Crops Latest open access articles published in Crops at https://www.mdpi.com/journal/crops https://www.mdpi.com/journal/crops MDPI en Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) MDPI support@mdpi.com Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 53: Effects of Rice Straw Mulching on Nematode Communities in Upland-Paddy Rice Systems in Salt-Affected Soils https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/3/53 Rice straw mulching is a soil management practice that influences soil microbial communities. However, its effects on nematode communities under upland rice systems in salt-affected soils remain unclear. This study examined nematode community responses to rice straw mulching at rates of 0, 3.5, 7.0, and 10.5 t ha−1 in paddy fields at two sites, Lieu Tu and Long Phu, in Soc Trang Province, Mekong Delta, Vietnam. A total of 37 and 35 nematode genera were identified in Lieu Tu and Long Phu, respectively. Bacterivores were the dominant group, followed by herbivores. Acrobeloides, Hirschmanniella, Chronogaster, Aporcelaimellus, and Prismatolaimus were prevalent in Long Phu, while Acrobeloides, Prismatolaimus, Hirschmanniella, and Alaimus dominated in Lieu Tu. The highest mulching rate (10.5 t ha−1) increased total nematode abundance, particularly cp1 and cp2 groups in Long Phu, while the application of 7.0 t ha−1 increased the proportion of omnivorous feeders in Lieu Tu. Mulching increased total nematode biomass and metabolic footprints, indicating improved soil fertility. At Long Phu, mulching also increased biodiversity, as reflected by the higher species richness and Shannon–Wiener indices. The highest mulching application rate (10.5 t ha−1) increased the relative abundance of cp2 functional guilds at both sites. Mulching reduced the relative abundance of plant-parasitic nematodes at both sites, and increased cowpea yield from 5.1 to 13.9 t ha−1 and 5.67 to 9.70 t ha−1 at Lieu Tu and Long Phu, respectively. These findings suggest that the rice straw mulching at 10.5 t ha−1 improves soil structure and nematode diversity, thereby supporting agricultural sustainability in salt-affected soils under climate change conditions. 2026-05-26 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 53: Effects of Rice Straw Mulching on Nematode Communities in Upland-Paddy Rice Systems in Salt-Affected Soils

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6030053

Authors: Nguyen Van Sinh Brooke Kaveney Jessica Rigg Le Thi Ngoc Tien Chau Minh Khoi Koki Toyota Jason Condon Nguyen Thi Kim Phuong

Rice straw mulching is a soil management practice that influences soil microbial communities. However, its effects on nematode communities under upland rice systems in salt-affected soils remain unclear. This study examined nematode community responses to rice straw mulching at rates of 0, 3.5, 7.0, and 10.5 t ha−1 in paddy fields at two sites, Lieu Tu and Long Phu, in Soc Trang Province, Mekong Delta, Vietnam. A total of 37 and 35 nematode genera were identified in Lieu Tu and Long Phu, respectively. Bacterivores were the dominant group, followed by herbivores. Acrobeloides, Hirschmanniella, Chronogaster, Aporcelaimellus, and Prismatolaimus were prevalent in Long Phu, while Acrobeloides, Prismatolaimus, Hirschmanniella, and Alaimus dominated in Lieu Tu. The highest mulching rate (10.5 t ha−1) increased total nematode abundance, particularly cp1 and cp2 groups in Long Phu, while the application of 7.0 t ha−1 increased the proportion of omnivorous feeders in Lieu Tu. Mulching increased total nematode biomass and metabolic footprints, indicating improved soil fertility. At Long Phu, mulching also increased biodiversity, as reflected by the higher species richness and Shannon–Wiener indices. The highest mulching application rate (10.5 t ha−1) increased the relative abundance of cp2 functional guilds at both sites. Mulching reduced the relative abundance of plant-parasitic nematodes at both sites, and increased cowpea yield from 5.1 to 13.9 t ha−1 and 5.67 to 9.70 t ha−1 at Lieu Tu and Long Phu, respectively. These findings suggest that the rice straw mulching at 10.5 t ha−1 improves soil structure and nematode diversity, thereby supporting agricultural sustainability in salt-affected soils under climate change conditions.

]]> Effects of Rice Straw Mulching on Nematode Communities in Upland-Paddy Rice Systems in Salt-Affected Soils Nguyen Van Sinh Brooke Kaveney Jessica Rigg Le Thi Ngoc Tien Chau Minh Khoi Koki Toyota Jason Condon Nguyen Thi Kim Phuong doi: 10.3390/crops6030053 Crops 2026-05-26 Crops 2026-05-26 6 3 Article 53 10.3390/crops6030053 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/3/53 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 52: Morphophysiological Responses of Lettuce to Irrigation Depths and Wastewater Sources with a Machine Learning Approach https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/3/52 The increasing pressure on water resources has stimulated the use of treated wastewater in agricultural irrigation, although its effects on plant development remain uncertain. This study evaluated the effects of wastewater treatments and irrigation depths on the morphophysiological development of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.). A split-plot experiment was conducted with crop cycles in the main plots and a factorial arrangement in the subplots, consisting of five water sources and five irrigation depths (50% to 150% ETc), with three replications. Seven variables were evaluated, including growth traits and water productivity. Irrigation depth significantly affected all variables (p ≤ 0.01) and was the main driver of vegetative growth, increasing shoot fresh mass, stem diameter, and plant height. In contrast, water sources showed smaller effects. Water productivity decreased with increasing irrigation depth and showed weak correlations with other variables (r ≤ 0.468). Machine learning models achieved moderate accuracy for irrigation depth prediction (≈55%), with confusion among adjacent classes, indicating detection of a gradient rather than precise classification. Prediction of water sources was low (<30%), confirming limited morphological differentiation. Plant height and stem diameter were the most informative variables. These results indicate that irrigation management has a stronger influence on lettuce growth than water source. 2026-05-14 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 52: Morphophysiological Responses of Lettuce to Irrigation Depths and Wastewater Sources with a Machine Learning Approach

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6030052

Authors: Antonio Magno dos Santos Souza Caio Lucas Alhadas de Paula Velloso Jonas Caram Moss Gregorio Guirado Faccioli Job Teixeira de Oliveira Fernando França da Cunha

The increasing pressure on water resources has stimulated the use of treated wastewater in agricultural irrigation, although its effects on plant development remain uncertain. This study evaluated the effects of wastewater treatments and irrigation depths on the morphophysiological development of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.). A split-plot experiment was conducted with crop cycles in the main plots and a factorial arrangement in the subplots, consisting of five water sources and five irrigation depths (50% to 150% ETc), with three replications. Seven variables were evaluated, including growth traits and water productivity. Irrigation depth significantly affected all variables (p ≤ 0.01) and was the main driver of vegetative growth, increasing shoot fresh mass, stem diameter, and plant height. In contrast, water sources showed smaller effects. Water productivity decreased with increasing irrigation depth and showed weak correlations with other variables (r ≤ 0.468). Machine learning models achieved moderate accuracy for irrigation depth prediction (≈55%), with confusion among adjacent classes, indicating detection of a gradient rather than precise classification. Prediction of water sources was low (<30%), confirming limited morphological differentiation. Plant height and stem diameter were the most informative variables. These results indicate that irrigation management has a stronger influence on lettuce growth than water source.

]]> Morphophysiological Responses of Lettuce to Irrigation Depths and Wastewater Sources with a Machine Learning Approach Antonio Magno dos Santos Souza Caio Lucas Alhadas de Paula Velloso Jonas Caram Moss Gregorio Guirado Faccioli Job Teixeira de Oliveira Fernando França da Cunha doi: 10.3390/crops6030052 Crops 2026-05-14 Crops 2026-05-14 6 3 Article 52 10.3390/crops6030052 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/3/52 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 51: Tenebrio molitor Frass as a Biofertilizer: Effects of Application Rate and Frequency on Growth and Yield of Greenhouse-Grown Vegetables https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/3/51 The increasing need to reduce agrochemicals has intensified the search for sustainable alternatives in crop production. Insect frass, a by-product of insect rearing, has recently emerged as a promising organic fertilizer. In the present study, the effects of Tenebrio molitor frass (TMF) on plant growth and productivity were evaluated in three vegetable crops, cucumber (cv. Aisopos), pepper (cv. Lamuyo), and lettuce (cv. Paris Island), under greenhouse conditions. Experimental plants were grown in pots under two substrate fertility levels (fertilized and non-fertilized peat, hereafter referred to as “rich” and “poor” soil) and received TMF at two rates (1% and 2% w/w), applied either once or twice. Plant height and weight, fruit number and weight, and total production per plant were recorded. TMF application, applied as a soil amendment, enhanced plant growth and yield of the treated plants compared to the control, although the magnitude and consistency of the response varied among crops, soil types, and measured parameters. A clear dose-dependent response was not observed, as the 2% rate did not consistently outperform the 1% rate. Likewise, splitting the same total amount of TMF into two applications did not significantly improve plant performance. The response to the TMF application varied among crops in terms of growth and yield parameters. Lettuce recorded the strongest response, while cucumber and pepper exhibited more moderate improvements. Notably, TMF significantly increased growth and productivity even at the lowest application rates under poor soil conditions. These findings demonstrate that TMF is a promising low-input organic fertilizer under the tested conditions and highlight the importance of optimizing application rate and strategy for sustainable vegetable production. 2026-05-13 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 51: Tenebrio molitor Frass as a Biofertilizer: Effects of Application Rate and Frequency on Growth and Yield of Greenhouse-Grown Vegetables

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6030051

Authors: Ioannis-Konstantinos Platis Ilianna Katsogianni Dimitrios Natsiopoulos Spyridon Mantzoukas Panagiotis A. Eliopoulos

The increasing need to reduce agrochemicals has intensified the search for sustainable alternatives in crop production. Insect frass, a by-product of insect rearing, has recently emerged as a promising organic fertilizer. In the present study, the effects of Tenebrio molitor frass (TMF) on plant growth and productivity were evaluated in three vegetable crops, cucumber (cv. Aisopos), pepper (cv. Lamuyo), and lettuce (cv. Paris Island), under greenhouse conditions. Experimental plants were grown in pots under two substrate fertility levels (fertilized and non-fertilized peat, hereafter referred to as “rich” and “poor” soil) and received TMF at two rates (1% and 2% w/w), applied either once or twice. Plant height and weight, fruit number and weight, and total production per plant were recorded. TMF application, applied as a soil amendment, enhanced plant growth and yield of the treated plants compared to the control, although the magnitude and consistency of the response varied among crops, soil types, and measured parameters. A clear dose-dependent response was not observed, as the 2% rate did not consistently outperform the 1% rate. Likewise, splitting the same total amount of TMF into two applications did not significantly improve plant performance. The response to the TMF application varied among crops in terms of growth and yield parameters. Lettuce recorded the strongest response, while cucumber and pepper exhibited more moderate improvements. Notably, TMF significantly increased growth and productivity even at the lowest application rates under poor soil conditions. These findings demonstrate that TMF is a promising low-input organic fertilizer under the tested conditions and highlight the importance of optimizing application rate and strategy for sustainable vegetable production.

]]> Tenebrio molitor Frass as a Biofertilizer: Effects of Application Rate and Frequency on Growth and Yield of Greenhouse-Grown Vegetables Ioannis-Konstantinos Platis Ilianna Katsogianni Dimitrios Natsiopoulos Spyridon Mantzoukas Panagiotis A. Eliopoulos doi: 10.3390/crops6030051 Crops 2026-05-13 Crops 2026-05-13 6 3 Article 51 10.3390/crops6030051 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/3/51 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 50: Estimating the Vulnerability to Hydrometeorological Phenomena in Mexican Coffee Crops https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/3/50 Coffee plantations are highly vulnerable to climatic factors. In this regard, the vulnerability of coffee agroecosystems to extreme hydrometeorological events has been underexplored. This research proposes a method to assess coffee plantations’ vulnerability to five phenomena that have led to disaster declarations in the municipalities where they are cultivated: extreme rainfall, tropical cyclones, floods, snow and low temperatures, and drought. This study considered coffee production, local climate information, hydrometeorological records, and environmental protection actions, spanning 22 years in the eastern state of Veracruz, Mexico. All data were normalized and evaluated for three production values: harvested area ratio, yield, and volume. The Exposition accounted for the number of events, correlating production data with phenomena to assess sensitivity, while the adaptive capacity was assessed by considering environmental protection actions. The results indicated that the most frequent phenomena were extreme rainfall, followed by tropical cyclones, snow and low temperatures, droughts, and floods. However, tropical cyclones accounted for the highest number of vulnerabilities, and drought caused the highest level of vulnerabilities. Snow and cold temperatures reduced vulnerabilities, and floods have non-statistical effects. In general, coffee agroecosystems have a low vulnerability index (6.21 on a scale of 15) due to their location within the local forest. 2026-05-05 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 50: Estimating the Vulnerability to Hydrometeorological Phenomena in Mexican Coffee Crops

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6030050

Authors: Ofelia Andrea Valdés-Rodríguez Fernando Salas-Martínez

Coffee plantations are highly vulnerable to climatic factors. In this regard, the vulnerability of coffee agroecosystems to extreme hydrometeorological events has been underexplored. This research proposes a method to assess coffee plantations’ vulnerability to five phenomena that have led to disaster declarations in the municipalities where they are cultivated: extreme rainfall, tropical cyclones, floods, snow and low temperatures, and drought. This study considered coffee production, local climate information, hydrometeorological records, and environmental protection actions, spanning 22 years in the eastern state of Veracruz, Mexico. All data were normalized and evaluated for three production values: harvested area ratio, yield, and volume. The Exposition accounted for the number of events, correlating production data with phenomena to assess sensitivity, while the adaptive capacity was assessed by considering environmental protection actions. The results indicated that the most frequent phenomena were extreme rainfall, followed by tropical cyclones, snow and low temperatures, droughts, and floods. However, tropical cyclones accounted for the highest number of vulnerabilities, and drought caused the highest level of vulnerabilities. Snow and cold temperatures reduced vulnerabilities, and floods have non-statistical effects. In general, coffee agroecosystems have a low vulnerability index (6.21 on a scale of 15) due to their location within the local forest.

]]> Estimating the Vulnerability to Hydrometeorological Phenomena in Mexican Coffee Crops Ofelia Andrea Valdés-Rodríguez Fernando Salas-Martínez doi: 10.3390/crops6030050 Crops 2026-05-05 Crops 2026-05-05 6 3 Article 50 10.3390/crops6030050 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/3/50 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 49: Mechanical Damage in Soybeans by Pneumatic Seeder https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/3/49 Research has advanced in the development of precision seed metering devices to ensure proper seed distribution at high speeds. However, little is known about the effect of increasing seeding speed, as well as seeding at different inclinations of the tractor-seeder unit, on the integrity and physiological quality of soybean seeds. This study aimed to identify the effect of travel speeds (5, 7, 9, 11, and 13 km h−1) combined with three longitudinal inclinations of a pneumatic seed metering device (−11°, 0°, and 11°), simulating field conditions, on the distribution and integrity of soybean seeds. We used a 5 × 3 factorial design was used with an additional control treatment in which the seeds did not pass through the metering device. The variables evaluated included the percentage of spacing between individual seeds, germination, mechanical damage (tetrazolium test), and seedling emergence. The results demonstrated that increasing the speed did not prevent the spacing between individual seeds from falling below the minimum limit of 90% for pneumatic seed metering devices. The treatments did not affect germination compared to the control. Sowing on a slope caused the greatest mechanical damage to soybean seeds. All treatments significantly reduced plant emergence, except when the pneumatic metering device operated at an incline of 0° at 9 km h−1. 2026-04-22 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 49: Mechanical Damage in Soybeans by Pneumatic Seeder

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6030049

Authors: Fabricio Ardais Medeiros Nixon da Rosa Westendorff Lilian Vanussa Madruga de Tunes Ângelo Vieira dos Reis Aleksander Westphal Muniz Geri Eduardo Menegello

Research has advanced in the development of precision seed metering devices to ensure proper seed distribution at high speeds. However, little is known about the effect of increasing seeding speed, as well as seeding at different inclinations of the tractor-seeder unit, on the integrity and physiological quality of soybean seeds. This study aimed to identify the effect of travel speeds (5, 7, 9, 11, and 13 km h−1) combined with three longitudinal inclinations of a pneumatic seed metering device (−11°, 0°, and 11°), simulating field conditions, on the distribution and integrity of soybean seeds. We used a 5 × 3 factorial design was used with an additional control treatment in which the seeds did not pass through the metering device. The variables evaluated included the percentage of spacing between individual seeds, germination, mechanical damage (tetrazolium test), and seedling emergence. The results demonstrated that increasing the speed did not prevent the spacing between individual seeds from falling below the minimum limit of 90% for pneumatic seed metering devices. The treatments did not affect germination compared to the control. Sowing on a slope caused the greatest mechanical damage to soybean seeds. All treatments significantly reduced plant emergence, except when the pneumatic metering device operated at an incline of 0° at 9 km h−1.

]]> Mechanical Damage in Soybeans by Pneumatic Seeder Fabricio Ardais Medeiros Nixon da Rosa Westendorff Lilian Vanussa Madruga de Tunes Ângelo Vieira dos Reis Aleksander Westphal Muniz Geri Eduardo Menegello doi: 10.3390/crops6030049 Crops 2026-04-22 Crops 2026-04-22 6 3 Article 49 10.3390/crops6030049 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/3/49 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 48: Integrated Control of Tomato Damping-Off Using Stenotrophomonas rhizophila and CuO Nanoparticles https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/48 Damping-off caused by Fusarium spp. limits tomato seedling establishment, while chemical control is constrained by resistance development and environmental risks. As a result, biological alternatives and nanomaterials have attracted increasing interest. This study aimed to quantify the in vitro inhibition and in vivo control of Fusarium spp. associated with tomato damping-off using the marine strains KN1 and KN2 of Stenotrophomonas rhizophila and copper oxide nanoparticles (CuO-NPs). Nine fungal isolates were recovered from symptomatic plants; the most virulent isolate (3DR23HA) caused 60% disease incidence and was identified as Fusarium oxysporum. In dual-culture assays, both bacterial strains inhibited mycelial growth, with percentage inhibition of radial growth (PIRG) values exceeding 65% in several isolates, whereas KN1 showed greater inhibition of conidial germination. CuO-NPs exhibited a concentration-dependent response, reaching near-complete suppression at 0.75–1.0 mg mL−1. In seedlings, the inoculated control showed 100% incidence and a disease severity index (DSI) of 85%, whereas KN1, KN1 + CuO-NPs at 0.75 mg mL−1, and KN2 + CuO-NPs at 0.75 mg mL−1 achieved a DSI of 0 and 100% control efficiency, while also improving growth and biomass. Overall, S. rhizophila, particularly strain KN1, and CuO-NPs at 0.75 mg mL−1 represent a promising strategy for the integrated management of tomato damping-off in nurseries. 2026-04-21 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 48: Integrated Control of Tomato Damping-Off Using Stenotrophomonas rhizophila and CuO Nanoparticles

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6020048

Authors: Roberto Gregorio Chiquito-Contreras Robinson J. Herrera-Feijoo Juan José Reyes-Pérez Claudia Ramírez-Machado Luis Hernández-Adame Juan Antonio Torres-Rodriguez Luis Guillermo Hernández Montiel

Damping-off caused by Fusarium spp. limits tomato seedling establishment, while chemical control is constrained by resistance development and environmental risks. As a result, biological alternatives and nanomaterials have attracted increasing interest. This study aimed to quantify the in vitro inhibition and in vivo control of Fusarium spp. associated with tomato damping-off using the marine strains KN1 and KN2 of Stenotrophomonas rhizophila and copper oxide nanoparticles (CuO-NPs). Nine fungal isolates were recovered from symptomatic plants; the most virulent isolate (3DR23HA) caused 60% disease incidence and was identified as Fusarium oxysporum. In dual-culture assays, both bacterial strains inhibited mycelial growth, with percentage inhibition of radial growth (PIRG) values exceeding 65% in several isolates, whereas KN1 showed greater inhibition of conidial germination. CuO-NPs exhibited a concentration-dependent response, reaching near-complete suppression at 0.75–1.0 mg mL−1. In seedlings, the inoculated control showed 100% incidence and a disease severity index (DSI) of 85%, whereas KN1, KN1 + CuO-NPs at 0.75 mg mL−1, and KN2 + CuO-NPs at 0.75 mg mL−1 achieved a DSI of 0 and 100% control efficiency, while also improving growth and biomass. Overall, S. rhizophila, particularly strain KN1, and CuO-NPs at 0.75 mg mL−1 represent a promising strategy for the integrated management of tomato damping-off in nurseries.

]]> Integrated Control of Tomato Damping-Off Using Stenotrophomonas rhizophila and CuO Nanoparticles Roberto Gregorio Chiquito-Contreras Robinson J. Herrera-Feijoo Juan José Reyes-Pérez Claudia Ramírez-Machado Luis Hernández-Adame Juan Antonio Torres-Rodriguez Luis Guillermo Hernández Montiel doi: 10.3390/crops6020048 Crops 2026-04-21 Crops 2026-04-21 6 2 Article 48 10.3390/crops6020048 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/48 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 47: Vermicompost-Based Substrates and a PGPR Consortium Improve the Nutraceutical Quality of Greenhouse Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) in a Semi-Hydroponic System https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/47 Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is a globally important vegetable, prized for its nutritional value and antioxidant content. Given the increasing demand for foods with health-promoting properties and the need for sustainable production practices, this study evaluated the impact of different growth substrates combined with plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) inoculation on the yield and nutraceutical quality of greenhouse tomatoes grown in a semi-hydroponic system. ‘Nereida’ variety saladette tomato plants were either inoculated with a single PGPR consortium (1 × 108 CFU mL−1) or uninoculated. Three substrates were used: a chemical fertilization control and a sand-vermicompost mixture with two inherent levels of phosphorus (253 and 442 ppm). The chemically fertilized substrate without inoculation served as the control treatment. The results indicated that the chemically fertilized substrate presented a significantly higher yield per square meter (p < 0.05), reaching values of 5.20 ± 0.70 kg m−2 and 4.83 ± 0.35 kg m−2 in the control treatment. However, fruits grown in the vermicompost-based substrate with higher phosphorus content (442 ppm) and PGPR inoculation exhibited significantly greater antioxidant capacity (54.16 µmol TE g−1 FW) and higher concentrations of vitamin C (14.03 mg·100 g−1 FW), lycopene (47.68 mg·100 g−1 FW), flavonoids, carotenoids, and glutathione. This represented an increase of 28–45% in bioactive compounds including lycopene, vitamin C, flavonoids, carotenoids, and glutathione compared to the chemical control. While the interaction between substrate and inoculation was significant only for soluble solids, both factors independently and additively contributed to the enhancement of nutraceutical parameters. These findings suggest that the use of vermicompost-based substrates, particularly those with higher phosphorus content, in combination with PGPR inoculation, is a promising strategy to enhance the accumulation of health-promoting bioactive compounds in tomato fruits, despite a trade-off in total yield. 2026-04-16 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 47: Vermicompost-Based Substrates and a PGPR Consortium Improve the Nutraceutical Quality of Greenhouse Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) in a Semi-Hydroponic System

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6020047

Authors: Alfonso Andrade-Sifuentes Jesús Josafath Quezada-Rivera Gabriel de Jesús Peña-Uribe Rubén Palacio-Rodríguez José Luis Estrada-Rodríguez Jaime Sánchez-Salas Manuel Fortis-Hernandez Pablo Preciado-Rangel Jazmín Montserrat Gaucin-Delgado Jorge Sáenz-Mata

Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is a globally important vegetable, prized for its nutritional value and antioxidant content. Given the increasing demand for foods with health-promoting properties and the need for sustainable production practices, this study evaluated the impact of different growth substrates combined with plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) inoculation on the yield and nutraceutical quality of greenhouse tomatoes grown in a semi-hydroponic system. ‘Nereida’ variety saladette tomato plants were either inoculated with a single PGPR consortium (1 × 108 CFU mL−1) or uninoculated. Three substrates were used: a chemical fertilization control and a sand-vermicompost mixture with two inherent levels of phosphorus (253 and 442 ppm). The chemically fertilized substrate without inoculation served as the control treatment. The results indicated that the chemically fertilized substrate presented a significantly higher yield per square meter (p < 0.05), reaching values of 5.20 ± 0.70 kg m−2 and 4.83 ± 0.35 kg m−2 in the control treatment. However, fruits grown in the vermicompost-based substrate with higher phosphorus content (442 ppm) and PGPR inoculation exhibited significantly greater antioxidant capacity (54.16 µmol TE g−1 FW) and higher concentrations of vitamin C (14.03 mg·100 g−1 FW), lycopene (47.68 mg·100 g−1 FW), flavonoids, carotenoids, and glutathione. This represented an increase of 28–45% in bioactive compounds including lycopene, vitamin C, flavonoids, carotenoids, and glutathione compared to the chemical control. While the interaction between substrate and inoculation was significant only for soluble solids, both factors independently and additively contributed to the enhancement of nutraceutical parameters. These findings suggest that the use of vermicompost-based substrates, particularly those with higher phosphorus content, in combination with PGPR inoculation, is a promising strategy to enhance the accumulation of health-promoting bioactive compounds in tomato fruits, despite a trade-off in total yield.

