancement in blockchain technology from the aspect of food security and proposes roadmaps for future applications in businesses. We dive into the different pillars of food security and how blockchains can play a valuable role in the technology infrastructure of food security in a holistic sense. Next, the paper also discusses the organizational, economic, and management aspects of technology adoption. Finally, we end by discussing the nexus between Blockchain and Decentralized Autonomous Organizations (DAO), as well as Digital Twins, respectively.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains1010003

Authors: Lingwen Wei Xutian Wang Ting Wang Zhilan Duan Yan Hong Xiaoming He Huawei Huang

The metaverse, a virtual world closely intertwined with reality, represents the next-generation form of the Internet and encompasses advanced sociability and interaction. With the rapid growth of users and virtual products within this environment, the importance of recommendation systems becomes paramount. This article presents a comprehensive survey that examines the technologies influencing the development of recommendation systems tailored for the metaverse. Firstly, we identify the key trends and fundamental concepts associated with these systems. Secondly, we delve into the core supporting technologies and application scenarios within metaverse recommendation systems. Lastly, we provide insights into future research directions for this rapidly evolving field. Our survey reveals that while progress has been achieved, further investigation is necessary to optimize the technical layout and content of metaverse recommendation systems.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains1010002

Authors: Hui Li Ranran Dang Yao Yao Han Wang

Smart contracts, programs running on a blockchain, play a crucial role in driving Web 3.0 across a variety of domains, such as digital finance and future networks. However, they currently face significant security vulnerabilities that could result in potential risks and losses. This paper outlines the inherent vulnerabilities of smart contracts, both those typical of their applications and those unique to Web 3.0 applications. We then systematically classify the techniques based on their core approach to detecting vulnerabilities in smart contracts. Using these approaches, we conduct a comparative analysis of existing tools in terms of their vulnerability coverage, detection effectiveness, open-source availability, and integration capabilities. Finally, we present the Co-Governed Sovereignty Multi-Identifier Network (CoG-MIN) as a case study to demonstrate the significance of smart contract application security in establishing a community with a shared future in cyberspace during the Web 3.0 era and anticipate future research directions with challenges. To conclude, this study addresses the gap in integrating existing smart contract security research with the advancement of Web 3.0 development, while also providing recommendations for future research directions.

Blockchains doi: 10.3390/blockchains1010001

Authors: Keke Gai Liehuang Zhu

Blockchain, one of the representative technologies of Web 3 [...]