]]> Vermicompost-Based Substrates and a PGPR Consortium Improve the Nutraceutical Quality of Greenhouse Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) in a Semi-Hydroponic System Alfonso Andrade-Sifuentes Jesús Josafath Quezada-Rivera Gabriel de Jesús Peña-Uribe Rubén Palacio-Rodríguez José Luis Estrada-Rodríguez Jaime Sánchez-Salas Manuel Fortis-Hernandez Pablo Preciado-Rangel Jazmín Montserrat Gaucin-Delgado Jorge Sáenz-Mata doi: 10.3390/crops6020047 Crops 2026-04-16 Crops 2026-04-16 6 2 Article 47 10.3390/crops6020047 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/47 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 46: The Role of Leaf Morphology and Sustainable Management Practices on Optimizing Nitrogen Use Efficiency of Upland Rice: A Review https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/46 Nitrogen is an essential macronutrient for plant growth, photosynthesis, and grain yield. However, the nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) of crops remains relatively low, leading to nitrogen losses and environmental concerns. This is particularly important in upland rice because it is a high nitrogen user, but research of its NUE is limited. This literature review explored the contributions of leaf morphology, specifically leaf size and leaf angle, to nitrogen utilization efficiency in upland rice under varying rates of nitrogen fertilization. It also evaluated sustainable nitrogen management practices across diverse cropping systems. Findings reveal that nitrogen fertilization significantly influences leaf development, canopy structure, and nitrogen remobilization, all of which directly affect photosynthetic efficiency and yield. Breeding strategies focusing on moderate leaf size and erect leaf angles improve the nitrogen uptake and use by rice. In addition, sustainable farming practices, including precision nitrogen management, conservation agriculture, and intercropping with legumes, are effective in enhancing NUE and reducing nitrogen losses across various rice production systems. Future research should focus on identifying the thresholds of nitrogen rates that optimize leaf morphology across diverse upland rice genotypes and unravel the genetic and physiological mechanisms linking nitrogen application to leaf development. 2026-04-14 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 46: The Role of Leaf Morphology and Sustainable Management Practices on Optimizing Nitrogen Use Efficiency of Upland Rice: A Review

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6020046

Authors: Faith S. Olanlokun Oyeyemi A. Dada Khayelihle Ncama

Nitrogen is an essential macronutrient for plant growth, photosynthesis, and grain yield. However, the nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) of crops remains relatively low, leading to nitrogen losses and environmental concerns. This is particularly important in upland rice because it is a high nitrogen user, but research of its NUE is limited. This literature review explored the contributions of leaf morphology, specifically leaf size and leaf angle, to nitrogen utilization efficiency in upland rice under varying rates of nitrogen fertilization. It also evaluated sustainable nitrogen management practices across diverse cropping systems. Findings reveal that nitrogen fertilization significantly influences leaf development, canopy structure, and nitrogen remobilization, all of which directly affect photosynthetic efficiency and yield. Breeding strategies focusing on moderate leaf size and erect leaf angles improve the nitrogen uptake and use by rice. In addition, sustainable farming practices, including precision nitrogen management, conservation agriculture, and intercropping with legumes, are effective in enhancing NUE and reducing nitrogen losses across various rice production systems. Future research should focus on identifying the thresholds of nitrogen rates that optimize leaf morphology across diverse upland rice genotypes and unravel the genetic and physiological mechanisms linking nitrogen application to leaf development.

]]> The Role of Leaf Morphology and Sustainable Management Practices on Optimizing Nitrogen Use Efficiency of Upland Rice: A Review Faith S. Olanlokun Oyeyemi A. Dada Khayelihle Ncama doi: 10.3390/crops6020046 Crops 2026-04-14 Crops 2026-04-14 6 2 Review 46 10.3390/crops6020046 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/46 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 45: Interactive Effects of Irrigation Depth and Fertilization Level on Graft Establishment, Nursery Survival, and Water Productivity in Peach Nursery Production https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/45 Efficient irrigation management is critical for improving irrigation water productivity and producing high-quality planting material in fruit tree nurseries. This study evaluated the effects of irrigation and fertilization on peach nursery performance through a two-year field experiment conducted in a commercial nursery in northwestern Romania. The experiment included two cultivars (‘Redhaven’ and ‘Cresthaven’), four irrigation depths (0, 10, 20, and 30 mm for each irrigation event), and two fertilization levels (N0P0K0 and N8P8K8) arranged in a factorial design. Irrigation significantly improved graft establishment and nursery survival compared to rainfed conditions. Optimal irrigation (20 mm) resulted in the highest nursery survival and provided the best balance between plant productivity and irrigation water productivity. Higher irrigation inputs increased total water consumption but reduced irrigation water productivity. Regression analysis revealed nonlinear relationships between water consumption and nursery performance, indicating diminishing returns at higher irrigation levels. The results suggest that moderate irrigation can enhance nursery productivity while improving water use efficiency. These findings provide practical guidance for optimizing irrigation strategies in commercial peach nursery systems. 2026-04-14 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 45: Interactive Effects of Irrigation Depth and Fertilization Level on Graft Establishment, Nursery Survival, and Water Productivity in Peach Nursery Production

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6020045

Authors: Adelina Venig

Efficient irrigation management is critical for improving irrigation water productivity and producing high-quality planting material in fruit tree nurseries. This study evaluated the effects of irrigation and fertilization on peach nursery performance through a two-year field experiment conducted in a commercial nursery in northwestern Romania. The experiment included two cultivars (‘Redhaven’ and ‘Cresthaven’), four irrigation depths (0, 10, 20, and 30 mm for each irrigation event), and two fertilization levels (N0P0K0 and N8P8K8) arranged in a factorial design. Irrigation significantly improved graft establishment and nursery survival compared to rainfed conditions. Optimal irrigation (20 mm) resulted in the highest nursery survival and provided the best balance between plant productivity and irrigation water productivity. Higher irrigation inputs increased total water consumption but reduced irrigation water productivity. Regression analysis revealed nonlinear relationships between water consumption and nursery performance, indicating diminishing returns at higher irrigation levels. The results suggest that moderate irrigation can enhance nursery productivity while improving water use efficiency. These findings provide practical guidance for optimizing irrigation strategies in commercial peach nursery systems.

]]> Interactive Effects of Irrigation Depth and Fertilization Level on Graft Establishment, Nursery Survival, and Water Productivity in Peach Nursery Production Adelina Venig doi: 10.3390/crops6020045 Crops 2026-04-14 Crops 2026-04-14 6 2 Article 45 10.3390/crops6020045 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/45 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 44: Grapevine Ecophysiology: Implications of N Fertilization, Deficit Irrigation, and Arbuscular Mycorrhiza on N Isotope Composition (δ15N) https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/44 Over two years, a randomized complete block field trial tested deficit irrigation [I: 70% ETc; NI] and ammonium nitrate [N0, N60, N120; 0, 60, 120 kg N ha−1] application in two northern Greece winegrape vineyards of cv. ‘Xinomavro’ (XM) and cv. ‘Cabernet Sauvignon’ (CS). Leaf-blade δ15N was measured at berry set, bunch closure, veraison, and technological maturity; berry-juice (must) δ15N at technological maturity and dormant cane δ15N in winter were also determined. In the first year, δ15N was additionally measured in petioles, unripe berries, trunks, and roots, along with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal (AMF) colonization of fine roots. Fertilization increased δ15N in leaf blades and canes, whereas berry-juice δ15N responded weakly and inconsistently. Irrigation marginally lowered cane δ15N; cane δ15N varied between years, and berry-juice δ15N showed the highest variability across treatments. At berry set, intravine discrimination was evident: young berries and leaf blades were enriched, while fine roots and woody tissues were depleted. Root δ15N responses differed between cultivars and depended on AMF colonization in XM. Leaf and cane δ15N were positively related to vine N status, yield, and pruning weight but negatively to agronomic N-use efficiency indices. These findings indicate that δ15N serves as an integrative proxy of N cycling processes and fertilizer-use efficiency in vineyards, with potential implications for the assessment and optimization of sustainable vineyard management practices in the context of climate change. 2026-04-09 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 44: Grapevine Ecophysiology: Implications of N Fertilization, Deficit Irrigation, and Arbuscular Mycorrhiza on N Isotope Composition (δ15N)

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6020044

Authors: Dimitrios Taskos Georgios Doupis Serafeim Theocharis Nikolaos Nikolaou Stefanos Koundouras

Over two years, a randomized complete block field trial tested deficit irrigation [I: 70% ETc; NI] and ammonium nitrate [N0, N60, N120; 0, 60, 120 kg N ha−1] application in two northern Greece winegrape vineyards of cv. ‘Xinomavro’ (XM) and cv. ‘Cabernet Sauvignon’ (CS). Leaf-blade δ15N was measured at berry set, bunch closure, veraison, and technological maturity; berry-juice (must) δ15N at technological maturity and dormant cane δ15N in winter were also determined. In the first year, δ15N was additionally measured in petioles, unripe berries, trunks, and roots, along with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal (AMF) colonization of fine roots. Fertilization increased δ15N in leaf blades and canes, whereas berry-juice δ15N responded weakly and inconsistently. Irrigation marginally lowered cane δ15N; cane δ15N varied between years, and berry-juice δ15N showed the highest variability across treatments. At berry set, intravine discrimination was evident: young berries and leaf blades were enriched, while fine roots and woody tissues were depleted. Root δ15N responses differed between cultivars and depended on AMF colonization in XM. Leaf and cane δ15N were positively related to vine N status, yield, and pruning weight but negatively to agronomic N-use efficiency indices. These findings indicate that δ15N serves as an integrative proxy of N cycling processes and fertilizer-use efficiency in vineyards, with potential implications for the assessment and optimization of sustainable vineyard management practices in the context of climate change.

]]> Grapevine Ecophysiology: Implications of N Fertilization, Deficit Irrigation, and Arbuscular Mycorrhiza on N Isotope Composition (δ15N) Dimitrios Taskos Georgios Doupis Serafeim Theocharis Nikolaos Nikolaou Stefanos Koundouras doi: 10.3390/crops6020044 Crops 2026-04-09 Crops 2026-04-09 6 2 Article 44 10.3390/crops6020044 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/44 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 43: Salinity Tolerance, Plant Growth, and Nutrient Partitioning in Three Mexican Huauzontle (Chenopodium berlandieri subsp. nuttalliae) Genotypes Under NaCl Stress https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/43 Huauzontle (Chenopodium berlandieri subsp. nuttalliae) is a pseudocereal native to Mesoamerica, traditionally consumed as a nutrient-rich food and characterized by its adaptability to adverse environmental conditions, including salt stress. This study evaluated the effects of four NaCl concentrations (0, 100, 200, and 300 mM) on plant morphology and nutrient concentrations (N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu, Zn, Mn, and B) and Na in leaves, stems, inflorescences, and seeds of three native huauzontle genotypes. The experiment was conducted using a completely randomized design with a split-plot arrangement and 12 replications. Applications of 200 and 300 mM NaCl delayed harvest and reduced seed weight, while plant height, fresh and dry biomass of stems, leaves, and inflorescences were progressively decreased as NaCl concentrations increased. Orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) clearly differentiated genotypes and grouped NaCl treatments into distinct clusters, revealing different nutrient partitioning patterns among plant organs. Nutrient accumulation varied according to organ and salinity level; leaves showed reduced N, K, Ca, Mg, and Fe concentrations, whereas Cu and Mn concentrations increased. Huauzontle exhibited high salinity tolerance, maintaining growth and development at NaCl concentrations up to 300 mM. These findings highlight the potential of huauzontle as a resilient and nutritionally valuable crop for cultivation under saline conditions. 2026-04-09 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 43: Salinity Tolerance, Plant Growth, and Nutrient Partitioning in Three Mexican Huauzontle (Chenopodium berlandieri subsp. nuttalliae) Genotypes Under NaCl Stress

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6020043

Authors: Eréndira Esmeralda Hernández-Andrade César Omar Montoya-García Fernando Carlos Gómez-Merino Libia Iris Trejo-Téllez

Huauzontle (Chenopodium berlandieri subsp. nuttalliae) is a pseudocereal native to Mesoamerica, traditionally consumed as a nutrient-rich food and characterized by its adaptability to adverse environmental conditions, including salt stress. This study evaluated the effects of four NaCl concentrations (0, 100, 200, and 300 mM) on plant morphology and nutrient concentrations (N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu, Zn, Mn, and B) and Na in leaves, stems, inflorescences, and seeds of three native huauzontle genotypes. The experiment was conducted using a completely randomized design with a split-plot arrangement and 12 replications. Applications of 200 and 300 mM NaCl delayed harvest and reduced seed weight, while plant height, fresh and dry biomass of stems, leaves, and inflorescences were progressively decreased as NaCl concentrations increased. Orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) clearly differentiated genotypes and grouped NaCl treatments into distinct clusters, revealing different nutrient partitioning patterns among plant organs. Nutrient accumulation varied according to organ and salinity level; leaves showed reduced N, K, Ca, Mg, and Fe concentrations, whereas Cu and Mn concentrations increased. Huauzontle exhibited high salinity tolerance, maintaining growth and development at NaCl concentrations up to 300 mM. These findings highlight the potential of huauzontle as a resilient and nutritionally valuable crop for cultivation under saline conditions.

]]> Salinity Tolerance, Plant Growth, and Nutrient Partitioning in Three Mexican Huauzontle (Chenopodium berlandieri subsp. nuttalliae) Genotypes Under NaCl Stress Eréndira Esmeralda Hernández-Andrade César Omar Montoya-García Fernando Carlos Gómez-Merino Libia Iris Trejo-Téllez doi: 10.3390/crops6020043 Crops 2026-04-09 Crops 2026-04-09 6 2 Article 43 10.3390/crops6020043 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/43 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 42: Protective Row Covers for Management of Flea Beetles in Organic Eggplant Production in the Southeastern US https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/42 Organic eggplant production in the United States is challenged by flea beetles, which stunt eggplant growth and reduce yield. Across four experiments between 2019 and 2024, we compared the effects of various pest management strategies on flea beetle abundance, damage, and marketable yield in eggplant production, focusing on row covers and organic insecticides in later years of the study. Treatments included fine-mesh row covers, organic insecticides, and untreated controls (all years); reflective plastic mulch (2019); various essential oils (2019–2020); conventional insecticide control (2019–2020); and spunbonded row covers (2019–2021). Low flea beetle pressure was observed in 2019 and 2020; consequently, experiments were moved to fields under organic management with more frequent cultivation of solanaceous crops in 2021 and 2024. Samples taken near row cover removal at flowering revealed significantly more flea beetles in the control than fine-mesh row cover treatments in 2019, 2020, and 2021. However, there were never significant differences in flea beetle abundance in samples collected at transplanting or at harvesting. Flea beetle feeding damage at flowering was significantly lower in all row cover treatments than the untreated control in 2019, 2021, and 2024 and the organic insecticide treatment in 2019 and 2021; data was not collected in 2020. There was no difference between treatments in marketable yield in 2019 and 2020; however, the marketable yields of fine-mesh row cover treatments maintained over the entire growing season were 82% and 471% higher than the organic insecticide treatments in 2021 and 2024, respectively. These results indicate that fine-mesh row covers may be a viable pest management strategy in organic eggplant production. 2026-04-02 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 42: Protective Row Covers for Management of Flea Beetles in Organic Eggplant Production in the Southeastern US

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6020042

Authors: Elaine Losekamp Robert Brockman Viktor Halmos Kathleen Fiske Pulliam Ryan Kuesel Ric Bessin Delia Scott Mark Williams David Gonthier

Organic eggplant production in the United States is challenged by flea beetles, which stunt eggplant growth and reduce yield. Across four experiments between 2019 and 2024, we compared the effects of various pest management strategies on flea beetle abundance, damage, and marketable yield in eggplant production, focusing on row covers and organic insecticides in later years of the study. Treatments included fine-mesh row covers, organic insecticides, and untreated controls (all years); reflective plastic mulch (2019); various essential oils (2019–2020); conventional insecticide control (2019–2020); and spunbonded row covers (2019–2021). Low flea beetle pressure was observed in 2019 and 2020; consequently, experiments were moved to fields under organic management with more frequent cultivation of solanaceous crops in 2021 and 2024. Samples taken near row cover removal at flowering revealed significantly more flea beetles in the control than fine-mesh row cover treatments in 2019, 2020, and 2021. However, there were never significant differences in flea beetle abundance in samples collected at transplanting or at harvesting. Flea beetle feeding damage at flowering was significantly lower in all row cover treatments than the untreated control in 2019, 2021, and 2024 and the organic insecticide treatment in 2019 and 2021; data was not collected in 2020. There was no difference between treatments in marketable yield in 2019 and 2020; however, the marketable yields of fine-mesh row cover treatments maintained over the entire growing season were 82% and 471% higher than the organic insecticide treatments in 2021 and 2024, respectively. These results indicate that fine-mesh row covers may be a viable pest management strategy in organic eggplant production.

]]> Protective Row Covers for Management of Flea Beetles in Organic Eggplant Production in the Southeastern US Elaine Losekamp Robert Brockman Viktor Halmos Kathleen Fiske Pulliam Ryan Kuesel Ric Bessin Delia Scott Mark Williams David Gonthier doi: 10.3390/crops6020042 Crops 2026-04-02 Crops 2026-04-02 6 2 Article 42 10.3390/crops6020042 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/42 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 41: Biofertilization with AFERT as an Alternative to Mineral Fertilization in Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) Cultivation https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/41 Sesame cultivation has expanded in Brazil, but ensuring plant establishment and productivity through fertilization remains a fundamental challenge. In this context, the present work aims to evaluate the effects of different doses of the biofertilizer AFERT on the growth and development of sesame plants under greenhouse conditions. The experiment was conducted in a randomized block design with six treatments and four replications. Five doses were used (2, 1.6, 1.2, 0.8, and 0.4 t ha−1 of AFERT), corresponding to different percentages of fertilization with the biofertilizer AFERT (04-14-12+hydroretainer), and, as a control, the mineral fertilizer NPK (04-14-08) was used at doses of 2 t ha−1 and 50 kg ha−1 of KCl. The variables evaluated were the internal CO2 concentration, transpiration rate, stomatal conductance, net CO2 assimilation rate, intrinsic water use efficiency, water use efficiency, instantaneous carboxylation efficiency, number of pods, plant height, stem diameter, root length, root dry mass, number of grains per plant, and total grain weight. The biofertilizer AFERT demonstrated agronomic potential for sesame cultivation, with a productive performance equivalent [number of grains per plant (84%) and total grain weight (70%)] to that of mineral fertilization regardless of the dose used. Notably, the dose corresponding to 1.2 t ha−1 promoted greater physiological efficiency, with a 36% increase in CO2 assimilation and photosynthetic activity, without improving production components. 2026-04-01 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 41: Biofertilization with AFERT as an Alternative to Mineral Fertilization in Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) Cultivation

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6020041

Authors: Jorge González Aguilera Matheus Basto Angeli Silva Beatriz Pisa De Andrade Alexandre Vasco Mariano Muguerrima Fábio Steiner Eder Pereira Neves Alan Mario Zuffo Tatiane Scilewski da Costa Zanatta Carlos Genaro Morales Aranibar Cesar Augusto Masgo Soto María Paulina Aliaga Martínez Luis Morales-Aranibar

Sesame cultivation has expanded in Brazil, but ensuring plant establishment and productivity through fertilization remains a fundamental challenge. In this context, the present work aims to evaluate the effects of different doses of the biofertilizer AFERT on the growth and development of sesame plants under greenhouse conditions. The experiment was conducted in a randomized block design with six treatments and four replications. Five doses were used (2, 1.6, 1.2, 0.8, and 0.4 t ha−1 of AFERT), corresponding to different percentages of fertilization with the biofertilizer AFERT (04-14-12+hydroretainer), and, as a control, the mineral fertilizer NPK (04-14-08) was used at doses of 2 t ha−1 and 50 kg ha−1 of KCl. The variables evaluated were the internal CO2 concentration, transpiration rate, stomatal conductance, net CO2 assimilation rate, intrinsic water use efficiency, water use efficiency, instantaneous carboxylation efficiency, number of pods, plant height, stem diameter, root length, root dry mass, number of grains per plant, and total grain weight. The biofertilizer AFERT demonstrated agronomic potential for sesame cultivation, with a productive performance equivalent [number of grains per plant (84%) and total grain weight (70%)] to that of mineral fertilization regardless of the dose used. Notably, the dose corresponding to 1.2 t ha−1 promoted greater physiological efficiency, with a 36% increase in CO2 assimilation and photosynthetic activity, without improving production components.

]]> Biofertilization with AFERT as an Alternative to Mineral Fertilization in Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) Cultivation Jorge González Aguilera Matheus Basto Angeli Silva Beatriz Pisa De Andrade Alexandre Vasco Mariano Muguerrima Fábio Steiner Eder Pereira Neves Alan Mario Zuffo Tatiane Scilewski da Costa Zanatta Carlos Genaro Morales Aranibar Cesar Augusto Masgo Soto María Paulina Aliaga Martínez Luis Morales-Aranibar doi: 10.3390/crops6020041 Crops 2026-04-01 Crops 2026-04-01 6 2 Article 41 10.3390/crops6020041 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/41 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 40: Functional Differentiation of Indigenous Nostocalean Cyanobacteria: Effects of Biomass and Extracellular Polymeric Substances on Rice Growth and Soil Properties https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/40 The excessive use of chemical fertilizers in rice cultivation has contributed to soil degradation, creating a need for sustainable biological alternatives. This study examined the functional diversity of three indigenous nostocalean cyanobacterial strains (UP1, UP2, and UP3) isolated from forest and paddy field ecosystems by comparing the effects of their cellular biomass and extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) on rice seedling growth and soil properties. Morphological observations and partial 16S rRNA sequence analysis indicated that strains UP1 and UP2 were affiliated with the genus Ahomia, whereas UP3 was placed within the genus Nostoc. Together, these results placed all three isolates within the heterocystous cyanobacterial order Nostocales. The strains were further characterized based on EPS production and its degree of polymerization. Seed germination and seedling vigor assays were conducted to select the most effective biomass and EPS treatments, which were subsequently evaluated in 21-day pot experiments. Fresh biomass from strain UP2 most effectively enhanced rice growth, whereas EPS from strain UP3 promoted root development. EPS application from strain UP3 significantly increased root elongation to 13.44 cm, while high biomass levels of UP2 increased total sugar and free amino acid contents, indicating distinct plant response patterns. Soil analyses revealed differential responses between biomass- and EPS-based applications, with biomass generally producing stronger effects. Biomass from all strains was associated with higher physical soil function index (PSFI) values (up to 1.35). In contrast, improvements in chemical soil function index (CSFI) were observed across treatments, with variable responses and relatively higher values recorded in biomass from strain UP3 (up to 1.24). These findings suggest strain- and form-dependent response patterns of nostocalean cyanobacteria with potential for enhancing rice growth and improving soil functionality under the controlled conditions. 2026-04-01 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 40: Functional Differentiation of Indigenous Nostocalean Cyanobacteria: Effects of Biomass and Extracellular Polymeric Substances on Rice Growth and Soil Properties

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6020040

Authors: Neti Ngearnpat Supattra Tiche Narong Wongkantrakorn Kritsana Duangjan Kittiya Phinyo Kritchaya Issakul

The excessive use of chemical fertilizers in rice cultivation has contributed to soil degradation, creating a need for sustainable biological alternatives. This study examined the functional diversity of three indigenous nostocalean cyanobacterial strains (UP1, UP2, and UP3) isolated from forest and paddy field ecosystems by comparing the effects of their cellular biomass and extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) on rice seedling growth and soil properties. Morphological observations and partial 16S rRNA sequence analysis indicated that strains UP1 and UP2 were affiliated with the genus Ahomia, whereas UP3 was placed within the genus Nostoc. Together, these results placed all three isolates within the heterocystous cyanobacterial order Nostocales. The strains were further characterized based on EPS production and its degree of polymerization. Seed germination and seedling vigor assays were conducted to select the most effective biomass and EPS treatments, which were subsequently evaluated in 21-day pot experiments. Fresh biomass from strain UP2 most effectively enhanced rice growth, whereas EPS from strain UP3 promoted root development. EPS application from strain UP3 significantly increased root elongation to 13.44 cm, while high biomass levels of UP2 increased total sugar and free amino acid contents, indicating distinct plant response patterns. Soil analyses revealed differential responses between biomass- and EPS-based applications, with biomass generally producing stronger effects. Biomass from all strains was associated with higher physical soil function index (PSFI) values (up to 1.35). In contrast, improvements in chemical soil function index (CSFI) were observed across treatments, with variable responses and relatively higher values recorded in biomass from strain UP3 (up to 1.24). These findings suggest strain- and form-dependent response patterns of nostocalean cyanobacteria with potential for enhancing rice growth and improving soil functionality under the controlled conditions.

]]> Functional Differentiation of Indigenous Nostocalean Cyanobacteria: Effects of Biomass and Extracellular Polymeric Substances on Rice Growth and Soil Properties Neti Ngearnpat Supattra Tiche Narong Wongkantrakorn Kritsana Duangjan Kittiya Phinyo Kritchaya Issakul doi: 10.3390/crops6020040 Crops 2026-04-01 Crops 2026-04-01 6 2 Article 40 10.3390/crops6020040 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/40 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 39: Repellent and Lethal Effects of Different Wavelengths of Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs) Against Tetranychus urticae https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/39 The two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch, is a major agricultural pest that causes economic losses in the cultivation of most crops worldwide. Pesticide resistance and the phase-out of many active pesticidal substances have accelerated research into alternative methods for pest management. The effects of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) on plants, as well as their potential use in pest management, have attracted the attention of researchers for the last 25 years. In this study, the repellent effects of UV-A, blue, and red LEDs on T. urticae were investigated using choice tests in laboratory conditions. The lethal effect of red LED light on adult individuals was determined by a no-choice test. Importantly, red LED caused 67.0 ± 4.5% (mean ± SE) mortality in adults in the no-choice test. Second, the UV-A LED clearly had a strong repellent effect on T. urticae in the choice tests. In the “UV-A vs. white LED” and “UV-A vs. darkness” choice tests, the egg-laying percentage in the UV-A part remained below 0.55%. Furthermore, UV-A also had a significant repellent effect on T. urticae larvae. In the choice tests, the larval ratio in the UV-A part was less than 5%. The results of laboratory experiments indicated that red and UV-A LEDs have significant lethal and repellent effects on T. urticae. Comprehensive investigations should be performed in greenhouses using different strategies to optimize how these potential effects can be used in pest management. 2026-04-01 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 39: Repellent and Lethal Effects of Different Wavelengths of Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs) Against Tetranychus urticae

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6020039

Authors: Fatih Dağlı Nurdan Topakcı Nuri Çağlayan Davut Karayel

The two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch, is a major agricultural pest that causes economic losses in the cultivation of most crops worldwide. Pesticide resistance and the phase-out of many active pesticidal substances have accelerated research into alternative methods for pest management. The effects of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) on plants, as well as their potential use in pest management, have attracted the attention of researchers for the last 25 years. In this study, the repellent effects of UV-A, blue, and red LEDs on T. urticae were investigated using choice tests in laboratory conditions. The lethal effect of red LED light on adult individuals was determined by a no-choice test. Importantly, red LED caused 67.0 ± 4.5% (mean ± SE) mortality in adults in the no-choice test. Second, the UV-A LED clearly had a strong repellent effect on T. urticae in the choice tests. In the “UV-A vs. white LED” and “UV-A vs. darkness” choice tests, the egg-laying percentage in the UV-A part remained below 0.55%. Furthermore, UV-A also had a significant repellent effect on T. urticae larvae. In the choice tests, the larval ratio in the UV-A part was less than 5%. The results of laboratory experiments indicated that red and UV-A LEDs have significant lethal and repellent effects on T. urticae. Comprehensive investigations should be performed in greenhouses using different strategies to optimize how these potential effects can be used in pest management.

]]> Repellent and Lethal Effects of Different Wavelengths of Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs) Against Tetranychus urticae Fatih Dağlı Nurdan Topakcı Nuri Çağlayan Davut Karayel doi: 10.3390/crops6020039 Crops 2026-04-01 Crops 2026-04-01 6 2 Article 39 10.3390/crops6020039 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/39 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 38: Bacillus aryabhattai Improves Agronomic Performance and Water Use Efficiency of Common Bean Under Deficit Irrigation Levels https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/38 The common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is of great food and economic importance in Brazil, but its productivity is highly affected by water deficit due to its superficial root system and short cycle. With the increase in prolonged droughts, irrigation has become a solution, albeit a costly one, for small farmers. In this scenario, bioinputs, such as Bacillus aryabhattai, represent a sustainable and low-cost strategy to improve crop performance under reduced irrigation conditions. The objective of this study was to evaluate the potential of B. aryabhattai to improve the agronomic performance of the common bean under reduced irrigation levels. A greenhouse experiment was conducted in randomized blocks with a 2 × 4 factorial design (presence/absence of B. aryabhattai and four irrigation levels: 40, 60, 80, and 100% of the ETc). Agronomic and productive variables were evaluated. The results showed better performance at 80 and 100% ETc, achieving 16 and 20 g per plant−1. Inoculation increased water use efficiency by 13% and contributed to higher grain yield. It was concluded that rational irrigation management combined with the use of B. aryabhattai improves agronomic performance and water use efficiency under reduced irrigation levels. 2026-03-30 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 38: Bacillus aryabhattai Improves Agronomic Performance and Water Use Efficiency of Common Bean Under Deficit Irrigation Levels

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6020038

Authors: Ana L. P. Oliveira João P. Santos Gustavo F. Silva Fernando F. Putti

The common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is of great food and economic importance in Brazil, but its productivity is highly affected by water deficit due to its superficial root system and short cycle. With the increase in prolonged droughts, irrigation has become a solution, albeit a costly one, for small farmers. In this scenario, bioinputs, such as Bacillus aryabhattai, represent a sustainable and low-cost strategy to improve crop performance under reduced irrigation conditions. The objective of this study was to evaluate the potential of B. aryabhattai to improve the agronomic performance of the common bean under reduced irrigation levels. A greenhouse experiment was conducted in randomized blocks with a 2 × 4 factorial design (presence/absence of B. aryabhattai and four irrigation levels: 40, 60, 80, and 100% of the ETc). Agronomic and productive variables were evaluated. The results showed better performance at 80 and 100% ETc, achieving 16 and 20 g per plant−1. Inoculation increased water use efficiency by 13% and contributed to higher grain yield. It was concluded that rational irrigation management combined with the use of B. aryabhattai improves agronomic performance and water use efficiency under reduced irrigation levels.

]]> Bacillus aryabhattai Improves Agronomic Performance and Water Use Efficiency of Common Bean Under Deficit Irrigation Levels Ana L. P. Oliveira João P. Santos Gustavo F. Silva Fernando F. Putti doi: 10.3390/crops6020038 Crops 2026-03-30 Crops 2026-03-30 6 2 Article 38 10.3390/crops6020038 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/38 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 37: Phytochemical Profile and Evaluation of the Insecticidal Potential of Bessera elegans Root Extracts Against Melanaphis sorghi https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/37 Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) is one of the most important cereal crops in Mexico due to its extensive cultivation and use in human nutrition, livestock production, and the biofuel industry. However, its productivity is severely affected by the sorghum aphid, Melanaphis sorghi Theobald, 1904 (Hemiptera: Aphididae), a major pest of this crop. Its control relies primarily on synthetic chemical insecticides, whose intensive use has led to environmental impacts and health risks, prompting the search for more sustainable alternatives. In this study, the insecticidal activity of root extracts from Bessera elegans was evaluated against apterous adults of M. sorghi using artificial diet bioassays at different concentrations and exposure times. Chemical characterization of the extracts and the active fraction was carried out using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC–MS). The methanolic extract exhibited the lowest LC50 value (2562 ppm), indicating the highest insecticidal potency, while the acetone extract achieved the highest maximum mortality (98%) at the highest tested concentration. Fractionation of the methanolic extract allowed the identification of fraction BeF1 as the most active, with 94% mortality at 1000 ppm. Chemical characterization indicated a predominance of polyphenolic secondary metabolites, mainly flavonoids and lignans. These results highlight the potential of B. elegans as a natural alternative for the integrated management of the sorghum aphid. 2026-03-27 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 37: Phytochemical Profile and Evaluation of the Insecticidal Potential of Bessera elegans Root Extracts Against Melanaphis sorghi

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6020037

Authors: Anette Guadalupe Leyva-Bello Miguel Angel Mendoza-Catalán Ana Elvira Zacapala-Gómez Erubiel Toledo-Hernández Luz Janet Tagle-Emigdio Rodolfo Figueroa-Brito Alejandro Zamilpa Manases González-Cortazar Marco Antonio Leyva-Vázquez César Sotelo-Leyva

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) is one of the most important cereal crops in Mexico due to its extensive cultivation and use in human nutrition, livestock production, and the biofuel industry. However, its productivity is severely affected by the sorghum aphid, Melanaphis sorghi Theobald, 1904 (Hemiptera: Aphididae), a major pest of this crop. Its control relies primarily on synthetic chemical insecticides, whose intensive use has led to environmental impacts and health risks, prompting the search for more sustainable alternatives. In this study, the insecticidal activity of root extracts from Bessera elegans was evaluated against apterous adults of M. sorghi using artificial diet bioassays at different concentrations and exposure times. Chemical characterization of the extracts and the active fraction was carried out using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC–MS). The methanolic extract exhibited the lowest LC50 value (2562 ppm), indicating the highest insecticidal potency, while the acetone extract achieved the highest maximum mortality (98%) at the highest tested concentration. Fractionation of the methanolic extract allowed the identification of fraction BeF1 as the most active, with 94% mortality at 1000 ppm. Chemical characterization indicated a predominance of polyphenolic secondary metabolites, mainly flavonoids and lignans. These results highlight the potential of B. elegans as a natural alternative for the integrated management of the sorghum aphid.

]]> Phytochemical Profile and Evaluation of the Insecticidal Potential of Bessera elegans Root Extracts Against Melanaphis sorghi Anette Guadalupe Leyva-Bello Miguel Angel Mendoza-Catalán Ana Elvira Zacapala-Gómez Erubiel Toledo-Hernández Luz Janet Tagle-Emigdio Rodolfo Figueroa-Brito Alejandro Zamilpa Manases González-Cortazar Marco Antonio Leyva-Vázquez César Sotelo-Leyva doi: 10.3390/crops6020037 Crops 2026-03-27 Crops 2026-03-27 6 2 Article 37 10.3390/crops6020037 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/37 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 36: Exploring Molecular Markers Associated with Crumbly in Rubus idaeus L. https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/36 The raspberry (Rubus idaeus L.), an economically important crop, is affected by the crumbly fruit disorder, a malformation that leads to fruit disintegration at harvest due to poor drupelet cohesion. Despite previous efforts to identify genetic determinants of this phenotype, its complex inheritance and strong environmental component have limited the development of robust predictive markers. This study assessed the behavior and transferability of previously reported SSR and SNP markers associated with crumbly fruit across plants from a diverse panel of 34 R. idaeus cultivars, including in adjacent genomic regions not screened previously. Phenotyping was based on multi-season fruit performance and drupelet cohesion, and genetic variation was analysed using PCR-based genotyping within a multilocus approach. Consistent clustering patterns were observed across multiple SSR and SNP loci, suggesting a reproducible association between these genomic regions and the crumbly phenotype. Overall, the results support a multilocus genetic architecture underlying crumbly fruit, but also demonstrate that previously reported markers are not universally transferable across genetic backgrounds. These findings highlight the importance of integrated, population-aware marker validation to enable more reliable implementation of marker-assisted strategies in raspberry breeding programs. 2026-03-23 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 36: Exploring Molecular Markers Associated with Crumbly in Rubus idaeus L.

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6020036

Authors: Melissa Y. Oliveira Teresa Valdiviesso Francisco Rosado Luz Amílcar Duarte Pedro Brás de Oliveira Ana Rita Varela

The raspberry (Rubus idaeus L.), an economically important crop, is affected by the crumbly fruit disorder, a malformation that leads to fruit disintegration at harvest due to poor drupelet cohesion. Despite previous efforts to identify genetic determinants of this phenotype, its complex inheritance and strong environmental component have limited the development of robust predictive markers. This study assessed the behavior and transferability of previously reported SSR and SNP markers associated with crumbly fruit across plants from a diverse panel of 34 R. idaeus cultivars, including in adjacent genomic regions not screened previously. Phenotyping was based on multi-season fruit performance and drupelet cohesion, and genetic variation was analysed using PCR-based genotyping within a multilocus approach. Consistent clustering patterns were observed across multiple SSR and SNP loci, suggesting a reproducible association between these genomic regions and the crumbly phenotype. Overall, the results support a multilocus genetic architecture underlying crumbly fruit, but also demonstrate that previously reported markers are not universally transferable across genetic backgrounds. These findings highlight the importance of integrated, population-aware marker validation to enable more reliable implementation of marker-assisted strategies in raspberry breeding programs.

]]> Exploring Molecular Markers Associated with Crumbly in Rubus idaeus L. Melissa Y. Oliveira Teresa Valdiviesso Francisco Rosado Luz Amílcar Duarte Pedro Brás de Oliveira Ana Rita Varela doi: 10.3390/crops6020036 Crops 2026-03-23 Crops 2026-03-23 6 2 Article 36 10.3390/crops6020036 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/36 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 35: Crystal Formation in Solanum lycopersicum L. Leaves Under Antibiotic Stress Reduced by Non-Thermal Plasma Treated Water https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/35 Calcium oxalate (CaOx) crystals in plants can form naturally within their idioblasts but may also be induced by other factors, such as environmental pollution. Here, we report qualitative and semiquantitative results obtained using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) from two experiments in which tomato seedlings were moderately irrigated with Sulfamethoxazole (SMX) and Amoxicillin (AMX) solutions (0.25 mM). Abundant prismatic CaOx co-crystals appeared on the leaf surface induced by these two antibiotics compared to the distilled water (DW) control. Applying a non-thermal plasma (NTP) treatment for 20 min (T20) to the SMX initial solution led to a dramatic suppression of these crystals, with a shift toward spherical structures. Furthermore, the investigation into the composition of both crystal types, indicated different percentual levels of O, C, Ca, K, Mg, S, and Mn as main constituent minerals involved in crystal formation. However, crystal morphology was affected by each applied experimental condition, while detecting their constituent elements depended on their mineral homogeneity at the micro- or macro-field scales. Although both antibiotics induced crystal formation and T20 phenotypically reduced the abundance of the acicular–prismatic crystals by removing the effects of SMX, their mode of action has not yet been clarified. 2026-03-20 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 35: Crystal Formation in Solanum lycopersicum L. Leaves Under Antibiotic Stress Reduced by Non-Thermal Plasma Treated Water

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6020035

Authors: Marius Cicirma Aurora Daniela Neagoe Mirela Nedelescu Adrian Ionascu Marius Dumitru George Dinca Sergiu Emil Georgescu

Calcium oxalate (CaOx) crystals in plants can form naturally within their idioblasts but may also be induced by other factors, such as environmental pollution. Here, we report qualitative and semiquantitative results obtained using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) from two experiments in which tomato seedlings were moderately irrigated with Sulfamethoxazole (SMX) and Amoxicillin (AMX) solutions (0.25 mM). Abundant prismatic CaOx co-crystals appeared on the leaf surface induced by these two antibiotics compared to the distilled water (DW) control. Applying a non-thermal plasma (NTP) treatment for 20 min (T20) to the SMX initial solution led to a dramatic suppression of these crystals, with a shift toward spherical structures. Furthermore, the investigation into the composition of both crystal types, indicated different percentual levels of O, C, Ca, K, Mg, S, and Mn as main constituent minerals involved in crystal formation. However, crystal morphology was affected by each applied experimental condition, while detecting their constituent elements depended on their mineral homogeneity at the micro- or macro-field scales. Although both antibiotics induced crystal formation and T20 phenotypically reduced the abundance of the acicular–prismatic crystals by removing the effects of SMX, their mode of action has not yet been clarified.

]]> Crystal Formation in Solanum lycopersicum L. Leaves Under Antibiotic Stress Reduced by Non-Thermal Plasma Treated Water Marius Cicirma Aurora Daniela Neagoe Mirela Nedelescu Adrian Ionascu Marius Dumitru George Dinca Sergiu Emil Georgescu doi: 10.3390/crops6020035 Crops 2026-03-20 Crops 2026-03-20 6 2 Article 35 10.3390/crops6020035 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/35 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 34: A Global Bibliometric Analysis of Legume–Non-Legume Intercropping Research (1986–2025) https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/34 Over the past few decades, legume-based intercropping has emerged as a strategic agronomic practice to enhance the sustainability and resilience of agro-ecosystems, thanks to its ability to perform biological nitrogen fixation and store soil organic carbon. The present study, given the growing recognition of agroecological practices, aims to analyze through a global bibliometric analysis the research conducted between 1986 and 2025 on legume–non-legume intercropping, with particular emphasis on its ecological and agronomic benefits. The investigation, carried out according to the PRISMA protocol on the Scopus database, selected 167 original English-language articles, excluding reviews, conference proceedings, modeling studies, and meta-analyses. China and India are identified as the most productive countries. Co-occurrence and bibliographic coupling analyses highlight thematic clusters centered on soil fertility, microbial communities, productivity, and the mitigation of environmental impact. Furthermore, management practices such as integrated rotations, cover crops, and agroforestry systems amplify the benefits in terms of carbon accumulation and resilience to adverse climate conditions. The distribution of publications by journal highlights the centrality of journals such as Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment and Plant and Soil. Overall, the data confirm the crucial role of intercropping as a pillar of the agroecological transition, underscoring the need for policies and research programs capable of amplifying its global adoption. The findings of this study may guide future interdisciplinary research and evidence-based policy decisions aimed at optimizing the design of resilient intercropping systems, tailored to address the challenges posed by climate change and the growing demands of global food security. 2026-03-17 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 34: A Global Bibliometric Analysis of Legume–Non-Legume Intercropping Research (1986–2025)

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6020034

Authors: Carmelo Mosca Noemi Tortorici Simona Aprile Antonio Giovino Teresa Tuttolomondo Nicolò Iacuzzi

Over the past few decades, legume-based intercropping has emerged as a strategic agronomic practice to enhance the sustainability and resilience of agro-ecosystems, thanks to its ability to perform biological nitrogen fixation and store soil organic carbon. The present study, given the growing recognition of agroecological practices, aims to analyze through a global bibliometric analysis the research conducted between 1986 and 2025 on legume–non-legume intercropping, with particular emphasis on its ecological and agronomic benefits. The investigation, carried out according to the PRISMA protocol on the Scopus database, selected 167 original English-language articles, excluding reviews, conference proceedings, modeling studies, and meta-analyses. China and India are identified as the most productive countries. Co-occurrence and bibliographic coupling analyses highlight thematic clusters centered on soil fertility, microbial communities, productivity, and the mitigation of environmental impact. Furthermore, management practices such as integrated rotations, cover crops, and agroforestry systems amplify the benefits in terms of carbon accumulation and resilience to adverse climate conditions. The distribution of publications by journal highlights the centrality of journals such as Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment and Plant and Soil. Overall, the data confirm the crucial role of intercropping as a pillar of the agroecological transition, underscoring the need for policies and research programs capable of amplifying its global adoption. The findings of this study may guide future interdisciplinary research and evidence-based policy decisions aimed at optimizing the design of resilient intercropping systems, tailored to address the challenges posed by climate change and the growing demands of global food security.

]]> A Global Bibliometric Analysis of Legume–Non-Legume Intercropping Research (1986–2025) Carmelo Mosca Noemi Tortorici Simona Aprile Antonio Giovino Teresa Tuttolomondo Nicolò Iacuzzi doi: 10.3390/crops6020034 Crops 2026-03-17 Crops 2026-03-17 6 2 Review 34 10.3390/crops6020034 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/34 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 33: Sustainable Management of Vineyards with Intercropping Systems of Cereals with Pea Under Mediterranean Conditions https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/33 Viticulture is a notable economic activity in the Mediterranean basin, and the inter-row area is managed through tillage, which has several disadvantages and can lead to soil erosion. Also, there has been an increased trend in utilizing cover crops in vineyards, as they provide several ecosystem services. The objective of our experiment was to study the growth and yield of monocrops of triticale, barley and pea, and their intercrops when they were grown in a Mediterranean vineyard. The results show that pea–triticale and pea–barley intercropping systems exhibited higher or earlier peaks in leaf area index (up to 180%) than monocultures, indicating complementary canopy structures that improved light interception. Intercrops consistently produced higher biomass, with triticale–pea yielding up to 11.63 t ha−1, though grain yield was more variable and sensitive to environmental stresses during reproductive stages. The indices that were determined showed the significant advantage of the intercrops compared to the monocrops. Also, intercrops showed higher environmental resource use efficiency, as measured with Radiation Use Efficiency (RUE) and Water Use Efficiency (WUE), compared to the monocrops. The present study demonstrates that cereal–legume intercropping in vineyards can increase biomass, grain production, and environmental resource use efficiency and can be used for sustainable intensification in Mediterranean cropping systems. 2026-03-16 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 33: Sustainable Management of Vineyards with Intercropping Systems of Cereals with Pea Under Mediterranean Conditions

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6020033

Authors: Paschalis Papakaloudis Andreas Michalitsis Efstratios Deligiannis Christos Dordas

Viticulture is a notable economic activity in the Mediterranean basin, and the inter-row area is managed through tillage, which has several disadvantages and can lead to soil erosion. Also, there has been an increased trend in utilizing cover crops in vineyards, as they provide several ecosystem services. The objective of our experiment was to study the growth and yield of monocrops of triticale, barley and pea, and their intercrops when they were grown in a Mediterranean vineyard. The results show that pea–triticale and pea–barley intercropping systems exhibited higher or earlier peaks in leaf area index (up to 180%) than monocultures, indicating complementary canopy structures that improved light interception. Intercrops consistently produced higher biomass, with triticale–pea yielding up to 11.63 t ha−1, though grain yield was more variable and sensitive to environmental stresses during reproductive stages. The indices that were determined showed the significant advantage of the intercrops compared to the monocrops. Also, intercrops showed higher environmental resource use efficiency, as measured with Radiation Use Efficiency (RUE) and Water Use Efficiency (WUE), compared to the monocrops. The present study demonstrates that cereal–legume intercropping in vineyards can increase biomass, grain production, and environmental resource use efficiency and can be used for sustainable intensification in Mediterranean cropping systems.

]]> Sustainable Management of Vineyards with Intercropping Systems of Cereals with Pea Under Mediterranean Conditions Paschalis Papakaloudis Andreas Michalitsis Efstratios Deligiannis Christos Dordas doi: 10.3390/crops6020033 Crops 2026-03-16 Crops 2026-03-16 6 2 Article 33 10.3390/crops6020033 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/33 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 32: Adaptability and Stability Analyses for Marketable Bulb Yield of Adapted Semi-Arid Tropical Onion Hybrids https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/32 Onion (Allium cepa) is a major source of rural income in the tropical semi-arid region of Northeast Brazil. Nevertheless, local farmers still depend heavily on imported hybrid seeds. We assessed genotype-by-environment (G×E) interaction and identified broadly adapted and more phenotypically stable onion hybrids originated from the Brazilian breeding program. Twelve experimental hybrids, two commercial hybrids and one open-pollinated cultivar were evaluated across eight semi-arid environments (Bahia and Pernambuco states) under a randomized complete block design with two replications. Marketable bulb yield was analyzed by combined ANOVA and by two stability approaches, Eberhart–Russell regression and AMMI biplot. In addition, marketable yield was also evaluated with a covariance adjustment using marketable stand as a covariate. Significant G×E interaction was detected, and both methods consistently highlighted two high-yielding hybrids (‘EPCEB20H037’ and ‘EHCEB21H0507’) as the ones with superior adaptation and more stable performances. These results support the use of locally developed onion hybrids to improve yield and reduce seed costs across the Brazilian semi-arid region. 2026-03-10 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 32: Adaptability and Stability Analyses for Marketable Bulb Yield of Adapted Semi-Arid Tropical Onion Hybrids

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6020032

Authors: Lucas Silva dos Santos Carlos Antônio Fernandes Santos Valter Rodrigues de Oliveira Luiz Jorge Wanderley Junior Leonardo Silva Boiteux

Onion (Allium cepa) is a major source of rural income in the tropical semi-arid region of Northeast Brazil. Nevertheless, local farmers still depend heavily on imported hybrid seeds. We assessed genotype-by-environment (G×E) interaction and identified broadly adapted and more phenotypically stable onion hybrids originated from the Brazilian breeding program. Twelve experimental hybrids, two commercial hybrids and one open-pollinated cultivar were evaluated across eight semi-arid environments (Bahia and Pernambuco states) under a randomized complete block design with two replications. Marketable bulb yield was analyzed by combined ANOVA and by two stability approaches, Eberhart–Russell regression and AMMI biplot. In addition, marketable yield was also evaluated with a covariance adjustment using marketable stand as a covariate. Significant G×E interaction was detected, and both methods consistently highlighted two high-yielding hybrids (‘EPCEB20H037’ and ‘EHCEB21H0507’) as the ones with superior adaptation and more stable performances. These results support the use of locally developed onion hybrids to improve yield and reduce seed costs across the Brazilian semi-arid region.

]]> Adaptability and Stability Analyses for Marketable Bulb Yield of Adapted Semi-Arid Tropical Onion Hybrids Lucas Silva dos Santos Carlos Antônio Fernandes Santos Valter Rodrigues de Oliveira Luiz Jorge Wanderley Junior Leonardo Silva Boiteux doi: 10.3390/crops6020032 Crops 2026-03-10 Crops 2026-03-10 6 2 Article 32 10.3390/crops6020032 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/32 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 31: Comparative Analysis for Physicochemical and Pasting Characteristics of Advanced Non-Glutinous Rice Genotypes Under Irrigated Condition in Thailand https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/31 Improving grain quality alongside yield remains a primary objective in rice breeding, especially under irrigated systems in Thailand, where consumer demand for soft-textured, premium table rice continues to grow. This study evaluated physicochemical and pasting characteristics of ten advanced non-glutinous rice genotypes compared with high- and low-amylose checks across three irrigated environments during off-season 2024. Combined ANOVA revealed highly significant genotype, environment, and genotype × environment interaction effects, with genotypes contributing up to 94.30% of total variation for key quality traits. Grain breadth and elongation rate were predominantly influenced by environmental conditions. Principal component analysis showed that PC1 and PC2 explained 72.86% of total variance, separating genotypes based on amylose-driven starch properties and paste stability. High-amylose genotypes exhibited low peak viscosity and high setback, whereas low-amylose genotypes showed greater swelling, higher breakdown, and softer pasting behavior. Selected genotypes exhibited distinct quality profiles; specifically, DS24-Inter-8 and DS24-Inter-10 combined low-to-intermediate amylose (15.09–19.73%) with high gel consistency (84.78–96.22 mm). Interestingly, DS24-Inter-4 maintained high gel consistency (97.78 mm) despite a higher amylose content (26.39%), indicating a unique soft-cooking profile for high-amylose types. In contrast, DS24-Inter-7 and DS24-Inter-9 showed typical firmer, high-amylose characteristics. These contrasting quality profiles indicate that the genotypes were suitable for different utilization purposes depending on the desired physicochemical and textural attributes. Therefore, the advanced genotypes demonstrated stable and diverse quality profiles under irrigated conditions, warranting further multi-location and multi-season evaluation. 2026-03-10 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 31: Comparative Analysis for Physicochemical and Pasting Characteristics of Advanced Non-Glutinous Rice Genotypes Under Irrigated Condition in Thailand

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6020031

Authors: Tipsuda Teanthong Panuwat Praisomrong Yaowapha Jirakiattikul Bhornchai Harakotr

Improving grain quality alongside yield remains a primary objective in rice breeding, especially under irrigated systems in Thailand, where consumer demand for soft-textured, premium table rice continues to grow. This study evaluated physicochemical and pasting characteristics of ten advanced non-glutinous rice genotypes compared with high- and low-amylose checks across three irrigated environments during off-season 2024. Combined ANOVA revealed highly significant genotype, environment, and genotype × environment interaction effects, with genotypes contributing up to 94.30% of total variation for key quality traits. Grain breadth and elongation rate were predominantly influenced by environmental conditions. Principal component analysis showed that PC1 and PC2 explained 72.86% of total variance, separating genotypes based on amylose-driven starch properties and paste stability. High-amylose genotypes exhibited low peak viscosity and high setback, whereas low-amylose genotypes showed greater swelling, higher breakdown, and softer pasting behavior. Selected genotypes exhibited distinct quality profiles; specifically, DS24-Inter-8 and DS24-Inter-10 combined low-to-intermediate amylose (15.09–19.73%) with high gel consistency (84.78–96.22 mm). Interestingly, DS24-Inter-4 maintained high gel consistency (97.78 mm) despite a higher amylose content (26.39%), indicating a unique soft-cooking profile for high-amylose types. In contrast, DS24-Inter-7 and DS24-Inter-9 showed typical firmer, high-amylose characteristics. These contrasting quality profiles indicate that the genotypes were suitable for different utilization purposes depending on the desired physicochemical and textural attributes. Therefore, the advanced genotypes demonstrated stable and diverse quality profiles under irrigated conditions, warranting further multi-location and multi-season evaluation.

]]> Comparative Analysis for Physicochemical and Pasting Characteristics of Advanced Non-Glutinous Rice Genotypes Under Irrigated Condition in Thailand Tipsuda Teanthong Panuwat Praisomrong Yaowapha Jirakiattikul Bhornchai Harakotr doi: 10.3390/crops6020031 Crops 2026-03-10 Crops 2026-03-10 6 2 Article 31 10.3390/crops6020031 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/31 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 30: Protein Hydrolyzate-Based Biostimulants in Fruit Crops: Mechanisms, Agronomic Effects, and Practical Applications https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/30 This review summarizes current scientific knowledge on the use of protein hydrolyzate-based biostimulants in fruit production through evidence mapping, cross-species comparison, and evaluation of protocol-dependent responses within an agronomic framework, centered on foliar applications and their role in sustainable production systems. Research across a broad range of fruit species reports that protein hydrolyzates can significantly enhance yield, improve fruit quality, and mitigate the adverse effects of abiotic stresses such as drought and high temperatures. Treated plants often exhibit improved nutrient uptake, increased photosynthetic efficiency, and enhanced morphological traits, including better root development and vegetative growth. However, the effectiveness of these biostimulants varies depending on the fruit species, developmental stage, and application frequency, indicating the need for more tailored and crop-specific protocols. In conclusion, the literature confirms the functional role of protein hydrolyzates in enhancing resilience and productivity in fruit crops, while highlighting the need for further research to optimize their use under diverse agroecological conditions. Protocol harmonization and robust field validation will be essential for improving the reliability, interpretability, and practical relevance of future research on protein hydrolyzates in fruit production. 2026-03-05 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 30: Protein Hydrolyzate-Based Biostimulants in Fruit Crops: Mechanisms, Agronomic Effects, and Practical Applications

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6020030

Authors: Ivan Dlačić Theocharis Chatzistathis Simone Bernobić Marija Polić Pasković Dean Ban Marko Petek Ljiljana Popović Igor Pasković

This review summarizes current scientific knowledge on the use of protein hydrolyzate-based biostimulants in fruit production through evidence mapping, cross-species comparison, and evaluation of protocol-dependent responses within an agronomic framework, centered on foliar applications and their role in sustainable production systems. Research across a broad range of fruit species reports that protein hydrolyzates can significantly enhance yield, improve fruit quality, and mitigate the adverse effects of abiotic stresses such as drought and high temperatures. Treated plants often exhibit improved nutrient uptake, increased photosynthetic efficiency, and enhanced morphological traits, including better root development and vegetative growth. However, the effectiveness of these biostimulants varies depending on the fruit species, developmental stage, and application frequency, indicating the need for more tailored and crop-specific protocols. In conclusion, the literature confirms the functional role of protein hydrolyzates in enhancing resilience and productivity in fruit crops, while highlighting the need for further research to optimize their use under diverse agroecological conditions. Protocol harmonization and robust field validation will be essential for improving the reliability, interpretability, and practical relevance of future research on protein hydrolyzates in fruit production.

]]> Protein Hydrolyzate-Based Biostimulants in Fruit Crops: Mechanisms, Agronomic Effects, and Practical Applications Ivan Dlačić Theocharis Chatzistathis Simone Bernobić Marija Polić Pasković Dean Ban Marko Petek Ljiljana Popović Igor Pasković doi: 10.3390/crops6020030 Crops 2026-03-05 Crops 2026-03-05 6 2 Review 30 10.3390/crops6020030 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/30 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 29: Ultrafine Bubble Irrigation Enhances Early Growth and Antioxidant Activity of Rice Seedlings Under Nutrient-Free Conditions https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/29 Ultrafine bubble (UFB)-enriched water promotes plant growth when nutrients are present. A key question is whether it can still encourage growth in the absence of nutrients. Therefore, this study examines how different UFB concentrations affect the early growth and development of rice seedlings under nutrient-free conditions where external nutritional application was excluded. The results showed that the examined morphological and physicochemical parameters were directly affected by the bubble concentration in the irrigation water. Higher bubble concentrations resulted in a significant increase in the fresh and dry weights of roots, primary and secondary root lengths, and specific root length. Similarly, higher bubble concentrations were also associated with greater shoot height, fresh weight, and dry weight. However, pigment concentrations were not clearly affected, except for anthocyanin. Hydrogen peroxide concentration increased proportionally with bubble concentration. Among the antioxidant enzymes assessed, peroxidase activity increased significantly with bubble concentration, whereas the other antioxidant enzymes showed no significant variation. Moreover, UFB irrigation significantly affected carbon metabolism, increasing soluble sugar content while reducing storage starch levels. In conclusion, the findings suggest that UFB-enriched irrigation can promote plant growth under nutrient-free external conditions by modulating stress-related molecules, activating antioxidant enzymes, and altering carbon metabolism. 2026-03-04 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 29: Ultrafine Bubble Irrigation Enhances Early Growth and Antioxidant Activity of Rice Seedlings Under Nutrient-Free Conditions

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6020029

Authors: Harshana Galahitigama Yosuke Sawada Kenji Kamura Takeshi Fujino

Ultrafine bubble (UFB)-enriched water promotes plant growth when nutrients are present. A key question is whether it can still encourage growth in the absence of nutrients. Therefore, this study examines how different UFB concentrations affect the early growth and development of rice seedlings under nutrient-free conditions where external nutritional application was excluded. The results showed that the examined morphological and physicochemical parameters were directly affected by the bubble concentration in the irrigation water. Higher bubble concentrations resulted in a significant increase in the fresh and dry weights of roots, primary and secondary root lengths, and specific root length. Similarly, higher bubble concentrations were also associated with greater shoot height, fresh weight, and dry weight. However, pigment concentrations were not clearly affected, except for anthocyanin. Hydrogen peroxide concentration increased proportionally with bubble concentration. Among the antioxidant enzymes assessed, peroxidase activity increased significantly with bubble concentration, whereas the other antioxidant enzymes showed no significant variation. Moreover, UFB irrigation significantly affected carbon metabolism, increasing soluble sugar content while reducing storage starch levels. In conclusion, the findings suggest that UFB-enriched irrigation can promote plant growth under nutrient-free external conditions by modulating stress-related molecules, activating antioxidant enzymes, and altering carbon metabolism.

]]> Ultrafine Bubble Irrigation Enhances Early Growth and Antioxidant Activity of Rice Seedlings Under Nutrient-Free Conditions Harshana Galahitigama Yosuke Sawada Kenji Kamura Takeshi Fujino doi: 10.3390/crops6020029 Crops 2026-03-04 Crops 2026-03-04 6 2 Article 29 10.3390/crops6020029 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/29 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 28: Effects of Different Heading Dates on Agronomic and Yield-Related Traits Under Salt Stress in Rice https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/28 Salinity is a major abiotic stress limiting rice production worldwide. This study aims to elucidate the effects of heading date on salt tolerance in rice. Five near-isogenic lines (NILs) developed from the SL2038/Koshihikari backcross population were grown with or without salt stress. SL2038 is a salt-tolerant line with delayed heading (~18 days) compared to the salt-sensitive background Koshihikari. The results showed that late-heading NILs produced significantly higher plant dry weight, panicle weight, percentage of filled grains, and grain weight (p < 0.05) under long-term salt stress. In Koshihikari, which exhibited delayed heading due to long-day treatment, the percentage of white heads was low, and panicle and grain weights were significantly higher under salt stress. Experiments with different sowing times indicated that late heading, such as sowing in June, resulted in higher grain weights. This is the first report to assess the impact of heading date on agronomic and yield-related traits under salt stress. In conclusion, even with a prolonged salt treatment period, heading during periods of low temperature and solar radiation results in higher grain weight under salt stress. This is proposed as one of the strategies for salt escape. These findings can be used to improve rice yield and implement crop management in salt-affected regions. 2026-03-02 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 28: Effects of Different Heading Dates on Agronomic and Yield-Related Traits Under Salt Stress in Rice

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6020028

Authors: Sadia Afrin Sayuri Ito M M Emam Ahmed Shuto Ogino Asami Tomita Yoshihiko Hirai

Salinity is a major abiotic stress limiting rice production worldwide. This study aims to elucidate the effects of heading date on salt tolerance in rice. Five near-isogenic lines (NILs) developed from the SL2038/Koshihikari backcross population were grown with or without salt stress. SL2038 is a salt-tolerant line with delayed heading (~18 days) compared to the salt-sensitive background Koshihikari. The results showed that late-heading NILs produced significantly higher plant dry weight, panicle weight, percentage of filled grains, and grain weight (p < 0.05) under long-term salt stress. In Koshihikari, which exhibited delayed heading due to long-day treatment, the percentage of white heads was low, and panicle and grain weights were significantly higher under salt stress. Experiments with different sowing times indicated that late heading, such as sowing in June, resulted in higher grain weights. This is the first report to assess the impact of heading date on agronomic and yield-related traits under salt stress. In conclusion, even with a prolonged salt treatment period, heading during periods of low temperature and solar radiation results in higher grain weight under salt stress. This is proposed as one of the strategies for salt escape. These findings can be used to improve rice yield and implement crop management in salt-affected regions.

]]> Effects of Different Heading Dates on Agronomic and Yield-Related Traits Under Salt Stress in Rice Sadia Afrin Sayuri Ito M M Emam Ahmed Shuto Ogino Asami Tomita Yoshihiko Hirai doi: 10.3390/crops6020028 Crops 2026-03-02 Crops 2026-03-02 6 2 Article 28 10.3390/crops6020028 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/28 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 27: Agronomic Responses of Wheat and Oat Cultivars Under Dual-Purpose and Grain Production Management Strategies https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/27 Dual-purpose (DP) crops diversify farm income, facilitating livestock and grain production. Dual-purpose wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), i.e., grazing or clipping herbage early in the season followed by grain harvest, is commonly used in the Great Plains of the United States of America (USA), but the use of DP crops, including oat (Avena sativa L.), in the southeastern USA is limited. This 2-year study assessed agronomic and nutritive value responses and grain production of one wheat (AGS 4023) and four oat (Brooks, Horizon 214, Horizon 306, and Horizon 578) cultivars under two management strategies (dual-purpose [DP, clipping for forage and subsequent grain harvest] or grain production [GP]. Treatments were arranged in a randomized complete block design with three replications. Seasonal forage accumulation ranged from 4140 to 5460 kg ha−1 yr−1 among cultivars. Greater concentration of NDF (p < 0.001) was observed in year 2 than in year 1 (46.3% vs. 40.9%, respectively), but cultivars did not differ. Crude protein concentration ranged from 18.6% to 21% among cultivars. Grain yield was greater for H578 than all other cultivars (7400 versus an average of 5100 kg DM ha−1). Grain yield reduction for DP ranged from 27 to 45% compared with GP. These results demonstrate the potential of selected cultivars (e.g., H578) for use as DP crops in the region. Recognizing some reduction in grain yield compared with GP, DP cropping increases flexibility for producers, facilitating the use of integrated crop-livestock systems that diversify income streams and enhance the circularity of agroecosystems. 2026-03-02 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 27: Agronomic Responses of Wheat and Oat Cultivars Under Dual-Purpose and Grain Production Management Strategies

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6020027

Authors: Liliane Severino da Silva Alexander Coleman Carlos C. V. García Sarala Giri

Dual-purpose (DP) crops diversify farm income, facilitating livestock and grain production. Dual-purpose wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), i.e., grazing or clipping herbage early in the season followed by grain harvest, is commonly used in the Great Plains of the United States of America (USA), but the use of DP crops, including oat (Avena sativa L.), in the southeastern USA is limited. This 2-year study assessed agronomic and nutritive value responses and grain production of one wheat (AGS 4023) and four oat (Brooks, Horizon 214, Horizon 306, and Horizon 578) cultivars under two management strategies (dual-purpose [DP, clipping for forage and subsequent grain harvest] or grain production [GP]. Treatments were arranged in a randomized complete block design with three replications. Seasonal forage accumulation ranged from 4140 to 5460 kg ha−1 yr−1 among cultivars. Greater concentration of NDF (p < 0.001) was observed in year 2 than in year 1 (46.3% vs. 40.9%, respectively), but cultivars did not differ. Crude protein concentration ranged from 18.6% to 21% among cultivars. Grain yield was greater for H578 than all other cultivars (7400 versus an average of 5100 kg DM ha−1). Grain yield reduction for DP ranged from 27 to 45% compared with GP. These results demonstrate the potential of selected cultivars (e.g., H578) for use as DP crops in the region. Recognizing some reduction in grain yield compared with GP, DP cropping increases flexibility for producers, facilitating the use of integrated crop-livestock systems that diversify income streams and enhance the circularity of agroecosystems.

]]> Agronomic Responses of Wheat and Oat Cultivars Under Dual-Purpose and Grain Production Management Strategies Liliane Severino da Silva Alexander Coleman Carlos C. V. García Sarala Giri doi: 10.3390/crops6020027 Crops 2026-03-02 Crops 2026-03-02 6 2 Article 27 10.3390/crops6020027 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/27 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 26: Performance of Five Cool-Season Turfgrass Cultivars for Fall Overseeding of Bermudagrass in Mediterranean Climate https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/26 Autumn overseeding with cool-season turfgrass species is a widely adopted practice under Mediterranean climatic conditions to mitigate winter dormancy and loss of green color in bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon). This study evaluated, over two consecutive winter seasons (2022–2023 and 2023–2024), the performance of five cool-season turfgrass cultivars used for autumn overseeding on bermudagrass (‘Arden 15’) in Valencia, eastern Spain. The cultivars included Lolium multiflorum ‘Upstart’, Lolium perenne ‘CT7’ and ‘Sirtaky’, Poa pratensis ‘Liberator’, and Poa trivialis ‘Dasas’. Turf performance was assessed weekly from December to April using visual green color ratings, normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) measured with two hand-held sensors (GreenSeeker and CropCircle), and normalized difference red edge index (NDRE). The area under the progress curve (AUPC) was calculated as an integrative indicator of turf performance over time. Winter temperature differences significantly influenced bermudagrass dormancy duration and overseeding response. Among the evaluated cultivars, ‘CT7’ consistently showed the highest winter greenness and vigor but exhibited a darker green color than bermudagrass, potentially reducing visual uniformity. The L. perenne ‘Sirtaky’ and P. pratensis ‘Liberator’ cultivars provided a closer chromatic match, although ‘Liberator’ established more slowly. The NDVI and NDRE measurements supported the visual assessments, though correlations between sensors varied among cultivars and seasons, with the GreenSeeker sensor detecting larger cultivar differences than the CropCircle sensor, particularly during colder winters. In addition, the AUPC proved to be an effective integrative metric for comparing cultivar performance over a defined period. Overall, overseeding effectively reduced winter discoloration of bermudagrass, with ‘Sirtaky’ emerging as the most balanced option for Mediterranean sports overseeding management on C. dactylon (‘Arden 15’). 2026-02-26 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 26: Performance of Five Cool-Season Turfgrass Cultivars for Fall Overseeding of Bermudagrass in Mediterranean Climate

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6020026

Authors: Óscar Alcántara Antonio Lidón Diego Gómez de Barreda

Autumn overseeding with cool-season turfgrass species is a widely adopted practice under Mediterranean climatic conditions to mitigate winter dormancy and loss of green color in bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon). This study evaluated, over two consecutive winter seasons (2022–2023 and 2023–2024), the performance of five cool-season turfgrass cultivars used for autumn overseeding on bermudagrass (‘Arden 15’) in Valencia, eastern Spain. The cultivars included Lolium multiflorum ‘Upstart’, Lolium perenne ‘CT7’ and ‘Sirtaky’, Poa pratensis ‘Liberator’, and Poa trivialis ‘Dasas’. Turf performance was assessed weekly from December to April using visual green color ratings, normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) measured with two hand-held sensors (GreenSeeker and CropCircle), and normalized difference red edge index (NDRE). The area under the progress curve (AUPC) was calculated as an integrative indicator of turf performance over time. Winter temperature differences significantly influenced bermudagrass dormancy duration and overseeding response. Among the evaluated cultivars, ‘CT7’ consistently showed the highest winter greenness and vigor but exhibited a darker green color than bermudagrass, potentially reducing visual uniformity. The L. perenne ‘Sirtaky’ and P. pratensis ‘Liberator’ cultivars provided a closer chromatic match, although ‘Liberator’ established more slowly. The NDVI and NDRE measurements supported the visual assessments, though correlations between sensors varied among cultivars and seasons, with the GreenSeeker sensor detecting larger cultivar differences than the CropCircle sensor, particularly during colder winters. In addition, the AUPC proved to be an effective integrative metric for comparing cultivar performance over a defined period. Overall, overseeding effectively reduced winter discoloration of bermudagrass, with ‘Sirtaky’ emerging as the most balanced option for Mediterranean sports overseeding management on C. dactylon (‘Arden 15’).

]]> Performance of Five Cool-Season Turfgrass Cultivars for Fall Overseeding of Bermudagrass in Mediterranean Climate Óscar Alcántara Antonio Lidón Diego Gómez de Barreda doi: 10.3390/crops6020026 Crops 2026-02-26 Crops 2026-02-26 6 2 Article 26 10.3390/crops6020026 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/26 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 25: Microbiome-Induced Effects on Root Architecture in Rice Crops: Mechanisms, Drivers, and Functional Consequences https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/25 Bacteria play an important role in addressing challenges in rice production by promoting plant growth and enhancing stress tolerance through multiple mechanisms. Different types of soil bacteria affect rice growth by improving nutrient absorption, managing stress, and enhancing root structure. The relationship between rice plants and bacteria is intricate, as these bacteria can help reduce problems like salt stress, heavy metal toxicity, and infections. This review summarises studies published up to 2025 on how bacteria influence rice roots, including aspects like root length, density, biomass, and volume. Bibliometric analysis shows an increase of over 900% in research interest after 2020, with most studies conducted under controlled conditions and limited field validation. In addition to identifying key bacterial groups such as Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Burkholderia, and Azospirillum, this review identifies research gaps related to context dependency, strain specificity, and scalability. We have also emphasised the need for multi-strain inoculation strategies, field-scale experiments, and integration of microbial selection with rice breeding. The synthesis has highlighted that bacterial strains do not simply stimulate root growth but actively reprogram rice root architecture, modulating elongation, branching, density, and surface area as a response to environmental constraints. These effects are mediated by interconnected mechanisms that include phytohormone production, nutrient solubilisation, deaminase activity, stress-related gene regulation, and microbiome-driven feedback involving root exudation. Overall, viewing bacteria as regulators of root developmental dynamics rather than simple biofertilisers provides new insights for designing climate-adapted and sustainable rice production systems. 2026-02-25 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 25: Microbiome-Induced Effects on Root Architecture in Rice Crops: Mechanisms, Drivers, and Functional Consequences

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6020025

Authors: Misagh Parhizkar Manuel Esteban Lucas-Borja Demetrio Antonio Zema

Bacteria play an important role in addressing challenges in rice production by promoting plant growth and enhancing stress tolerance through multiple mechanisms. Different types of soil bacteria affect rice growth by improving nutrient absorption, managing stress, and enhancing root structure. The relationship between rice plants and bacteria is intricate, as these bacteria can help reduce problems like salt stress, heavy metal toxicity, and infections. This review summarises studies published up to 2025 on how bacteria influence rice roots, including aspects like root length, density, biomass, and volume. Bibliometric analysis shows an increase of over 900% in research interest after 2020, with most studies conducted under controlled conditions and limited field validation. In addition to identifying key bacterial groups such as Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Burkholderia, and Azospirillum, this review identifies research gaps related to context dependency, strain specificity, and scalability. We have also emphasised the need for multi-strain inoculation strategies, field-scale experiments, and integration of microbial selection with rice breeding. The synthesis has highlighted that bacterial strains do not simply stimulate root growth but actively reprogram rice root architecture, modulating elongation, branching, density, and surface area as a response to environmental constraints. These effects are mediated by interconnected mechanisms that include phytohormone production, nutrient solubilisation, deaminase activity, stress-related gene regulation, and microbiome-driven feedback involving root exudation. Overall, viewing bacteria as regulators of root developmental dynamics rather than simple biofertilisers provides new insights for designing climate-adapted and sustainable rice production systems.

]]> Microbiome-Induced Effects on Root Architecture in Rice Crops: Mechanisms, Drivers, and Functional Consequences Misagh Parhizkar Manuel Esteban Lucas-Borja Demetrio Antonio Zema doi: 10.3390/crops6020025 Crops 2026-02-25 Crops 2026-02-25 6 2 Review 25 10.3390/crops6020025 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/25 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 24: Content and Composition of Essential Oils from Solidago canadensis L. and Solidago virgaurea L. Growing in Estonia https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/24 Common goldenrod (S. virgaurea L., Asteraceae) is recognised in traditional medicine as a folk remedy for kidney, urinary tract, and liver diseases, among others; however, its pharmaceutical potential remains largely unexplored. The pharmaceutical potential of the invasive species Canadian goldenrod (S. canadensis L.) in Europe is also of practical interest. The aim of the study was to compare the yield and composition of essential oils (EO) of flowering tops (20 cm long) of S. canadensis and S. virgaurea. The yield of EOs, hydrodistilled from S. canadensis (8 samples) and S. virgaurea (5 samples) herbs using the European Pharmacopoeia method, ranged from 2.7 to 14.9 mL/kg. The average EO yield in both goldenrod species was similar, but the composition differed. A total of 81 constituents were identified and semiquantified by GC-MS in the EOs of both Solidago species, eight of which have been found in these species for the first time. α-Pinene, limonene, and (E)-β-ocimene were the principal compounds in S. canadensis herb EO, and α-pinene, β-pinene, β-myrcene, and α-humulene were the principal compounds in S. virgaurea EO. It contained, on average, 39 times more benzyl salicylate than the EO from S. canadensis. Also, the amounts of viridiflorol (more in S. virgaurea) or β-bourbonene and (E)-β-ocimene (more in S. canadensis) can be used as a chemical fingerprint of both goldenrod species studied. The EO compositions were largely similar, with species-related differences supported by the presence of α-muurolene in S. virgaurea and its absence in S. canadensis. The pharmaceutical potential of V. canadensis as an invasive species is not yet sufficiently clear and requires further pharmacological studies. The composition of the EO seems to support the traditional use of goldenrod in the urological field. 2026-02-25 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 24: Content and Composition of Essential Oils from Solidago canadensis L. and Solidago virgaurea L. Growing in Estonia

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6020024

Authors: Ain Raal Aleksandra Doll Yurii Hrytsyk Martin Lepiku Oleh Koshovyi

Common goldenrod (S. virgaurea L., Asteraceae) is recognised in traditional medicine as a folk remedy for kidney, urinary tract, and liver diseases, among others; however, its pharmaceutical potential remains largely unexplored. The pharmaceutical potential of the invasive species Canadian goldenrod (S. canadensis L.) in Europe is also of practical interest. The aim of the study was to compare the yield and composition of essential oils (EO) of flowering tops (20 cm long) of S. canadensis and S. virgaurea. The yield of EOs, hydrodistilled from S. canadensis (8 samples) and S. virgaurea (5 samples) herbs using the European Pharmacopoeia method, ranged from 2.7 to 14.9 mL/kg. The average EO yield in both goldenrod species was similar, but the composition differed. A total of 81 constituents were identified and semiquantified by GC-MS in the EOs of both Solidago species, eight of which have been found in these species for the first time. α-Pinene, limonene, and (E)-β-ocimene were the principal compounds in S. canadensis herb EO, and α-pinene, β-pinene, β-myrcene, and α-humulene were the principal compounds in S. virgaurea EO. It contained, on average, 39 times more benzyl salicylate than the EO from S. canadensis. Also, the amounts of viridiflorol (more in S. virgaurea) or β-bourbonene and (E)-β-ocimene (more in S. canadensis) can be used as a chemical fingerprint of both goldenrod species studied. The EO compositions were largely similar, with species-related differences supported by the presence of α-muurolene in S. virgaurea and its absence in S. canadensis. The pharmaceutical potential of V. canadensis as an invasive species is not yet sufficiently clear and requires further pharmacological studies. The composition of the EO seems to support the traditional use of goldenrod in the urological field.

]]> Content and Composition of Essential Oils from Solidago canadensis L. and Solidago virgaurea L. Growing in Estonia Ain Raal Aleksandra Doll Yurii Hrytsyk Martin Lepiku Oleh Koshovyi doi: 10.3390/crops6020024 Crops 2026-02-25 Crops 2026-02-25 6 2 Article 24 10.3390/crops6020024 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/24 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 23: Projection of the Irrigation Water Requirement of Forage Corn Under Climate-Change Conditions in the North of Mexico https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/23 Climate change has put the agricultural industry under enormous pressure, as rising temperatures and changing rainfall patterns are affecting crop yields and productivity. The temporal variability of the irrigation water requirement (IWR) as a function of crop evapotranspiration (ETc) and effective rainfall (Peff) was analyzed for forage corn cultivation from a climate-change perspective in the “Comarca Lagunera” region, located in the north of Mexico. The time periods 1975–2016 and 2061–2080 were analyzed, the latter using the forcings of the climate-change scenario SSP5-8.5, from the meteorological data. The Peff, ETc, and IWR for the maize crop were modeled with CROPWAT software, and the Rodionov test was applied to detect points of change in the three variables mentioned above. The historical values of IWR, ETc, and Peff values for spring were estimated at 511, 571, and 57, while for summer, they were 336, 450, and 122, respectively. The climate-change scenario toward the distant horizon projects increases in IWR of 11.9% and 3.5% and in ETc of 7.7% and 0.6%, respectively, for both spring and summer agricultural cycles, as well as decreases in Peff of −30% and −12%, respectively. These results emphasize the combined impact of rising temperatures and reduced rainfall on crop water needs, a crucial factor for crop production in regions that depend on agricultural irrigation. This study provides a foundation for planning irrigation water management in anticipation of an imminent increase in demand due to erratic weather patterns in arid zones. 2026-02-24 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 23: Projection of the Irrigation Water Requirement of Forage Corn Under Climate-Change Conditions in the North of Mexico

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6020023

Authors: Alejandro Cruz-González Ramón Arteaga-Ramírez Jesús Soria-Ruiz Alejandro Ismael Monterroso-Rivas Georgina Pérez-Rodríguez Aracely Rojas-López

Climate change has put the agricultural industry under enormous pressure, as rising temperatures and changing rainfall patterns are affecting crop yields and productivity. The temporal variability of the irrigation water requirement (IWR) as a function of crop evapotranspiration (ETc) and effective rainfall (Peff) was analyzed for forage corn cultivation from a climate-change perspective in the “Comarca Lagunera” region, located in the north of Mexico. The time periods 1975–2016 and 2061–2080 were analyzed, the latter using the forcings of the climate-change scenario SSP5-8.5, from the meteorological data. The Peff, ETc, and IWR for the maize crop were modeled with CROPWAT software, and the Rodionov test was applied to detect points of change in the three variables mentioned above. The historical values of IWR, ETc, and Peff values for spring were estimated at 511, 571, and 57, while for summer, they were 336, 450, and 122, respectively. The climate-change scenario toward the distant horizon projects increases in IWR of 11.9% and 3.5% and in ETc of 7.7% and 0.6%, respectively, for both spring and summer agricultural cycles, as well as decreases in Peff of −30% and −12%, respectively. These results emphasize the combined impact of rising temperatures and reduced rainfall on crop water needs, a crucial factor for crop production in regions that depend on agricultural irrigation. This study provides a foundation for planning irrigation water management in anticipation of an imminent increase in demand due to erratic weather patterns in arid zones.

]]> Projection of the Irrigation Water Requirement of Forage Corn Under Climate-Change Conditions in the North of Mexico Alejandro Cruz-González Ramón Arteaga-Ramírez Jesús Soria-Ruiz Alejandro Ismael Monterroso-Rivas Georgina Pérez-Rodríguez Aracely Rojas-López doi: 10.3390/crops6020023 Crops 2026-02-24 Crops 2026-02-24 6 2 Article 23 10.3390/crops6020023 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/23 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 22: Investigating the Effect of Anaerobic Digestion Residue on Basil Growth, Secondary Metabolite Synthesis, and Growing Substrate Properties https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/22 To assess digestate’s efficacy as a fertilizer for basil development, a two-year pot experiment was established, comprising four fertilization treatments: namely, mineral fertilizer (F), digestate (D), combined mineral fertilizer and digestate (1:1, FD), and unfertilized control (C). Key metrics assessed included plant height, chlorophyll concentration index (CCI), total biomass (TB), leaf production (LP), essential oil yield, and composition. Post-harvest analysis evaluated nutrient and heavy metal content and pathogen contamination in the growing substrate and leaves. FD treatment produced the highest TB (68.2 g plant−1) and LP (52.7 g plant−1). Digestate application substantially enhanced substrate nutrient availability, increasing extractable phosphorus by 68.5%, potassium by 134.4%, and organic matter by 54.7%. The essential oil yield was significantly higher in the control plants. whereas different fertilization regimes altered secondary metabolite synthesis. Specifically, fertilization with digestate favored sesquiterpenes synthesis, inorganic fertilization enhanced methyleugenol and β-farnesene synthesis, and the control showed higher limonene, eugenol, and linalool. Heavy metal accumulation in the growing substrate was negligible, remaining well within regulatory limits. Salmonella spp., were not detected. Pathogen concentration in the growing substrate was low, while Enterococcus faecalis levels were marginally below EU safety limits (100 cfu g−1) on the leaves. Continuous monitoring of soil chemical properties and plant products after digestate application is essential to ensure soil health and food safety. 2026-02-24 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 22: Investigating the Effect of Anaerobic Digestion Residue on Basil Growth, Secondary Metabolite Synthesis, and Growing Substrate Properties

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6020022

Authors: Argyrios Kalaitzidis Eirini Sarrou Dimitrios Katsantonis Spyridon D. Koutroubas Panagiotis G. Kougias Nicholas E. Korres

To assess digestate’s efficacy as a fertilizer for basil development, a two-year pot experiment was established, comprising four fertilization treatments: namely, mineral fertilizer (F), digestate (D), combined mineral fertilizer and digestate (1:1, FD), and unfertilized control (C). Key metrics assessed included plant height, chlorophyll concentration index (CCI), total biomass (TB), leaf production (LP), essential oil yield, and composition. Post-harvest analysis evaluated nutrient and heavy metal content and pathogen contamination in the growing substrate and leaves. FD treatment produced the highest TB (68.2 g plant−1) and LP (52.7 g plant−1). Digestate application substantially enhanced substrate nutrient availability, increasing extractable phosphorus by 68.5%, potassium by 134.4%, and organic matter by 54.7%. The essential oil yield was significantly higher in the control plants. whereas different fertilization regimes altered secondary metabolite synthesis. Specifically, fertilization with digestate favored sesquiterpenes synthesis, inorganic fertilization enhanced methyleugenol and β-farnesene synthesis, and the control showed higher limonene, eugenol, and linalool. Heavy metal accumulation in the growing substrate was negligible, remaining well within regulatory limits. Salmonella spp., were not detected. Pathogen concentration in the growing substrate was low, while Enterococcus faecalis levels were marginally below EU safety limits (100 cfu g−1) on the leaves. Continuous monitoring of soil chemical properties and plant products after digestate application is essential to ensure soil health and food safety.

]]> Investigating the Effect of Anaerobic Digestion Residue on Basil Growth, Secondary Metabolite Synthesis, and Growing Substrate Properties Argyrios Kalaitzidis Eirini Sarrou Dimitrios Katsantonis Spyridon D. Koutroubas Panagiotis G. Kougias Nicholas E. Korres doi: 10.3390/crops6020022 Crops 2026-02-24 Crops 2026-02-24 6 2 Article 22 10.3390/crops6020022 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/2/22 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 21: Establishment and Shoot Development Responses of Hylocereus undatus Under Plant Growth Regulator Treatments https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/21 Background/Objectives: Hylocereus undatus is a high-value crop whose conventional propagation is inefficient for commercial scaling. This study aimed to develop an optimized protocol for in vitro establishment and to define optimal plant growth regulator (PGR) formulations for shoot multiplication. Methods: methods involved testing six surface sterilization protocols using combinations of a surfactant, a systemic fungicide, ethanol, and sodium hypochlorite. Subsequently, nodal explants were cultured on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with ten different concentrations of benzylaminopurine (BAP) and indole-3-butyric acid (IBA), with morphogenic responses evaluated over 60 days. Results: We identified a sterilization treatment that achieved contamination-free cultures with high explant survival percentages. Shoot multiplication was strictly dependent on cytokinin supplementation, with the highest BAP concentration inducing maximal shoot proliferation, while lower concentrations favored shoot elongation. The inclusion of IBA demonstrated a synergistic effect; a balanced BAP–IBA combination optimized shoot proliferation and vigor, whereas a high auxin-to-cytokinin ratio severely repressed organogenesis. Conclusion: this research establishes a reproducible, two-phase protocol that integrates rigorous aseptic establishment with tailored PGR application, effectively balancing high multiplication with superior shoot morphology for the commercial micropropagation of pitahaya. 2026-02-14 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 21: Establishment and Shoot Development Responses of Hylocereus undatus Under Plant Growth Regulator Treatments

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6010021

Authors: Cristina Pech-Jiménez Paloma A. Salgado-Mercado Alejandra Hernandez Liliana S. Muñoz-Ramírez

Background/Objectives: Hylocereus undatus is a high-value crop whose conventional propagation is inefficient for commercial scaling. This study aimed to develop an optimized protocol for in vitro establishment and to define optimal plant growth regulator (PGR) formulations for shoot multiplication. Methods: methods involved testing six surface sterilization protocols using combinations of a surfactant, a systemic fungicide, ethanol, and sodium hypochlorite. Subsequently, nodal explants were cultured on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with ten different concentrations of benzylaminopurine (BAP) and indole-3-butyric acid (IBA), with morphogenic responses evaluated over 60 days. Results: We identified a sterilization treatment that achieved contamination-free cultures with high explant survival percentages. Shoot multiplication was strictly dependent on cytokinin supplementation, with the highest BAP concentration inducing maximal shoot proliferation, while lower concentrations favored shoot elongation. The inclusion of IBA demonstrated a synergistic effect; a balanced BAP–IBA combination optimized shoot proliferation and vigor, whereas a high auxin-to-cytokinin ratio severely repressed organogenesis. Conclusion: this research establishes a reproducible, two-phase protocol that integrates rigorous aseptic establishment with tailored PGR application, effectively balancing high multiplication with superior shoot morphology for the commercial micropropagation of pitahaya.

]]> Establishment and Shoot Development Responses of Hylocereus undatus Under Plant Growth Regulator Treatments Cristina Pech-Jiménez Paloma A. Salgado-Mercado Alejandra Hernandez Liliana S. Muñoz-Ramírez doi: 10.3390/crops6010021 Crops 2026-02-14 Crops 2026-02-14 6 1 Article 21 10.3390/crops6010021 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/21 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 20: Effect of Seed Ratio in Pea–Oat Mixtures and Developmental Stage on Protein Fraction Fluctuations in Biomass https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/20 Although concentrate feeds supply most carbohydrates and proteins, the protein component represents the most expensive fraction. A substantial portion of concentrate protein can be replaced with more economical protein sources from forages, particularly from legumes such as pea (Pisum sativum ssp. arvense L.), combined with cereals like oat (Avena sativa L.). Mixtures of these annual legumes and cereals generate a synergistic effect, where oats contribute yield stability and energy, while peas enhance protein concentration and improve forage preservation quality. Assessing protein quality requires understanding the distribution of individual protein fractions classified according to the Cornell Net Carbohydrate and Protein System (CNCPS), which categorizes proteins from PA (non-protein nitrogen) to PC (undegradable proteins bound to lignin, tannins, or Maillard products). This study investigated the influence of pea–oat seed ratios—SR (80:20, 60:40, 40:60, and 20:80) and developmental stages—S (early flowering and pod filling) on the dynamics of protein fractions in green biomass. Results showed that soluble protein fractions (PA, PB1) decreased during maturation due to nitrogen translocation to developing grains, while structural and undegradable fractions (PB2, PB3, PC) increased, particularly in mixtures with higher oat proportions. The 60:40 pea:oat ratio produced the most balanced protein profile, maximizing the proportion of moderately degradable proteins (PB2), which are crucial for efficient microbial protein synthesis in the rumen. This ratio also optimized the synergy between legume nitrogen fixation and cereal energy supply, enhancing sustainable ruminant nutrition. Statistical analysis confirmed significant differences between growth stages and mixture compositions. Overall, pea–oat mixtures represent a key component of economically viable and ecologically sustainable forage production for ruminant livestock systems. 2026-02-12 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 20: Effect of Seed Ratio in Pea–Oat Mixtures and Developmental Stage on Protein Fraction Fluctuations in Biomass

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6010020

Authors: Milomir Blagojević Jordan Marković Slađan Rašić

Although concentrate feeds supply most carbohydrates and proteins, the protein component represents the most expensive fraction. A substantial portion of concentrate protein can be replaced with more economical protein sources from forages, particularly from legumes such as pea (Pisum sativum ssp. arvense L.), combined with cereals like oat (Avena sativa L.). Mixtures of these annual legumes and cereals generate a synergistic effect, where oats contribute yield stability and energy, while peas enhance protein concentration and improve forage preservation quality. Assessing protein quality requires understanding the distribution of individual protein fractions classified according to the Cornell Net Carbohydrate and Protein System (CNCPS), which categorizes proteins from PA (non-protein nitrogen) to PC (undegradable proteins bound to lignin, tannins, or Maillard products). This study investigated the influence of pea–oat seed ratios—SR (80:20, 60:40, 40:60, and 20:80) and developmental stages—S (early flowering and pod filling) on the dynamics of protein fractions in green biomass. Results showed that soluble protein fractions (PA, PB1) decreased during maturation due to nitrogen translocation to developing grains, while structural and undegradable fractions (PB2, PB3, PC) increased, particularly in mixtures with higher oat proportions. The 60:40 pea:oat ratio produced the most balanced protein profile, maximizing the proportion of moderately degradable proteins (PB2), which are crucial for efficient microbial protein synthesis in the rumen. This ratio also optimized the synergy between legume nitrogen fixation and cereal energy supply, enhancing sustainable ruminant nutrition. Statistical analysis confirmed significant differences between growth stages and mixture compositions. Overall, pea–oat mixtures represent a key component of economically viable and ecologically sustainable forage production for ruminant livestock systems.

]]> Effect of Seed Ratio in Pea–Oat Mixtures and Developmental Stage on Protein Fraction Fluctuations in Biomass Milomir Blagojević Jordan Marković Slađan Rašić doi: 10.3390/crops6010020 Crops 2026-02-12 Crops 2026-02-12 6 1 Article 20 10.3390/crops6010020 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/20 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 19: Morphological and Baking Properties of the Blue-Grained ×Trititrigia cziczinii Tzvelev Line ‘Istra 116’: A New Donor for Wheat Anthocyanin Biofortification https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/19 Biofortification of wheat with anthocyanins is a strategy for solving the problem of “hidden hunger” and preventing chronic diseases. In this study, the blue aleurone trititrigia line ‘Istra 116’ is characterized as a new genetic resource for wheat breeding. Field and laboratory assessments (the years 2021–2024) compared its characteristics with the commercial trititrigia variety in ‘Pamyati Lyubimovoy’ and wheat varieties (Triticum aestivum L.). ‘Istra 116’ showed excellent agronomic qualities: a higher coefficient of productive tillering (1.93 versus 1.2), longer spikes (up to 17.5 cm) and grain yield (4.2 t/ha), exceeding the control for trititrigia (2.6 t/ha) and comparable to winter wheat (4.5 t/ha). A laboratory baking assessment confirmed its satisfactory quality (overall score 4.5/5). The blue pigment from the aleurone layer partially passed into the flour, giving the bread a darker crust but retaining the anthocyanins in the finished product. The results position ‘Istra 116’ as a dual-purpose genetic resource: a potential commercial biofortified crop and a valuable donor of the blue aleurone layer trait for traditional wheat breeding, offering a practical way to increase the nutritional value of basic foodstuffs. 2026-02-10 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 19: Morphological and Baking Properties of the Blue-Grained ×Trititrigia cziczinii Tzvelev Line ‘Istra 116’: A New Donor for Wheat Anthocyanin Biofortification

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6010019

Authors: Olga Shchuklina Anastasia Alenicheva Valeriya Samokhina Irina Voronchikhina Danila Shchelkanov Natalia Demchuk Tatiana Aniskina Ksenia Dudnikova

Biofortification of wheat with anthocyanins is a strategy for solving the problem of “hidden hunger” and preventing chronic diseases. In this study, the blue aleurone trititrigia line ‘Istra 116’ is characterized as a new genetic resource for wheat breeding. Field and laboratory assessments (the years 2021–2024) compared its characteristics with the commercial trititrigia variety in ‘Pamyati Lyubimovoy’ and wheat varieties (Triticum aestivum L.). ‘Istra 116’ showed excellent agronomic qualities: a higher coefficient of productive tillering (1.93 versus 1.2), longer spikes (up to 17.5 cm) and grain yield (4.2 t/ha), exceeding the control for trititrigia (2.6 t/ha) and comparable to winter wheat (4.5 t/ha). A laboratory baking assessment confirmed its satisfactory quality (overall score 4.5/5). The blue pigment from the aleurone layer partially passed into the flour, giving the bread a darker crust but retaining the anthocyanins in the finished product. The results position ‘Istra 116’ as a dual-purpose genetic resource: a potential commercial biofortified crop and a valuable donor of the blue aleurone layer trait for traditional wheat breeding, offering a practical way to increase the nutritional value of basic foodstuffs.

]]> Morphological and Baking Properties of the Blue-Grained ×Trititrigia cziczinii Tzvelev Line ‘Istra 116’: A New Donor for Wheat Anthocyanin Biofortification Olga Shchuklina Anastasia Alenicheva Valeriya Samokhina Irina Voronchikhina Danila Shchelkanov Natalia Demchuk Tatiana Aniskina Ksenia Dudnikova doi: 10.3390/crops6010019 Crops 2026-02-10 Crops 2026-02-10 6 1 Article 19 10.3390/crops6010019 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/19 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 18: Determination of Capsaicin and Dihydrocapsaicin in Habanero Pepper (Capsicum chinense Jacq.) Hybrids Cultivated in Yucatán, México https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/18 The Habanero pepper (Capsicum chinense Jacq.) is the main crop of the Yucatán Peninsula and is recognized and distinguished from other Habanero peppers cultivated elsewhere in the world due to its aroma, flavor, and high pungency, which is conferred by a group of compounds called capsaicinoids. These compounds are in high demand by various industries due to their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antimicrobial properties. The present study aimed to quantify capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin contents in 29 Habanero pepper hybrids cultivated under greenhouse conditions in Yucatán and to evaluate their pungency potential. Capsaicinoids were extracted from mature fruits using acetonitrile and quantified by HPLC with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD). Capsaicin concentrations ranged from 19.95 to 73.55 mg g−1 dry weight (DW), while dihydrocapsaicin varied from 4.57 to 14.36 mg g−1 DW. Total capsaicinoid content differed significantly among hybrids, ranging from 27.33 to 85.05 mg g−1 DW, corresponding to pungency levels between 439,979 and 1,369,360 Scoville Heat Units (SHU). Hybrids H14, H15, and H3 exhibited exceptionally high pungency, exceeding 1.1 × 106 SHU. The wide variability observed under uniform growing conditions indicates pronounced genotype-dependent differences in capsaicinoid accumulation and identifies promising hybrid materials for breeding programs and agro-industrial applications requiring elevated capsaicinoid content. 2026-02-09 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 18: Determination of Capsaicin and Dihydrocapsaicin in Habanero Pepper (Capsicum chinense Jacq.) Hybrids Cultivated in Yucatán, México

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6010018

Authors: Liliana S. Muñoz-Ramírez Laura P. Peña-Yam Cristina Pech-Jiménez Adriana Canto-Flick Adolfo A. Guzman-Antonio Nancy Santana-Buzzy

The Habanero pepper (Capsicum chinense Jacq.) is the main crop of the Yucatán Peninsula and is recognized and distinguished from other Habanero peppers cultivated elsewhere in the world due to its aroma, flavor, and high pungency, which is conferred by a group of compounds called capsaicinoids. These compounds are in high demand by various industries due to their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antimicrobial properties. The present study aimed to quantify capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin contents in 29 Habanero pepper hybrids cultivated under greenhouse conditions in Yucatán and to evaluate their pungency potential. Capsaicinoids were extracted from mature fruits using acetonitrile and quantified by HPLC with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD). Capsaicin concentrations ranged from 19.95 to 73.55 mg g−1 dry weight (DW), while dihydrocapsaicin varied from 4.57 to 14.36 mg g−1 DW. Total capsaicinoid content differed significantly among hybrids, ranging from 27.33 to 85.05 mg g−1 DW, corresponding to pungency levels between 439,979 and 1,369,360 Scoville Heat Units (SHU). Hybrids H14, H15, and H3 exhibited exceptionally high pungency, exceeding 1.1 × 106 SHU. The wide variability observed under uniform growing conditions indicates pronounced genotype-dependent differences in capsaicinoid accumulation and identifies promising hybrid materials for breeding programs and agro-industrial applications requiring elevated capsaicinoid content.

]]> Determination of Capsaicin and Dihydrocapsaicin in Habanero Pepper (Capsicum chinense Jacq.) Hybrids Cultivated in Yucatán, México Liliana S. Muñoz-Ramírez Laura P. Peña-Yam Cristina Pech-Jiménez Adriana Canto-Flick Adolfo A. Guzman-Antonio Nancy Santana-Buzzy doi: 10.3390/crops6010018 Crops 2026-02-09 Crops 2026-02-09 6 1 Article 18 10.3390/crops6010018 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/18 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 17: Seed Germination and Seedling Production of Physalis peruviana Using Different Substrates and Growing Containers https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/17 The cultivation of Physalis peruviana has emerged as a promising alternative for small- and medium-sized producers due to its high added value and low production cost. However, information on the cultivation of this vegetable crop under Brazilian edaphoclimatic conditions is still scarce. Seedling production is one of the most critical stages for crop development, as this species does not establish well from seeds under field conditions. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate seed germination and seedling growth of P. peruviana under different container volumes and substrate compositions. The experiment was carried out from February to March 2020 in a screened greenhouse environment, using a completely randomized factorial design. The treatments consisted of different container volumes and substrate compositions, including commercial containers of varying sizes and soil-based substrates formulated with mineral components and organic manures. Four replications were used, each consisting of seven plants. Seed emergence was favored by substrates containing well-composted cattle manure, whereas smaller container volumes reduced the emergence of P. peruviana. The greatest seedling growth, including higher stem base diameter, number of leaves per plant, leaf area, and shoot and root dry mass, was obtained in larger-volume containers filled with soil-based substrates enriched with well-composted cattle manure. Therefore, for the production of high-quality P. peruviana seedlings, the use of 400 cm3 polyethylene containers filled with a mixture of soil, sand, commercial substrate, and well-composted cattle manure in a 1:1:1:2 ratio is recommended. 2026-02-04 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 17: Seed Germination and Seedling Production of Physalis peruviana Using Different Substrates and Growing Containers

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6010017

Authors: Elis Marina de Freitas Fernando Augusto da Silveira Laércio Junio da Silva Fernando França da Cunha

The cultivation of Physalis peruviana has emerged as a promising alternative for small- and medium-sized producers due to its high added value and low production cost. However, information on the cultivation of this vegetable crop under Brazilian edaphoclimatic conditions is still scarce. Seedling production is one of the most critical stages for crop development, as this species does not establish well from seeds under field conditions. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate seed germination and seedling growth of P. peruviana under different container volumes and substrate compositions. The experiment was carried out from February to March 2020 in a screened greenhouse environment, using a completely randomized factorial design. The treatments consisted of different container volumes and substrate compositions, including commercial containers of varying sizes and soil-based substrates formulated with mineral components and organic manures. Four replications were used, each consisting of seven plants. Seed emergence was favored by substrates containing well-composted cattle manure, whereas smaller container volumes reduced the emergence of P. peruviana. The greatest seedling growth, including higher stem base diameter, number of leaves per plant, leaf area, and shoot and root dry mass, was obtained in larger-volume containers filled with soil-based substrates enriched with well-composted cattle manure. Therefore, for the production of high-quality P. peruviana seedlings, the use of 400 cm3 polyethylene containers filled with a mixture of soil, sand, commercial substrate, and well-composted cattle manure in a 1:1:1:2 ratio is recommended.

]]> Seed Germination and Seedling Production of Physalis peruviana Using Different Substrates and Growing Containers Elis Marina de Freitas Fernando Augusto da Silveira Laércio Junio da Silva Fernando França da Cunha doi: 10.3390/crops6010017 Crops 2026-02-04 Crops 2026-02-04 6 1 Article 17 10.3390/crops6010017 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/17 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 16: Synergistic Effects of Far-Infrared Radiation and Static Magnetic Fields as Physical Biostimulants on In Vitro Germination of Jalapeño Pepper https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/16 Among the options to improve the establishment of jalapeno pepper (Capsicum annuum L.), physical biostimulants such as far-infrared bioceramics (FIR) and static magnetic fields (MF) have emerged as non-chemical alternatives. This study evaluated, under in vitro conditions, the individual and combined effects of FIR and positive or negative MF on seed germination dynamics, early seedling morphology, water status, and photosynthetic pigments. A completely randomized design with eight treatments was implemented, including FIR applied continuously throughout the entire experimental period, positive or negative MF applied for 24 h (MF+24, MF−24), and FIR + MF combinations under continuous or 24 h exposure regimes (n = 7). Germination percentage, mean germination time (MGT), mean germination rate (MGR), germination index (GI), morphological variables, water content (WC), and photosynthetic pigments were measured; ANOVA/alternative tests (a = 0.05), Principal Components Analysis (PCA) and exploratory Spearman’s correlations were used to assess relationships among the evaluated variables. Germination percentage did not change (97.64%), but kinetics did: FIR + MF−24 reduced MGT to 4.32 d, FIR increased MGR to 5.83 seeds day−1 (+11.69%), and FIR24 + MF+24 showed the highest GI (4.57). For morphological, MF+24 increased hypocotyl length (+16.29%), FIR increased collar diameter (+27.27%), and FIR + MF−24 increased cotyledon area (25%), and FIR increased chlorophyll a (+139%), chlorophyll b (+141%), and carotenoids (+114%). PCA explained 66.9% of the variance, grouping FIR with growth variables and FIR + MF combinations with WC and pigments. Inferences are limited to one cultivar and controlled in vitro conditions. This study provides novel quantitative evidence that continuous and short-term applications of FIR and MF modulate germination dynamics and early physiological traits without altering final germination, related to structure and pigments, without changing final germination percentage. 2026-02-02 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 16: Synergistic Effects of Far-Infrared Radiation and Static Magnetic Fields as Physical Biostimulants on In Vitro Germination of Jalapeño Pepper

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6010016

Authors: Mercedes Estefany Velásquez-Peña Aldo Gutiérrez-Chávez Loreto Robles-Hernández Ana Cecilia González-Franco María Carmen E. Delgado-Gardea Laura Raquel Orozco-Meléndez Jared Hernández-Huerta

Among the options to improve the establishment of jalapeno pepper (Capsicum annuum L.), physical biostimulants such as far-infrared bioceramics (FIR) and static magnetic fields (MF) have emerged as non-chemical alternatives. This study evaluated, under in vitro conditions, the individual and combined effects of FIR and positive or negative MF on seed germination dynamics, early seedling morphology, water status, and photosynthetic pigments. A completely randomized design with eight treatments was implemented, including FIR applied continuously throughout the entire experimental period, positive or negative MF applied for 24 h (MF+24, MF−24), and FIR + MF combinations under continuous or 24 h exposure regimes (n = 7). Germination percentage, mean germination time (MGT), mean germination rate (MGR), germination index (GI), morphological variables, water content (WC), and photosynthetic pigments were measured; ANOVA/alternative tests (a = 0.05), Principal Components Analysis (PCA) and exploratory Spearman’s correlations were used to assess relationships among the evaluated variables. Germination percentage did not change (97.64%), but kinetics did: FIR + MF−24 reduced MGT to 4.32 d, FIR increased MGR to 5.83 seeds day−1 (+11.69%), and FIR24 + MF+24 showed the highest GI (4.57). For morphological, MF+24 increased hypocotyl length (+16.29%), FIR increased collar diameter (+27.27%), and FIR + MF−24 increased cotyledon area (25%), and FIR increased chlorophyll a (+139%), chlorophyll b (+141%), and carotenoids (+114%). PCA explained 66.9% of the variance, grouping FIR with growth variables and FIR + MF combinations with WC and pigments. Inferences are limited to one cultivar and controlled in vitro conditions. This study provides novel quantitative evidence that continuous and short-term applications of FIR and MF modulate germination dynamics and early physiological traits without altering final germination, related to structure and pigments, without changing final germination percentage.

]]> Synergistic Effects of Far-Infrared Radiation and Static Magnetic Fields as Physical Biostimulants on In Vitro Germination of Jalapeño Pepper Mercedes Estefany Velásquez-Peña Aldo Gutiérrez-Chávez Loreto Robles-Hernández Ana Cecilia González-Franco María Carmen E. Delgado-Gardea Laura Raquel Orozco-Meléndez Jared Hernández-Huerta doi: 10.3390/crops6010016 Crops 2026-02-02 Crops 2026-02-02 6 1 Article 16 10.3390/crops6010016 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/16 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 15: A Systematic Review of Integrated Management in Blueberry (Vaccinium spp.): Technological Innovation, Sustainability, and Practices in Propagation, Physiology, Agronomy, Harvest, and Postharvest https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/15 The cultivation of blueberry (Vaccinium spp.) has undergone an unprecedented global expansion, driven by its nutraceutical value and the diversification of production zones across the Americas, Europe, and Asia. Its consolidation as a strategic crop has prompted intensive scientific activity aimed at optimizing every stage of management from propagation and physiology to harvest, postharvest, and environmental sustainability. However, the available evidence remains fragmented, limiting the integration of results and the formulation of knowledge-based, comparative production strategies. The objective of this systematic review was to synthesize scientific and technological advances related to the integrated management of blueberry cultivation, incorporating physiological, agronomic, technological, and environmental dimensions. The PRISMA 2020 methodology (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) was applied to ensure transparency and reproducibility in the search, selection, and analysis of scientific literature indexed in the Scopus database. After screening, 367 articles met the inclusion criteria and were analyzed comparatively and thematically. The results reveal significant progress in propagation using hydrogel and micropropagation techniques, efficient fertigation practices, and the integration of climate control operations within greenhouses, leading to improved yield and fruit quality. Likewise, non-thermal technologies, edible coatings, and harvest automation enhance postharvest quality and reduce losses. In terms of sustainability, the incorporation of water reuse and waste biorefinery has emerged as key strategies to reduce the environmental footprint and promote circular systems. Among the main limitations are the lack of methodological standardization, the scarce economic evaluation of innovations, and the weak linkage between experimental and commercial scales. It is concluded that integrating physiology, technology, and sustainability within a unified management framework is essential to consolidate a resilient, low-carbon, and technologically advanced fruit-growing system. 2026-01-29 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 15: A Systematic Review of Integrated Management in Blueberry (Vaccinium spp.): Technological Innovation, Sustainability, and Practices in Propagation, Physiology, Agronomy, Harvest, and Postharvest

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6010015

Authors: David Alejandro Pinzon Gina Amado Jader Rodriguez Edwin Villagran

The cultivation of blueberry (Vaccinium spp.) has undergone an unprecedented global expansion, driven by its nutraceutical value and the diversification of production zones across the Americas, Europe, and Asia. Its consolidation as a strategic crop has prompted intensive scientific activity aimed at optimizing every stage of management from propagation and physiology to harvest, postharvest, and environmental sustainability. However, the available evidence remains fragmented, limiting the integration of results and the formulation of knowledge-based, comparative production strategies. The objective of this systematic review was to synthesize scientific and technological advances related to the integrated management of blueberry cultivation, incorporating physiological, agronomic, technological, and environmental dimensions. The PRISMA 2020 methodology (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) was applied to ensure transparency and reproducibility in the search, selection, and analysis of scientific literature indexed in the Scopus database. After screening, 367 articles met the inclusion criteria and were analyzed comparatively and thematically. The results reveal significant progress in propagation using hydrogel and micropropagation techniques, efficient fertigation practices, and the integration of climate control operations within greenhouses, leading to improved yield and fruit quality. Likewise, non-thermal technologies, edible coatings, and harvest automation enhance postharvest quality and reduce losses. In terms of sustainability, the incorporation of water reuse and waste biorefinery has emerged as key strategies to reduce the environmental footprint and promote circular systems. Among the main limitations are the lack of methodological standardization, the scarce economic evaluation of innovations, and the weak linkage between experimental and commercial scales. It is concluded that integrating physiology, technology, and sustainability within a unified management framework is essential to consolidate a resilient, low-carbon, and technologically advanced fruit-growing system.

]]> A Systematic Review of Integrated Management in Blueberry (Vaccinium spp.): Technological Innovation, Sustainability, and Practices in Propagation, Physiology, Agronomy, Harvest, and Postharvest David Alejandro Pinzon Gina Amado Jader Rodriguez Edwin Villagran doi: 10.3390/crops6010015 Crops 2026-01-29 Crops 2026-01-29 6 1 Systematic Review 15 10.3390/crops6010015 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/15 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 14: Effects of Black Point on Wheat Seed Mass and Seedling Growth https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/14 Black point (BP) and Fusarium-damaged kernels are common disorders affecting wheat grains worldwide. While the negative impact of Fusarium head blight (FHB) on yield and grain quality is well established, the biological significance of BP remains debated. This study evaluated the effects of BP on yield-related traits and seedling performance of winter wheat and compared them with the effects of FHB. Four winter wheat cultivars (Mercedes, Adina, Steffi, and LG Mocca) were examined under field and laboratory conditions. Fusarium infection was induced by artificial inoculation with Fusarium culmorum, whereas BP was assessed under natural field conditions using non-inoculated control plants. Fusarium infection significantly reduced thousand-grain weight (up to 46%) and grain number per ear (up to 35%). In contrast, BP was not associated with yield reduction. Grain with BP symptoms showed a 10–30% higher thousand-grain weight compared with BP-free grain. Seedlings originating from BP-affected seeds exhibited equal or improved biometric traits and a higher vigor index. Phytopathological analysis showed that Alternaria spp. dominated the endophytic mycoflora of both BP-affected and BP-free seeds. These results indicate that, under the conditions of this study, BP did not negatively affect wheat yield or seedling vigor and differed fundamentally from the damaging effects of FHB, highlighting the importance of distinguishing BP from Fusarium-related damage in wheat production. 2026-01-23 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 14: Effects of Black Point on Wheat Seed Mass and Seedling Growth

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6010014

Authors: Lesia Golosna Jana Chrpova Jana Palicova Milos Faltus Olena Bobrova

Black point (BP) and Fusarium-damaged kernels are common disorders affecting wheat grains worldwide. While the negative impact of Fusarium head blight (FHB) on yield and grain quality is well established, the biological significance of BP remains debated. This study evaluated the effects of BP on yield-related traits and seedling performance of winter wheat and compared them with the effects of FHB. Four winter wheat cultivars (Mercedes, Adina, Steffi, and LG Mocca) were examined under field and laboratory conditions. Fusarium infection was induced by artificial inoculation with Fusarium culmorum, whereas BP was assessed under natural field conditions using non-inoculated control plants. Fusarium infection significantly reduced thousand-grain weight (up to 46%) and grain number per ear (up to 35%). In contrast, BP was not associated with yield reduction. Grain with BP symptoms showed a 10–30% higher thousand-grain weight compared with BP-free grain. Seedlings originating from BP-affected seeds exhibited equal or improved biometric traits and a higher vigor index. Phytopathological analysis showed that Alternaria spp. dominated the endophytic mycoflora of both BP-affected and BP-free seeds. These results indicate that, under the conditions of this study, BP did not negatively affect wheat yield or seedling vigor and differed fundamentally from the damaging effects of FHB, highlighting the importance of distinguishing BP from Fusarium-related damage in wheat production.

]]> Effects of Black Point on Wheat Seed Mass and Seedling Growth Lesia Golosna Jana Chrpova Jana Palicova Milos Faltus Olena Bobrova doi: 10.3390/crops6010014 Crops 2026-01-23 Crops 2026-01-23 6 1 Article 14 10.3390/crops6010014 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/14 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 13: Endophytic Bacteria from Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br Latex as Novel Biocontrol Agents Against Phytopathogens https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/13 Latex-producing plants harbor unique microbial communities that may play important roles in host defense; however, their diversity and biocontrol potential remain largely unexplored. Characterizing these communities provides opportunities to identify novel microbial-derived antifungal agents for sustainable crop protection. Bacterial strains were isolated from the latex of Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. and identified using 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Antifungal activity was evaluated against four phytopathogens: Fusarium graminearum, Colletotrichum musae, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, and Glomerella cingulata. Bioassay-guided fractionation, size-exclusion chromatography, SDS-PAGE, and LC-MS/MS were used to characterize antifungal proteins. Nine bacterial strains were isolated, including eight Bacillus spp. and one Enterococcus faecalis. Among them, Bacillus sp. AsL-2 exhibited the strongest broad-spectrum antifungal activity, inhibiting fungal growth by up to 80%. The antifungal activity of its crude extract remained stable over a wide temperature range. Further characterization identified a novel endo-β-1,3-1,4-glucanase enzyme (~23 kDa) as the major antifungal protein. This study reveals A. scholaris latex as an underexplored microbial niche and identifies Bacillus sp. AsL-2, affiliated with the B. velezensis–B. amyloliquefaciens species complex, as a promising biocontrol candidate. The identified antifungal enzyme represents a potential natural alternative to synthetic fungicides for sustainable agricultural disease management. 2026-01-14 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 13: Endophytic Bacteria from Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br Latex as Novel Biocontrol Agents Against Phytopathogens

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6010013

Authors: Sabiha Ramadani Douglas J. H. Shyu Endrika Widyastuti Christoper Caesar Yudho Sutopo Jue-Liang Hsu

Latex-producing plants harbor unique microbial communities that may play important roles in host defense; however, their diversity and biocontrol potential remain largely unexplored. Characterizing these communities provides opportunities to identify novel microbial-derived antifungal agents for sustainable crop protection. Bacterial strains were isolated from the latex of Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. and identified using 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Antifungal activity was evaluated against four phytopathogens: Fusarium graminearum, Colletotrichum musae, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, and Glomerella cingulata. Bioassay-guided fractionation, size-exclusion chromatography, SDS-PAGE, and LC-MS/MS were used to characterize antifungal proteins. Nine bacterial strains were isolated, including eight Bacillus spp. and one Enterococcus faecalis. Among them, Bacillus sp. AsL-2 exhibited the strongest broad-spectrum antifungal activity, inhibiting fungal growth by up to 80%. The antifungal activity of its crude extract remained stable over a wide temperature range. Further characterization identified a novel endo-β-1,3-1,4-glucanase enzyme (~23 kDa) as the major antifungal protein. This study reveals A. scholaris latex as an underexplored microbial niche and identifies Bacillus sp. AsL-2, affiliated with the B. velezensis–B. amyloliquefaciens species complex, as a promising biocontrol candidate. The identified antifungal enzyme represents a potential natural alternative to synthetic fungicides for sustainable agricultural disease management.

]]> Endophytic Bacteria from Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br Latex as Novel Biocontrol Agents Against Phytopathogens Sabiha Ramadani Douglas J. H. Shyu Endrika Widyastuti Christoper Caesar Yudho Sutopo Jue-Liang Hsu doi: 10.3390/crops6010013 Crops 2026-01-14 Crops 2026-01-14 6 1 Article 13 10.3390/crops6010013 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/13 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 12: In Vitro Leaf-Based Method for Agrobacterium-Mediated Genetic Transformation of Sugar Beet https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/12 Sugar beet, one of the most important natural sources of sugars in the world, is well known as a recalcitrant crop for genetic transformation. In the present study, several key components of Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of sugar beet have been studied. The correct choice of explant and plant regeneration potential of domestic breeding lines was evaluated; however, most attention was paid to the search for the most efficient selectable marker gene and selection agents. To produce transgenic plants, we applied a method based on the agrobacterial inoculation of wounded morphogenic structures previously initiated on in vitro cultivated leaves. Four selective marker genes conferring antibiotic or herbicide resistance were evaluated. In the case of selection using kanamycin or G418 (nptII gene controlled by the nos promoter), no transgenic plants were obtained, while the addition of the aminoglycoside antibiotic hygromycin (hpt gene, driven by the nos promoter) to the medium ensured the successful production of transgenic plants from three breeding lines with a frequency ranging from 1.5 to 5.1%. The selection of transgenic tissues using herbicides such as phosphinothricin and glyphosate after transformation with the bar and cp4-epsps genes (both controlled by the CaMV 35S promoter) also ensured the obtaining of transgenic plants, but the transformation efficiency was significantly low, reaching only 1.0 and 0.4%, respectively. Primary transgenic sugar beet plants grown in the greenhouse demonstrated enhanced resistance to herbicides in dosages commonly used in the field. In addition, after self-pollination of the primary T0 transgenic lines, homozygous T2 offspring were successfully selected, which demonstrated stable resistance to glyphosate due to the constitutive expression of the introduced cp4-epsps gene. 2026-01-13 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 12: In Vitro Leaf-Based Method for Agrobacterium-Mediated Genetic Transformation of Sugar Beet

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6010012

Authors: Dmitry N. Miroshnichenko Anna Klementyeva Lilia Mourenets Alexander S. Pushin Aleksey P. Firsov Sergey V. Dolgov

Sugar beet, one of the most important natural sources of sugars in the world, is well known as a recalcitrant crop for genetic transformation. In the present study, several key components of Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of sugar beet have been studied. The correct choice of explant and plant regeneration potential of domestic breeding lines was evaluated; however, most attention was paid to the search for the most efficient selectable marker gene and selection agents. To produce transgenic plants, we applied a method based on the agrobacterial inoculation of wounded morphogenic structures previously initiated on in vitro cultivated leaves. Four selective marker genes conferring antibiotic or herbicide resistance were evaluated. In the case of selection using kanamycin or G418 (nptII gene controlled by the nos promoter), no transgenic plants were obtained, while the addition of the aminoglycoside antibiotic hygromycin (hpt gene, driven by the nos promoter) to the medium ensured the successful production of transgenic plants from three breeding lines with a frequency ranging from 1.5 to 5.1%. The selection of transgenic tissues using herbicides such as phosphinothricin and glyphosate after transformation with the bar and cp4-epsps genes (both controlled by the CaMV 35S promoter) also ensured the obtaining of transgenic plants, but the transformation efficiency was significantly low, reaching only 1.0 and 0.4%, respectively. Primary transgenic sugar beet plants grown in the greenhouse demonstrated enhanced resistance to herbicides in dosages commonly used in the field. In addition, after self-pollination of the primary T0 transgenic lines, homozygous T2 offspring were successfully selected, which demonstrated stable resistance to glyphosate due to the constitutive expression of the introduced cp4-epsps gene.

]]> In Vitro Leaf-Based Method for Agrobacterium-Mediated Genetic Transformation of Sugar Beet Dmitry N. Miroshnichenko Anna Klementyeva Lilia Mourenets Alexander S. Pushin Aleksey P. Firsov Sergey V. Dolgov doi: 10.3390/crops6010012 Crops 2026-01-13 Crops 2026-01-13 6 1 Article 12 10.3390/crops6010012 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/12 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 11: Effect of Two Calcium Levels and a Chicken Manure-Based Soil Amendment on Tomato Hybrid Performance https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/11 Calcium (Ca) is essential for tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) fruit quality and for preventing physiological disorders such as blossom-end rot. However, high total soil Ca does not necessarily translate into plant-available Ca due to factors such as soil pH and limited mobility. This study evaluated soil Ca availability and the effect of a chicken manure-based soil amendment on the growth and yield of four tomato genotypes (Pony Express F1, Palomo F1, Toro F1, and Perseo F1) grown on a loam–clay–sand soil containing 4886 ppm Ca. In the first cycle, conducted in a shade house, two Ca application levels (0% and 25% of the crop’s requirement) were tested. The 0% treatment outperformed the 25% treatment regarding yield-related traits, indicating that native soil Ca met crop demand; application of 25% Ca reduced total fruit weight and fruit number by 19.7% and 5.9%, respectively, while the 0% treatment produced 40.8% more first-quality fruits. Perseo F1 (Perseo) produced the highest yield of first-quality fruits (20.61 t ha−1), exceeding Pony Express F1 (Pony express), Palomo F1 (Palomo), and Toro F1 (Toro) by 10.8%, 6.6%, and 51.4%, respectively. In a second cycle under open-field conditions, incorporation of the chicken manure amendment significantly enhanced growth and yield: treated plants reached a 0.85 m height 58 days after transplanting, and overall yield increased to 70.08 t ha−1 compared with 50.30 t ha−1 in the control (21.9% increase). These results indicate that, while native soil Ca can satisfy crop requirements under the studied conditions, soil amendment under field conditions substantially improves plant performance and commercial yield potential. 2026-01-08 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 11: Effect of Two Calcium Levels and a Chicken Manure-Based Soil Amendment on Tomato Hybrid Performance

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6010011

Authors: Carlos David Carretillo Moctezuma Abraham Francisco Aponte Herrera José Terrones Salgado Edgar Pérez Arriaga Flaviano Godínez-Jaimes María Guzmán Martínez José Francisco Díaz-Nájera Ramón Reyes Carreto José C. García-Preciado Juan Antonio Chamú-Baranda

Calcium (Ca) is essential for tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) fruit quality and for preventing physiological disorders such as blossom-end rot. However, high total soil Ca does not necessarily translate into plant-available Ca due to factors such as soil pH and limited mobility. This study evaluated soil Ca availability and the effect of a chicken manure-based soil amendment on the growth and yield of four tomato genotypes (Pony Express F1, Palomo F1, Toro F1, and Perseo F1) grown on a loam–clay–sand soil containing 4886 ppm Ca. In the first cycle, conducted in a shade house, two Ca application levels (0% and 25% of the crop’s requirement) were tested. The 0% treatment outperformed the 25% treatment regarding yield-related traits, indicating that native soil Ca met crop demand; application of 25% Ca reduced total fruit weight and fruit number by 19.7% and 5.9%, respectively, while the 0% treatment produced 40.8% more first-quality fruits. Perseo F1 (Perseo) produced the highest yield of first-quality fruits (20.61 t ha−1), exceeding Pony Express F1 (Pony express), Palomo F1 (Palomo), and Toro F1 (Toro) by 10.8%, 6.6%, and 51.4%, respectively. In a second cycle under open-field conditions, incorporation of the chicken manure amendment significantly enhanced growth and yield: treated plants reached a 0.85 m height 58 days after transplanting, and overall yield increased to 70.08 t ha−1 compared with 50.30 t ha−1 in the control (21.9% increase). These results indicate that, while native soil Ca can satisfy crop requirements under the studied conditions, soil amendment under field conditions substantially improves plant performance and commercial yield potential.

]]> Effect of Two Calcium Levels and a Chicken Manure-Based Soil Amendment on Tomato Hybrid Performance Carlos David Carretillo Moctezuma Abraham Francisco Aponte Herrera José Terrones Salgado Edgar Pérez Arriaga Flaviano Godínez-Jaimes María Guzmán Martínez José Francisco Díaz-Nájera Ramón Reyes Carreto José C. García-Preciado Juan Antonio Chamú-Baranda doi: 10.3390/crops6010011 Crops 2026-01-08 Crops 2026-01-08 6 1 Article 11 10.3390/crops6010011 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/11 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 10: Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid Application Methods for Sustainable Improvement of Plant Performance Under Abiotic Stress: A Review https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/10 Drought, high temperature, salinity, waterlogging, and nutrient deficiency, along with metal toxicity, are among the environmental factors that have resulted in much alteration of many ecosystems by climate change. Such stresses have dramatically lowered the global average human harvest of core crops, which, in turn, has driven an overall decrease in worldwide agricultural productivity. Plants have developed a variety of defense strategies against biotic and abiotic stress. Evidence of the successful roles of phytohormone-like neurotransmitters in ameliorating the response to stress has already been established. One neurotransmitter accumulated by the plants is gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), a non-protein amino acid that is essential for signaling in plant growth regulation and development via the control of physiological and biochemical processes. Plant tissues demonstrate rapid accumulation of GABA when exposed to various abiotic stresses. Consequently, it is imperative to understand how this accumulation affects the resistance and productivity of crops in challenging environmental conditions. Previously, different application methods and doses of GABA on different plant species were used under various abiotic stress conditions. The research findings exhibited that the method and concentration of GABA depend on the type of crop. Furthermore, the GABA dose depends on the methods of GABA application. The present review summarizes the potential doses and methods of applications of GABA under different abiotic stress conditions to ameliorate deficiencies in plant growth, yield, and stress tolerance through the avoidance of oxidative damage and maintenance of cell organelle structures. This review will also describe the complex mechanism by which GABA contributes to the attenuation of the effects of abiotic stresses by regulating some important physiological, molecular, and biochemical processes in crops. 2026-01-06 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 10: Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid Application Methods for Sustainable Improvement of Plant Performance Under Abiotic Stress: A Review

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6010010

Authors: Shara Salih Ali Nawroz Abdul-razzak Tahir

Drought, high temperature, salinity, waterlogging, and nutrient deficiency, along with metal toxicity, are among the environmental factors that have resulted in much alteration of many ecosystems by climate change. Such stresses have dramatically lowered the global average human harvest of core crops, which, in turn, has driven an overall decrease in worldwide agricultural productivity. Plants have developed a variety of defense strategies against biotic and abiotic stress. Evidence of the successful roles of phytohormone-like neurotransmitters in ameliorating the response to stress has already been established. One neurotransmitter accumulated by the plants is gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), a non-protein amino acid that is essential for signaling in plant growth regulation and development via the control of physiological and biochemical processes. Plant tissues demonstrate rapid accumulation of GABA when exposed to various abiotic stresses. Consequently, it is imperative to understand how this accumulation affects the resistance and productivity of crops in challenging environmental conditions. Previously, different application methods and doses of GABA on different plant species were used under various abiotic stress conditions. The research findings exhibited that the method and concentration of GABA depend on the type of crop. Furthermore, the GABA dose depends on the methods of GABA application. The present review summarizes the potential doses and methods of applications of GABA under different abiotic stress conditions to ameliorate deficiencies in plant growth, yield, and stress tolerance through the avoidance of oxidative damage and maintenance of cell organelle structures. This review will also describe the complex mechanism by which GABA contributes to the attenuation of the effects of abiotic stresses by regulating some important physiological, molecular, and biochemical processes in crops.

]]> Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid Application Methods for Sustainable Improvement of Plant Performance Under Abiotic Stress: A Review Shara Salih Ali Nawroz Abdul-razzak Tahir doi: 10.3390/crops6010010 Crops 2026-01-06 Crops 2026-01-06 6 1 Review 10 10.3390/crops6010010 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/10 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 9: Comparative Assessment of Verticillium dahliae Tolerance in 77 Olive Cultivars https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/9 Verticillium wilt of olive (VWO), caused by the vascular soilborne fungus Verticillium dahliae, is one of the most devastating diseases of olive cultivation in the Mediterranean area. The adoption of tolerant genotypes is considered an efficient strategy to reduce its impact in the absence of effective chemical control. In the present study we assessed the response of seventy-seven olive cultivars (Olea europaea L.) to the defoliating pathotype of V. dahliae under controlled inoculation conditions. Five plants per cultivar were inoculated and compared with non-inoculated controls. Disease progression was monitored weekly for ten weeks and measured through three complementary parameters: Relative Area Under the Disease Progress Curve (RAUDPC), Final Mean Severity (FMS), and Percentage of Dead Plants (PDP). Statistical analyses, including ANOVA followed by Tukey’s HSD, correlation evaluation, and principal component analysis (PCA), were applied to classify cultivars into five susceptibility classes. Notable variability was observed among cultivars, with 7.8% classified as Highly Resistant (HR), 24.7% as Resistant (R), 46.8% as Moderately Susceptible (MS), and 20.8% as Susceptible (S) or Extremely susceptible (E). The cultivar Ghiacciolo showed the highest level of tolerance, displaying only slight symptoms and no statistically significant difference from the non-inoculated control, whereas ‘Carbuncion’, ‘Giogolino’, and ‘Pampagliosa’ exhibited more severe disease than the susceptible reference ‘Picual’. Strong correlations among RAUDPC, FMS, and PDP confirmed the consistency of the disease assessment framework, while PCA revealed distinct clustering patterns according to resistance level. Overall, these findings provide reliable evidence for the selection of olive cultivars suitable for areas vulnerable to V. dahliae. 2026-01-04 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 9: Comparative Assessment of Verticillium dahliae Tolerance in 77 Olive Cultivars

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6010009

Authors: Veronica Vizzarri Annamaria Ienco Ilaria De Rose Luca Lombardo Gianluca Godino Enzo Perri Francesca Polizzo

Verticillium wilt of olive (VWO), caused by the vascular soilborne fungus Verticillium dahliae, is one of the most devastating diseases of olive cultivation in the Mediterranean area. The adoption of tolerant genotypes is considered an efficient strategy to reduce its impact in the absence of effective chemical control. In the present study we assessed the response of seventy-seven olive cultivars (Olea europaea L.) to the defoliating pathotype of V. dahliae under controlled inoculation conditions. Five plants per cultivar were inoculated and compared with non-inoculated controls. Disease progression was monitored weekly for ten weeks and measured through three complementary parameters: Relative Area Under the Disease Progress Curve (RAUDPC), Final Mean Severity (FMS), and Percentage of Dead Plants (PDP). Statistical analyses, including ANOVA followed by Tukey’s HSD, correlation evaluation, and principal component analysis (PCA), were applied to classify cultivars into five susceptibility classes. Notable variability was observed among cultivars, with 7.8% classified as Highly Resistant (HR), 24.7% as Resistant (R), 46.8% as Moderately Susceptible (MS), and 20.8% as Susceptible (S) or Extremely susceptible (E). The cultivar Ghiacciolo showed the highest level of tolerance, displaying only slight symptoms and no statistically significant difference from the non-inoculated control, whereas ‘Carbuncion’, ‘Giogolino’, and ‘Pampagliosa’ exhibited more severe disease than the susceptible reference ‘Picual’. Strong correlations among RAUDPC, FMS, and PDP confirmed the consistency of the disease assessment framework, while PCA revealed distinct clustering patterns according to resistance level. Overall, these findings provide reliable evidence for the selection of olive cultivars suitable for areas vulnerable to V. dahliae.

]]> Comparative Assessment of Verticillium dahliae Tolerance in 77 Olive Cultivars Veronica Vizzarri Annamaria Ienco Ilaria De Rose Luca Lombardo Gianluca Godino Enzo Perri Francesca Polizzo doi: 10.3390/crops6010009 Crops 2026-01-04 Crops 2026-01-04 6 1 Article 9 10.3390/crops6010009 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/9 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 8: Advances in Rice Agronomic Technologies in Latin America in the Face of Climate Change https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/8 Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is one of the most important crops globally. However, its production faces significant challenges due to climate change, reduced arable land, and increased demand. In this context, the present study conducted a systematic literature review (SLR) on technological advances in rice production in Latin America. Recognized scientific databases were consulted, and rigorous inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied to synthesize current knowledge on the subject. The results show that the main innovations include genetically improving varieties with greater resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses; implementing advanced water management techniques, such as intermittent irrigation; and applying biofertilizers and organic amendments to improve soil fertility. Additionally, precision agriculture tools, such as remote sensing and artificial intelligence-based modeling, have optimized crop monitoring and input efficiency. Brazil, Mexico, and Colombia are the main generators of rice production technologies in the region. Despite the progress made, challenges remain regarding the adoption of these innovations by producers, highlighting the need for comprehensive policies to facilitate technology transfer. This review establishes a foundation for researchers and policymakers interested in the sustainable development of rice production in Latin America. 2026-01-04 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 8: Advances in Rice Agronomic Technologies in Latin America in the Face of Climate Change

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6010008

Authors: Sergio Salgado-Velázquez Edwin Barrios-Gómez Leonardo Hernández-Aragón Pablo Ulises Hernández-Lara Fabiola Olvera-Rincón Dante Sumano-López Hector Daniel Inurreta-Aguirre David Julián Palma-Cancino

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is one of the most important crops globally. However, its production faces significant challenges due to climate change, reduced arable land, and increased demand. In this context, the present study conducted a systematic literature review (SLR) on technological advances in rice production in Latin America. Recognized scientific databases were consulted, and rigorous inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied to synthesize current knowledge on the subject. The results show that the main innovations include genetically improving varieties with greater resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses; implementing advanced water management techniques, such as intermittent irrigation; and applying biofertilizers and organic amendments to improve soil fertility. Additionally, precision agriculture tools, such as remote sensing and artificial intelligence-based modeling, have optimized crop monitoring and input efficiency. Brazil, Mexico, and Colombia are the main generators of rice production technologies in the region. Despite the progress made, challenges remain regarding the adoption of these innovations by producers, highlighting the need for comprehensive policies to facilitate technology transfer. This review establishes a foundation for researchers and policymakers interested in the sustainable development of rice production in Latin America.

]]> Advances in Rice Agronomic Technologies in Latin America in the Face of Climate Change Sergio Salgado-Velázquez Edwin Barrios-Gómez Leonardo Hernández-Aragón Pablo Ulises Hernández-Lara Fabiola Olvera-Rincón Dante Sumano-López Hector Daniel Inurreta-Aguirre David Julián Palma-Cancino doi: 10.3390/crops6010008 Crops 2026-01-04 Crops 2026-01-04 6 1 Review 8 10.3390/crops6010008 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/8 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 7: Native Cherimoya Trees with Commercial Potential from Southern Ecuador https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/7 The cherimoya is a plant resource of high genetic and economic value. However, in Ecuador, it remains poorly documented, particularly under the restrictive orographic and climatic conditions of the Andean region. The lack of information limits the use of native materials in breeding and conservation programs. Therefore, this study evaluated native cherimoya populations using standardized fruit quality descriptors to quantify existing variability and identify promising native morphotypes. Hierarchical clustering was used to identify groups with similar traits. PCA captured the characteristics of the fruits that contribute to variability, while the multi-character index determined the traits that contribute to fruit quality. Remarkable diversity in commercial attributes, including pulp yield, fruit weight, and sweetness–acidity balance, was identified. Clusters highlighted the morphotypes LMPB04, SUMB04, and PTA01, from Loja, Saraguro, and Paltas, respectively, as having the highest titratable acidity and fruit weight. In contrast, the multi-character index prioritized the pulp/seed and SS/TA ratio, identifying potential in EACAD01 and LYHA01 from Espíndola and Loja, respectively. These results demonstrated the existence of superior cherimoya individuals adapted to Andean conditions and provide a basis for developing high-quality, promising material that meets local and international market demands. 2026-01-04 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 7: Native Cherimoya Trees with Commercial Potential from Southern Ecuador

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6010007

Authors: Mirian Capa-Morocho Fernando Granja Marlene Molina-Müller Santiago C. Vásquez Santiago Erazo-Hurtado Alejandro Vaca Marlon Oswaldo Pineda-Escobar Guillermo Rogel Melissa A. Romero Diego Chamba-Zaragocin

The cherimoya is a plant resource of high genetic and economic value. However, in Ecuador, it remains poorly documented, particularly under the restrictive orographic and climatic conditions of the Andean region. The lack of information limits the use of native materials in breeding and conservation programs. Therefore, this study evaluated native cherimoya populations using standardized fruit quality descriptors to quantify existing variability and identify promising native morphotypes. Hierarchical clustering was used to identify groups with similar traits. PCA captured the characteristics of the fruits that contribute to variability, while the multi-character index determined the traits that contribute to fruit quality. Remarkable diversity in commercial attributes, including pulp yield, fruit weight, and sweetness–acidity balance, was identified. Clusters highlighted the morphotypes LMPB04, SUMB04, and PTA01, from Loja, Saraguro, and Paltas, respectively, as having the highest titratable acidity and fruit weight. In contrast, the multi-character index prioritized the pulp/seed and SS/TA ratio, identifying potential in EACAD01 and LYHA01 from Espíndola and Loja, respectively. These results demonstrated the existence of superior cherimoya individuals adapted to Andean conditions and provide a basis for developing high-quality, promising material that meets local and international market demands.

]]> Native Cherimoya Trees with Commercial Potential from Southern Ecuador Mirian Capa-Morocho Fernando Granja Marlene Molina-Müller Santiago C. Vásquez Santiago Erazo-Hurtado Alejandro Vaca Marlon Oswaldo Pineda-Escobar Guillermo Rogel Melissa A. Romero Diego Chamba-Zaragocin doi: 10.3390/crops6010007 Crops 2026-01-04 Crops 2026-01-04 6 1 Communication 7 10.3390/crops6010007 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/7 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 6: Occurrence and Management of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes in Mozambique: A Review https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/6 Plant-parasitic nematodes (PPNs) cause yield losses in various crops worldwide. Damage due to PPNs can be severe, causing billions of dollars of crop losses across the globe annually. Information about PPNs occurrence in Mozambique is limited. Based on the literature, twenty-five genera of PPNs have been reported to affect several economically important crops, including root-knot nematodes (RKNs, Meloidogyne spp.), Scutellonema spp., root-lesion nematodes (RLNs, Pratylenchus spp.), spiral nematodes (Helicotylenchus spp.), and the dagger nematode (Xiphinema spp.), which are commonly associated with crops such as banana (Musa spp.), cassava (Manihot esculenta), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), maize (Zea mays), sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum), and sunflower (Helianthus annuus). Dissemination of these nematodes is not yet fully understood, but the importation of plants, roots, rhizomes, and/or seeds likely contributes to the introduction and spread of PPNs. Although the implementation of PPN-mitigation strategies is crucial to crop production, their application is still limited in Mozambique, with quite a few reported uses of nematicides in the Manica and Maputo provinces. Therefore, adopting integrated management strategies that combine two or more practices, such as biological control, crop rotation, organic amendments, soil solarization, and, as a last resort, chemical nematicides, may be an option to effectively reduce the population of PPNs. This review gathers information on the occurrence and management of PPNs, as reported to date in Mozambique. 2025-12-29 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 6: Occurrence and Management of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes in Mozambique: A Review

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6010006

Authors: Joaquim Cuvaca Isabel Abrantes Carla Maleita Ivânia Esteves

Plant-parasitic nematodes (PPNs) cause yield losses in various crops worldwide. Damage due to PPNs can be severe, causing billions of dollars of crop losses across the globe annually. Information about PPNs occurrence in Mozambique is limited. Based on the literature, twenty-five genera of PPNs have been reported to affect several economically important crops, including root-knot nematodes (RKNs, Meloidogyne spp.), Scutellonema spp., root-lesion nematodes (RLNs, Pratylenchus spp.), spiral nematodes (Helicotylenchus spp.), and the dagger nematode (Xiphinema spp.), which are commonly associated with crops such as banana (Musa spp.), cassava (Manihot esculenta), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), maize (Zea mays), sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum), and sunflower (Helianthus annuus). Dissemination of these nematodes is not yet fully understood, but the importation of plants, roots, rhizomes, and/or seeds likely contributes to the introduction and spread of PPNs. Although the implementation of PPN-mitigation strategies is crucial to crop production, their application is still limited in Mozambique, with quite a few reported uses of nematicides in the Manica and Maputo provinces. Therefore, adopting integrated management strategies that combine two or more practices, such as biological control, crop rotation, organic amendments, soil solarization, and, as a last resort, chemical nematicides, may be an option to effectively reduce the population of PPNs. This review gathers information on the occurrence and management of PPNs, as reported to date in Mozambique.

]]> Occurrence and Management of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes in Mozambique: A Review Joaquim Cuvaca Isabel Abrantes Carla Maleita Ivânia Esteves doi: 10.3390/crops6010006 Crops 2025-12-29 Crops 2025-12-29 6 1 Review 6 10.3390/crops6010006 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/6 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 5: Advances in Polyploid Breeding of Cucurbitaceae Crops: From Polyploidy Research to Triploid Seedless Hybrid Breeding https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/5 This literature review systematizes current data on the development of triploid seedless hybrids in the Cucurbitaceae Juss family. The absence of seeds simplifies the consumption and industrial preparation of products from cucurbits. In addition, triploids showed larger plant habitus, field resistance to infections, extended shelf life, and higher fruit quality. Phenotypic differences in polyploids can stem from altered chromatin organization and gene regulation, as the nucleus must accommodate a doubled chromosome set. The triploid watermelon cultivation method developed in 1951 failed to gain traction among other crops in the gourd (Cucurbitaceae) family. The challenges of triploid seed production and use include the need for the development of tetraploid and diploid parental lines, as well as bypassing the problem of the low viability of tetraploid parent pollen and the issue of thick seed coats and underdeveloped embryos in triploids. The research findings presented in this review can be applied to the development of triploid seedless hybrids for other members of the Cucurbitaceae family. 2025-12-25 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 5: Advances in Polyploid Breeding of Cucurbitaceae Crops: From Polyploidy Research to Triploid Seedless Hybrid Breeding

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6010005

Authors: Alexey Ermolaev Maria Fomicheva Elena Domblides

This literature review systematizes current data on the development of triploid seedless hybrids in the Cucurbitaceae Juss family. The absence of seeds simplifies the consumption and industrial preparation of products from cucurbits. In addition, triploids showed larger plant habitus, field resistance to infections, extended shelf life, and higher fruit quality. Phenotypic differences in polyploids can stem from altered chromatin organization and gene regulation, as the nucleus must accommodate a doubled chromosome set. The triploid watermelon cultivation method developed in 1951 failed to gain traction among other crops in the gourd (Cucurbitaceae) family. The challenges of triploid seed production and use include the need for the development of tetraploid and diploid parental lines, as well as bypassing the problem of the low viability of tetraploid parent pollen and the issue of thick seed coats and underdeveloped embryos in triploids. The research findings presented in this review can be applied to the development of triploid seedless hybrids for other members of the Cucurbitaceae family.

]]> Advances in Polyploid Breeding of Cucurbitaceae Crops: From Polyploidy Research to Triploid Seedless Hybrid Breeding Alexey Ermolaev Maria Fomicheva Elena Domblides doi: 10.3390/crops6010005 Crops 2025-12-25 Crops 2025-12-25 6 1 Review 5 10.3390/crops6010005 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/5 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 4: Germplasm Pools for Quinoa Improvement https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/4 Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa, 2n = 4x = 36, AABB subgenomes) is a highly nutritious crop with the potential to diversify global diets and alleviate malnutrition. It is also adaptable for production in soils increasingly affected by salinization and water scarcity. Quinoa was domesticated and artificially selected as a crop within the Andes Mountains, the geographically isolated Mediterranean climate zone of coastal Chile, and along the northwestern fringe of the Argentine dry Pampas. In addition, there is now abundant information regarding the wild species that were its immediate ancestors and which should be viewed as its secondary and tertiary breeding gene pools. These same ancestors contributed to independent domestications of the other forms of “quinoa” in ancient Mesoamerica and eastern North America from a common AABB ancestor-species, C. berlandieri, known commonly as pitseed goosefoot (PG). This review explores the biogeography of the diploid and polyploid relatives of the AABB allotetraploid goosefoot complex (ATGC). The seven or more ecotypes of PG, including the South American taxon C. hircinum, or avian goosefoot (AG), contain broad genetic variability, and some can be used directly as crossing partners in making quinoa breeding populations. Of the extant diploid relatives, C. subglabrum (SMG) is most closely related to the original maternal subgenome A of PG, while C. suecicum (SWG) or C. ficifolium (FG) are most closely related to paternal subgenome B. These and the other AA and BB diploids are valuable model organisms for locating and modifying genes of interest and their expression, the ultimate goals being to increase quinoa’s yield potential, improve its nutritional attributes, explore value-adding industrial uses, and enhance quinoa’s already formidable mechanisms to resist environmental stresses. This review is an update on the current state of quinoa breeding, with an emphasis on the value of wild genetic resources for quinoa improvement. It provides a comprehensive review of the scientific literature for scientists interested in adding quinoa to their breeding program. 2025-12-23 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 4: Germplasm Pools for Quinoa Improvement

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6010004

Authors: Kayla B. Stephensen Sabrina M. Costa-Tártara Riley L. Roser David E. Jarvis Peter J. Maughan Eric N. Jellen

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa, 2n = 4x = 36, AABB subgenomes) is a highly nutritious crop with the potential to diversify global diets and alleviate malnutrition. It is also adaptable for production in soils increasingly affected by salinization and water scarcity. Quinoa was domesticated and artificially selected as a crop within the Andes Mountains, the geographically isolated Mediterranean climate zone of coastal Chile, and along the northwestern fringe of the Argentine dry Pampas. In addition, there is now abundant information regarding the wild species that were its immediate ancestors and which should be viewed as its secondary and tertiary breeding gene pools. These same ancestors contributed to independent domestications of the other forms of “quinoa” in ancient Mesoamerica and eastern North America from a common AABB ancestor-species, C. berlandieri, known commonly as pitseed goosefoot (PG). This review explores the biogeography of the diploid and polyploid relatives of the AABB allotetraploid goosefoot complex (ATGC). The seven or more ecotypes of PG, including the South American taxon C. hircinum, or avian goosefoot (AG), contain broad genetic variability, and some can be used directly as crossing partners in making quinoa breeding populations. Of the extant diploid relatives, C. subglabrum (SMG) is most closely related to the original maternal subgenome A of PG, while C. suecicum (SWG) or C. ficifolium (FG) are most closely related to paternal subgenome B. These and the other AA and BB diploids are valuable model organisms for locating and modifying genes of interest and their expression, the ultimate goals being to increase quinoa’s yield potential, improve its nutritional attributes, explore value-adding industrial uses, and enhance quinoa’s already formidable mechanisms to resist environmental stresses. This review is an update on the current state of quinoa breeding, with an emphasis on the value of wild genetic resources for quinoa improvement. It provides a comprehensive review of the scientific literature for scientists interested in adding quinoa to their breeding program.

]]> Germplasm Pools for Quinoa Improvement Kayla B. Stephensen Sabrina M. Costa-Tártara Riley L. Roser David E. Jarvis Peter J. Maughan Eric N. Jellen doi: 10.3390/crops6010004 Crops 2025-12-23 Crops 2025-12-23 6 1 Review 4 10.3390/crops6010004 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/4 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 3: Wood-Vinegar-Added Biochar as a Soil Conditioner Enhances Safflower Performance in the Brazilian Semi-Arid Northeast https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/3 Food security is threatened in the semiarid region of Brazil, which is susceptible to climate change and has low-fertility soils degraded by inadequate agricultural practices. This study aimed to evaluate safflower’s adaptation to the region and the benefits to the soil and crop of applying biochar and wood vinegar (WV). Biochar, pure or WV-added (Wv-biochar), was applied to the soil at doses of 3.0, 6.0, and 9.0 t ha−1. Determinations performed in three harvests of safflower were plant height, number of capitula per plant, number of seeds per capitulum, mass of 1000 seeds, seed yield, and oil content. The maximum safflower yields (1818.52 kg ha−1) and oil content (45.50%), and the average values of mass of 1000 seeds (35.55 g) were consistent with results reported in literature. Evidence of better performance of the variables under the effect of Wv-biochar than of pure biochar was observed, and, in general, the curves obtained showed quadratic behavior, with maximum values at intermediate doses. The seed yield and oil content achieved indicate that safflower is a promising crop for the region, particularly when more adapted genotypes and improved management practices are employed. The most pronounced effects on safflower production and oil content were observed at doses of 5 to 6 t ha−1 of Biochar and Wv-biochar, which are economical and sustainable alternatives due to their use of organic waste and the benefits they provide for soil and food security. 2025-12-23 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 3: Wood-Vinegar-Added Biochar as a Soil Conditioner Enhances Safflower Performance in the Brazilian Semi-Arid Northeast

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6010003

Authors: Wendy Mattos Andrade Teixeira de Souza Alexandre Santos Pimenta Neyton de Oliveira Miranda Juliana Espada Lichston Francisco das Chagas Gonçalves Priscila Lira de Medeiros Rafael Rodolfo de Melo Tatiane Kelly Barbosa de Azevedo

Food security is threatened in the semiarid region of Brazil, which is susceptible to climate change and has low-fertility soils degraded by inadequate agricultural practices. This study aimed to evaluate safflower’s adaptation to the region and the benefits to the soil and crop of applying biochar and wood vinegar (WV). Biochar, pure or WV-added (Wv-biochar), was applied to the soil at doses of 3.0, 6.0, and 9.0 t ha−1. Determinations performed in three harvests of safflower were plant height, number of capitula per plant, number of seeds per capitulum, mass of 1000 seeds, seed yield, and oil content. The maximum safflower yields (1818.52 kg ha−1) and oil content (45.50%), and the average values of mass of 1000 seeds (35.55 g) were consistent with results reported in literature. Evidence of better performance of the variables under the effect of Wv-biochar than of pure biochar was observed, and, in general, the curves obtained showed quadratic behavior, with maximum values at intermediate doses. The seed yield and oil content achieved indicate that safflower is a promising crop for the region, particularly when more adapted genotypes and improved management practices are employed. The most pronounced effects on safflower production and oil content were observed at doses of 5 to 6 t ha−1 of Biochar and Wv-biochar, which are economical and sustainable alternatives due to their use of organic waste and the benefits they provide for soil and food security.

]]> Wood-Vinegar-Added Biochar as a Soil Conditioner Enhances Safflower Performance in the Brazilian Semi-Arid Northeast Wendy Mattos Andrade Teixeira de Souza Alexandre Santos Pimenta Neyton de Oliveira Miranda Juliana Espada Lichston Francisco das Chagas Gonçalves Priscila Lira de Medeiros Rafael Rodolfo de Melo Tatiane Kelly Barbosa de Azevedo doi: 10.3390/crops6010003 Crops 2025-12-23 Crops 2025-12-23 6 1 Article 3 10.3390/crops6010003 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/3 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 2: Chemotypic Diversity, Antimicrobial Activities, and Molecular Docking Analysis of Essential Oils from Four Elsholtzia Species in Northern Vietnam https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/2 An ethnobotanical survey in the northern mountainous region of Vietnam identified four Elsholtzia species, E. blanda, E. ciliata, E. communis, and E. penduliflora, growing naturally above 1500 m and traditionally used by local ethnic communities to treat skin-related ailments. This study investigates their essential oil possible chemotypes, antimicrobial properties, and potential mechanisms of action through molecular docking. Essential oils obtained by steam distillation were analyzed using GC–MS. E. blanda (yield 1.17%) was characterized by high levels of 1,8-cineole (29.0%) and camphor (17.0%). E. ciliata (1.02%) represented a possible limonene-dominant chemotype (71.0%). E. communis (1.91%) contained an exceptionally high proportion of rosefuran oxide (86.2%), whereas E. penduliflora (0.91%) exhibited a pronounced 1,8-cineole chemotype (92.1%). All essential oils showed antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA and MRSA), Escherichia coli, and Candida albicans, with MIC values ranging from 0.4% to 3.2%. Except for E. ciliata against C. albicans, MBC/MIC and MFC/MIC ratios ≤ 4 indicated predominantly bactericidal or fungicidal effects. Molecular docking further identified nine of twenty-eight detected constituents as strong binders to microbial target proteins. These findings expand current knowledge on possible chemotypic diversity within the genus, particularly the discovery of a high-altitude limonene chemotype in E. ciliata and the identification of E. penduliflora as a rich natural source of 1,8-cineole. The convergence of chemical, biological, and in silico evidence supports the ethnomedicinal relevance of Elsholtzia species and highlights their potential as candidates for developing natural antimicrobial agents. 2025-12-23 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 2: Chemotypic Diversity, Antimicrobial Activities, and Molecular Docking Analysis of Essential Oils from Four Elsholtzia Species in Northern Vietnam

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6010002

Authors: Nguyen Quynh Chi Nguyen Thanh Tung Do Thi Bich Diep Do Thi Mai Dung Nguyen Khac Tiep Do Hong Quang Hoang Quynh Hoa Oleh Koshovyi Hanh Dufat Ain Raal Do Quyen

An ethnobotanical survey in the northern mountainous region of Vietnam identified four Elsholtzia species, E. blanda, E. ciliata, E. communis, and E. penduliflora, growing naturally above 1500 m and traditionally used by local ethnic communities to treat skin-related ailments. This study investigates their essential oil possible chemotypes, antimicrobial properties, and potential mechanisms of action through molecular docking. Essential oils obtained by steam distillation were analyzed using GC–MS. E. blanda (yield 1.17%) was characterized by high levels of 1,8-cineole (29.0%) and camphor (17.0%). E. ciliata (1.02%) represented a possible limonene-dominant chemotype (71.0%). E. communis (1.91%) contained an exceptionally high proportion of rosefuran oxide (86.2%), whereas E. penduliflora (0.91%) exhibited a pronounced 1,8-cineole chemotype (92.1%). All essential oils showed antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA and MRSA), Escherichia coli, and Candida albicans, with MIC values ranging from 0.4% to 3.2%. Except for E. ciliata against C. albicans, MBC/MIC and MFC/MIC ratios ≤ 4 indicated predominantly bactericidal or fungicidal effects. Molecular docking further identified nine of twenty-eight detected constituents as strong binders to microbial target proteins. These findings expand current knowledge on possible chemotypic diversity within the genus, particularly the discovery of a high-altitude limonene chemotype in E. ciliata and the identification of E. penduliflora as a rich natural source of 1,8-cineole. The convergence of chemical, biological, and in silico evidence supports the ethnomedicinal relevance of Elsholtzia species and highlights their potential as candidates for developing natural antimicrobial agents.

]]> Chemotypic Diversity, Antimicrobial Activities, and Molecular Docking Analysis of Essential Oils from Four Elsholtzia Species in Northern Vietnam Nguyen Quynh Chi Nguyen Thanh Tung Do Thi Bich Diep Do Thi Mai Dung Nguyen Khac Tiep Do Hong Quang Hoang Quynh Hoa Oleh Koshovyi Hanh Dufat Ain Raal Do Quyen doi: 10.3390/crops6010002 Crops 2025-12-23 Crops 2025-12-23 6 1 Article 2 10.3390/crops6010002 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/2 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 1: The Water Efficiency and Productivity of Forage Maize (Zea mays L.) in a Semi-Arid Region Under Different Humidity, Nitrogen, and Substrate Levels https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/1 The Lagunera Region, located in northern Mexico, is home to the country’s most important dairy basin, situated in a semi-arid environment. In this region, forage corn (Zea mays L.) is the main input in dairy cattle feed. In this context, optimizing water use and nitrogen nutrition is a priority to ensure the sustainability of this activity. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the productivity and water use efficiency of forage corn under different humidity, nitrogen, and substrate type levels. A randomized block design with sub-subdivided plots was used. The larger plot contained two usable moisture levels (80 and 50%); the subplots were assigned according to three nitrogen levels: 13.6 (N1), 6.8 (N2), and control 0.35 (N3) NO3 mmol·L−1; the sub-subplots were assigned based on two substrates: sand and a mixture (MI) of sand, perlite, and peat moss. The results showed significant triple interactions (p < 0.05) in the root volume traits, where nitrogen played a determining role, as well as double interactions (Nutrition*Substrate) for all vegetative and radicle production variables and water use efficiency. Principal components analysis explained 91.4% of the total observed variation, where basal diameter had the vector with the highest load value. Cluster analysis identified that the main discriminant factor was nutrition. It is concluded that usable moisture levels up to 50% with 6.8 mmol·L−1 of NO3 show acceptable levels of vegetative production and root volume in forage corn. These results suggest the possibility of reducing water and nitrogen fertilizer consumption without compromising yield, with significant economic and environmental benefits for agriculture in arid and semi-arid regions. 2025-12-22 Crops, Vol. 6, Pages 1: The Water Efficiency and Productivity of Forage Maize (Zea mays L.) in a Semi-Arid Region Under Different Humidity, Nitrogen, and Substrate Levels

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops6010001

Authors: Antonio Anaya-Salgado Abel Quevedo-Nolasco Martín Alejandro Bolaños-González Jorge Flores-Velázquez Arturo Reyes-González Saúl Santana-Espinoza Jorge Maltos-Buendía Juan Isidro Sánchez-Duarte Jorge Alonso Maldonado-Jaquez

The Lagunera Region, located in northern Mexico, is home to the country’s most important dairy basin, situated in a semi-arid environment. In this region, forage corn (Zea mays L.) is the main input in dairy cattle feed. In this context, optimizing water use and nitrogen nutrition is a priority to ensure the sustainability of this activity. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the productivity and water use efficiency of forage corn under different humidity, nitrogen, and substrate type levels. A randomized block design with sub-subdivided plots was used. The larger plot contained two usable moisture levels (80 and 50%); the subplots were assigned according to three nitrogen levels: 13.6 (N1), 6.8 (N2), and control 0.35 (N3) NO3 mmol·L−1; the sub-subplots were assigned based on two substrates: sand and a mixture (MI) of sand, perlite, and peat moss. The results showed significant triple interactions (p < 0.05) in the root volume traits, where nitrogen played a determining role, as well as double interactions (Nutrition*Substrate) for all vegetative and radicle production variables and water use efficiency. Principal components analysis explained 91.4% of the total observed variation, where basal diameter had the vector with the highest load value. Cluster analysis identified that the main discriminant factor was nutrition. It is concluded that usable moisture levels up to 50% with 6.8 mmol·L−1 of NO3 show acceptable levels of vegetative production and root volume in forage corn. These results suggest the possibility of reducing water and nitrogen fertilizer consumption without compromising yield, with significant economic and environmental benefits for agriculture in arid and semi-arid regions.

]]> The Water Efficiency and Productivity of Forage Maize (Zea mays L.) in a Semi-Arid Region Under Different Humidity, Nitrogen, and Substrate Levels Antonio Anaya-Salgado Abel Quevedo-Nolasco Martín Alejandro Bolaños-González Jorge Flores-Velázquez Arturo Reyes-González Saúl Santana-Espinoza Jorge Maltos-Buendía Juan Isidro Sánchez-Duarte Jorge Alonso Maldonado-Jaquez doi: 10.3390/crops6010001 Crops 2025-12-22 Crops 2025-12-22 6 1 Article 1 10.3390/crops6010001 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/6/1/1 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 92: Transcriptomic Analysis of Rice Varieties Under System of Rice Intensification (SRI) Management https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/6/92 The System of Rice Intensification which promotes agro-ecological practices like alternate wetting and drying (AWD) to enhance root growth and resource efficiency, relies on the genotypic capacity of rice varieties to undergo physiological adaptation. This study elucidates the molecular basis of such adaptation by investigating the transcriptomic profile of four rice varieties to continuous flooding (CF) and AWD at 50 days after transplanting. Our analysis revealed distinct, organ-specific acclimation strategies. Roots underwent extensive transcriptional reprogramming, underscoring their role as the primary site of plasticity. Under CF, a conserved response involving cell wall reinforcement was accompanied by variety-specific strategies, ranging from sustained growth to enhanced anaerobic metabolism. Under AWD, roots shifted toward water stress management, with varieties employing distinct defensive (e.g., diterpenoid biosynthesis) and metabolic programs. Associated transcription factors (TFs) enriched under CF included Dof and MYB, whereas bZIP, HSF, and WRKY factors predominated under AWD. In leaves, acclimation to AWD involved more targeted adjustments, including modulation of nitric oxide signaling and photoprotective pathways, regulated by TFs such as WRKY, NAC, and HSF. Varieties with robust TF responses, such as IR64 and Hitachi hatamochi, showed comprehensive regulatory shifts, while others exhibited more constrained profiles. Overall, this study provides a molecular framework for understanding variety-specific adaptation to SRI-relevant water management practices and identifies key TFs as promising candidates for breeding climate-resilient rice. 2025-12-18 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 92: Transcriptomic Analysis of Rice Varieties Under System of Rice Intensification (SRI) Management

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5060092

Authors: Nurtasbiyah Yusof Fumitaka Shiotsu Iain McTaggart Wanchana Aesomnuk Jonaliza L. Siangliw Samart Wanchana Kentaro Yano Kosuke Noborio

The System of Rice Intensification which promotes agro-ecological practices like alternate wetting and drying (AWD) to enhance root growth and resource efficiency, relies on the genotypic capacity of rice varieties to undergo physiological adaptation. This study elucidates the molecular basis of such adaptation by investigating the transcriptomic profile of four rice varieties to continuous flooding (CF) and AWD at 50 days after transplanting. Our analysis revealed distinct, organ-specific acclimation strategies. Roots underwent extensive transcriptional reprogramming, underscoring their role as the primary site of plasticity. Under CF, a conserved response involving cell wall reinforcement was accompanied by variety-specific strategies, ranging from sustained growth to enhanced anaerobic metabolism. Under AWD, roots shifted toward water stress management, with varieties employing distinct defensive (e.g., diterpenoid biosynthesis) and metabolic programs. Associated transcription factors (TFs) enriched under CF included Dof and MYB, whereas bZIP, HSF, and WRKY factors predominated under AWD. In leaves, acclimation to AWD involved more targeted adjustments, including modulation of nitric oxide signaling and photoprotective pathways, regulated by TFs such as WRKY, NAC, and HSF. Varieties with robust TF responses, such as IR64 and Hitachi hatamochi, showed comprehensive regulatory shifts, while others exhibited more constrained profiles. Overall, this study provides a molecular framework for understanding variety-specific adaptation to SRI-relevant water management practices and identifies key TFs as promising candidates for breeding climate-resilient rice.

]]> Transcriptomic Analysis of Rice Varieties Under System of Rice Intensification (SRI) Management Nurtasbiyah Yusof Fumitaka Shiotsu Iain McTaggart Wanchana Aesomnuk Jonaliza L. Siangliw Samart Wanchana Kentaro Yano Kosuke Noborio doi: 10.3390/crops5060092 Crops 2025-12-18 Crops 2025-12-18 5 6 Article 92 10.3390/crops5060092 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/6/92 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 91: Exploring Phenological and Agronomic Parameters of Greek Lentil Landraces for Developing Climate-Resilient Cultivars Adapted to Mediterranean Conditions https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/6/91 Lentil (Lens culinaris Medik. subsp. culinaris) is a Mediterranean legume crop of high value due to nutritional quality and adaptability; however, its cultivation is increasingly threatened due to climate uncertainty and reduction in genetic diversity in modern cultivars. The present research study evaluated 31 Greek lentil accessions (twenty-two landraces and nine commercial cultivars of both small and large seed types) in a semi-arid environment of Central Greece, over two cropping seasons, focusing on phenological, morphological, yield, and quality traits. The great diversity observed at the morpho-phenological and qualitative levels implies the high genotypic diversity of these genetic resources. Small-seeded landraces performed better in seed and biological yield, harvest index, and protein content, having greater phenological stability and tolerance to the Mediterranean environments. In particular, the highest seed yield was observed in LAX small-seeded landrace (1930 kg ha−1), followed by TSO (1559 kg ha−1), DIG (1449 kg ha−1), and EGL (1437 kg ha−1) small-seeded landraces. As for the regression analysis, seed yield was positively correlated with days to flowering (TF: r = 0.076, p < 0.01), plant height (PH: r = 0.143, p < 0.05), number of pods per plant (NPP: r = 0.941, p < 0.001), number of seeds per pod (NPP: r = 0.432, p < 0.001), number of branches (NPB: r = 0.234, p < 0.01), biological yield (BY: r = 0.683, p < 0.001), and harvest index (HI: r = 0.650, p < 0.001). Principal component analysis (PCA) distinguished small-seeded landraces associated with adaptive and yield traits from large-seeded cultivars associated with seed size. Greek lentil landraces, especially the small-seeded genotypes (e.g., LAX and DIG), have great potential for use in the development of climate-tolerant and high-yielding lentil varieties adapted for sustainable Mediterranean production. Breeding programs can target the crossing of landraces with large-seeded cultivars (e.g., IKAm and THEm) to develop varieties that combine stress tolerance, adaptation, and high productivity with adaptation to different seed sizes. Subsequent studies on drought tolerance and heat resistance are still important for continued improvement in lentil productivity in a changing climate. 2025-12-17 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 91: Exploring Phenological and Agronomic Parameters of Greek Lentil Landraces for Developing Climate-Resilient Cultivars Adapted to Mediterranean Conditions

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5060091

Authors: Iakovina Bakoulopoulou Ioannis Roussis Ioanna Kakabouki Evangelia Tigka Panteleimon Stavropoulos Antonios Mavroeidis Stella Karydogianni Dimitrios Bilalis Panayiota Papastylianou

Lentil (Lens culinaris Medik. subsp. culinaris) is a Mediterranean legume crop of high value due to nutritional quality and adaptability; however, its cultivation is increasingly threatened due to climate uncertainty and reduction in genetic diversity in modern cultivars. The present research study evaluated 31 Greek lentil accessions (twenty-two landraces and nine commercial cultivars of both small and large seed types) in a semi-arid environment of Central Greece, over two cropping seasons, focusing on phenological, morphological, yield, and quality traits. The great diversity observed at the morpho-phenological and qualitative levels implies the high genotypic diversity of these genetic resources. Small-seeded landraces performed better in seed and biological yield, harvest index, and protein content, having greater phenological stability and tolerance to the Mediterranean environments. In particular, the highest seed yield was observed in LAX small-seeded landrace (1930 kg ha−1), followed by TSO (1559 kg ha−1), DIG (1449 kg ha−1), and EGL (1437 kg ha−1) small-seeded landraces. As for the regression analysis, seed yield was positively correlated with days to flowering (TF: r = 0.076, p < 0.01), plant height (PH: r = 0.143, p < 0.05), number of pods per plant (NPP: r = 0.941, p < 0.001), number of seeds per pod (NPP: r = 0.432, p < 0.001), number of branches (NPB: r = 0.234, p < 0.01), biological yield (BY: r = 0.683, p < 0.001), and harvest index (HI: r = 0.650, p < 0.001). Principal component analysis (PCA) distinguished small-seeded landraces associated with adaptive and yield traits from large-seeded cultivars associated with seed size. Greek lentil landraces, especially the small-seeded genotypes (e.g., LAX and DIG), have great potential for use in the development of climate-tolerant and high-yielding lentil varieties adapted for sustainable Mediterranean production. Breeding programs can target the crossing of landraces with large-seeded cultivars (e.g., IKAm and THEm) to develop varieties that combine stress tolerance, adaptation, and high productivity with adaptation to different seed sizes. Subsequent studies on drought tolerance and heat resistance are still important for continued improvement in lentil productivity in a changing climate.

]]> Exploring Phenological and Agronomic Parameters of Greek Lentil Landraces for Developing Climate-Resilient Cultivars Adapted to Mediterranean Conditions Iakovina Bakoulopoulou Ioannis Roussis Ioanna Kakabouki Evangelia Tigka Panteleimon Stavropoulos Antonios Mavroeidis Stella Karydogianni Dimitrios Bilalis Panayiota Papastylianou doi: 10.3390/crops5060091 Crops 2025-12-17 Crops 2025-12-17 5 6 Article 91 10.3390/crops5060091 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/6/91 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 90: Performance of Maize Hybrids for Grain Yield Under Different Planting Arrangements https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/6/90 The aim of this study was to evaluate the agronomic performance of eight maize hybrids under different plant densities for grain yield in the North and Northwest regions of Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil. Maize productivity is strongly influenced by planting density, which affects light interception, resource competition, and grain yield. Understanding the optimal density for specific hybrids is essential to maximizing production under varying environmental conditions. The hybrids were evaluated in two locations (Campos dos Goytacazes and Itaocara) using four plant densities (50,000; 66,667; 83,333; and 100,000 plants ha−1). The experimental design was a randomized complete block with three replications in a split-plot arrangement. Traits evaluated included plant height, ear height, ear length and diameter, 100-grain weight, and grain yield. Planting density significantly affected ear length, ear diameter, 100-grain weight, and grain yield, with higher densities generally reducing morphological traits but increasing overall yield. No significant genotype × density interaction was detected, but some hybrids, such as UENF 506-16 and UENF 506-11, performed better at specific densities, standing out for productivity and economic return. These results indicate that increasing plant density can be an effective strategy for maximizing maize yield in the studied environments. 2025-12-12 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 90: Performance of Maize Hybrids for Grain Yield Under Different Planting Arrangements

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5060090

Authors: Vivane M. L. Gonçalves Izaias R. da Silva Jr. Renato S. Catarina Jocarla A. Crevelari Messias G. Pereira

The aim of this study was to evaluate the agronomic performance of eight maize hybrids under different plant densities for grain yield in the North and Northwest regions of Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil. Maize productivity is strongly influenced by planting density, which affects light interception, resource competition, and grain yield. Understanding the optimal density for specific hybrids is essential to maximizing production under varying environmental conditions. The hybrids were evaluated in two locations (Campos dos Goytacazes and Itaocara) using four plant densities (50,000; 66,667; 83,333; and 100,000 plants ha−1). The experimental design was a randomized complete block with three replications in a split-plot arrangement. Traits evaluated included plant height, ear height, ear length and diameter, 100-grain weight, and grain yield. Planting density significantly affected ear length, ear diameter, 100-grain weight, and grain yield, with higher densities generally reducing morphological traits but increasing overall yield. No significant genotype × density interaction was detected, but some hybrids, such as UENF 506-16 and UENF 506-11, performed better at specific densities, standing out for productivity and economic return. These results indicate that increasing plant density can be an effective strategy for maximizing maize yield in the studied environments.

]]> Performance of Maize Hybrids for Grain Yield Under Different Planting Arrangements Vivane M. L. Gonçalves Izaias R. da Silva Jr. Renato S. Catarina Jocarla A. Crevelari Messias G. Pereira doi: 10.3390/crops5060090 Crops 2025-12-12 Crops 2025-12-12 5 6 Article 90 10.3390/crops5060090 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/6/90 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 89: Effect of Cold Plasma Seed Treatment on Growth and Nitrogen Fixation Traits in Field Pea (Pisum sativum L.) and Soybean (Glycine max L.) Under Cold Stress https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/6/89 Cold stress during early growth can severely impact nodulation, growth, and yield in legumes. This study evaluated cold plasma (CP) seed treatment as a strategy to enhance growth and symbiotic nitrogen fixation (SNF) in field pea (Pisum sativum L.) and soybean (Glycine max L.) under cold stress during early growth. CP-treated and non-treated seeds were grown at 8 °C (cold) or 15 °C (control) for 5 weeks, after which half of the plants were harvested for nodulation and growth assessments. The remainder were transferred to greenhouse conditions until maturity. The cold stress suppressed nodulation and reduced biomass in both legumes. Soybean recovered under greenhouse conditions; however, pea yield remained suppressed. At maturity, SNF traits in both legumes were not significantly affected by early cold stress. CP seed treatment showed little effect under severe cold (8 °C) but at 15 °C, improved root growth in pea and enhanced root and shoot biomass and pod and seed yield in soybean. These findings suggest that CP seed treatment can improve legume performance under moderate cold. However, the current CP seed treatment conditions did not improve the stress resistance of both crops under severe cold stress. 2025-12-05 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 89: Effect of Cold Plasma Seed Treatment on Growth and Nitrogen Fixation Traits in Field Pea (Pisum sativum L.) and Soybean (Glycine max L.) Under Cold Stress

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5060089

Authors: Dhanuja N. Abeysingha Surangi H. Thilakarathna Shifa Dinesh M. S. Roopesh Malinda S. Thilakarathna

Cold stress during early growth can severely impact nodulation, growth, and yield in legumes. This study evaluated cold plasma (CP) seed treatment as a strategy to enhance growth and symbiotic nitrogen fixation (SNF) in field pea (Pisum sativum L.) and soybean (Glycine max L.) under cold stress during early growth. CP-treated and non-treated seeds were grown at 8 °C (cold) or 15 °C (control) for 5 weeks, after which half of the plants were harvested for nodulation and growth assessments. The remainder were transferred to greenhouse conditions until maturity. The cold stress suppressed nodulation and reduced biomass in both legumes. Soybean recovered under greenhouse conditions; however, pea yield remained suppressed. At maturity, SNF traits in both legumes were not significantly affected by early cold stress. CP seed treatment showed little effect under severe cold (8 °C) but at 15 °C, improved root growth in pea and enhanced root and shoot biomass and pod and seed yield in soybean. These findings suggest that CP seed treatment can improve legume performance under moderate cold. However, the current CP seed treatment conditions did not improve the stress resistance of both crops under severe cold stress.

]]> Effect of Cold Plasma Seed Treatment on Growth and Nitrogen Fixation Traits in Field Pea (Pisum sativum L.) and Soybean (Glycine max L.) Under Cold Stress Dhanuja N. Abeysingha Surangi H. Thilakarathna Shifa Dinesh M. S. Roopesh Malinda S. Thilakarathna doi: 10.3390/crops5060089 Crops 2025-12-05 Crops 2025-12-05 5 6 Article 89 10.3390/crops5060089 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/6/89 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 88: Impact of Aphis fabae Scopoli Infestation on Biochemical and Physiological Stress Markers in Faba Bean (Vicia faba L.) https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/6/88 Vicia faba is an agriculturally and nutritionally important legume whose growth and productivity are strongly influenced by biotic stress factors. Understanding the mechanisms by which plants respond to stress is therefore essential for improving agricultural productivity and enabling the selection of stress-tolerant cultivars. This study evaluated whether biochemical and physiological parameters can serve as early indicators of stress induced by Aphis fabae infestation in young V. faba plants. Plants were exposed to two levels of aphid infestation (low- and high-stress) and compared with aphid-free controls. Low stress caused minimal alterations in antioxidant responses: catalase (CAT) activity increased by 9.9%, glutathione (GSH) content by 20%, and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels decreased by 17.6% relative to controls. Under high stress, oxidative damage and antioxidant activation were pronounced, with CAT activity rising 2.4-fold, GSH content increasing 2.6-fold, and MDA accumulating 2.6-fold compared to control plants. Superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities increased under both stress levels, though without large differences, while nitrate reductase (NR) activity showed non-significant variation. Proline accumulation remained largely unchanged, showing only a slight 13–15% increase relative to controls. Photosynthetic pigment analysis revealed that low stress reduced contents of chlorophyll a and total chlorophyll, while increasing contents of chlorophyll b and carotenoids. Stress markedly altered pigment balance, yielding a 25.4% higher chlorophyll a/b ratio compared with control plants. The results indicate that V. faba plants can tolerate low-intensity aphid stress with minimal biochemical disturbance, whereas high infestation elicits strong oxidative stress and significant physiological changes. The measured biochemical markers, particularly CAT, MDA, and GSH, proved sensitive to early stress onset, offering valuable tools for early detection of biotic stress before visible symptoms appear. The research contributes to a better understanding of plant responses to stress, enables early detection of stress factors affecting plant physiology, facilitates the assessment of their adaptive potential, and may aid in the development of strategies to improve faba bean resistance to pest infestations. This research enhances understanding of V. faba stress responses, enabling early detection of stress factors and assessment of the plant’s adaptive potential. The insights gained may support the development of strategies to improve faba bean resistance to pest infestations and contribute to more sustainable agricultural productivity. 2025-12-05 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 88: Impact of Aphis fabae Scopoli Infestation on Biochemical and Physiological Stress Markers in Faba Bean (Vicia faba L.)

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5060088

Authors: Svetlana M. Tošić Nataša Joković Jelena Vitorović Marijana Ilić Milošević Milica Stojković Nikola Jovanović

Vicia faba is an agriculturally and nutritionally important legume whose growth and productivity are strongly influenced by biotic stress factors. Understanding the mechanisms by which plants respond to stress is therefore essential for improving agricultural productivity and enabling the selection of stress-tolerant cultivars. This study evaluated whether biochemical and physiological parameters can serve as early indicators of stress induced by Aphis fabae infestation in young V. faba plants. Plants were exposed to two levels of aphid infestation (low- and high-stress) and compared with aphid-free controls. Low stress caused minimal alterations in antioxidant responses: catalase (CAT) activity increased by 9.9%, glutathione (GSH) content by 20%, and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels decreased by 17.6% relative to controls. Under high stress, oxidative damage and antioxidant activation were pronounced, with CAT activity rising 2.4-fold, GSH content increasing 2.6-fold, and MDA accumulating 2.6-fold compared to control plants. Superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities increased under both stress levels, though without large differences, while nitrate reductase (NR) activity showed non-significant variation. Proline accumulation remained largely unchanged, showing only a slight 13–15% increase relative to controls. Photosynthetic pigment analysis revealed that low stress reduced contents of chlorophyll a and total chlorophyll, while increasing contents of chlorophyll b and carotenoids. Stress markedly altered pigment balance, yielding a 25.4% higher chlorophyll a/b ratio compared with control plants. The results indicate that V. faba plants can tolerate low-intensity aphid stress with minimal biochemical disturbance, whereas high infestation elicits strong oxidative stress and significant physiological changes. The measured biochemical markers, particularly CAT, MDA, and GSH, proved sensitive to early stress onset, offering valuable tools for early detection of biotic stress before visible symptoms appear. The research contributes to a better understanding of plant responses to stress, enables early detection of stress factors affecting plant physiology, facilitates the assessment of their adaptive potential, and may aid in the development of strategies to improve faba bean resistance to pest infestations. This research enhances understanding of V. faba stress responses, enabling early detection of stress factors and assessment of the plant’s adaptive potential. The insights gained may support the development of strategies to improve faba bean resistance to pest infestations and contribute to more sustainable agricultural productivity.

]]> Impact of Aphis fabae Scopoli Infestation on Biochemical and Physiological Stress Markers in Faba Bean (Vicia faba L.) Svetlana M. Tošić Nataša Joković Jelena Vitorović Marijana Ilić Milošević Milica Stojković Nikola Jovanović doi: 10.3390/crops5060088 Crops 2025-12-05 Crops 2025-12-05 5 6 Communication 88 10.3390/crops5060088 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/6/88 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 87: Biotechnological Improvement of Nutri-Cereal Finger Millet: Current Status and Future Prospects https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/6/87 Climate change and widespread micronutrient deficiencies threaten food security in the semi-arid tropics. Finger millet (Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.) is a climate-resilient “nutri-cereal” rich in calcium, zinc, iron and dietary fiber. Finger millet is a promising crop for addressing climate stress and nutrient deficiencies. However, it remains under-explored and relatively neglected in breeding and genetic improvement programs compared to major cereals. This review synthesizes recent biotechnological advances and outlines future directions for finger millet improvement. Foundational resources now include a chromosome-scale reference genome, expanding transcriptome, diverse global germplasm panels, and growing reports of genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and quantitative trait loci (QTL) for key traits including yield, stress tolerance, blast resistance, and mineral contents. Tissue culture studies reported both somatic embryogenesis and direct regeneration. Stable genetic transformation has been achieved in finger millet via Agrobacterium-mediated methods, particularly using shoot apical meristem (SAM) and by biolistics (gene gun) methods. Genome editing has not yet been reported, but we propose a practical roadmap leveraging reported tissue culture genetic transformation protocols for applying the CRISPR/Cas system for trait improvements. Using new biotechnological methods, along with pangenome, speed breeding, and helpful microbiomes, will make finger millet a strong and reliable food source for the future. 2025-11-25 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 87: Biotechnological Improvement of Nutri-Cereal Finger Millet: Current Status and Future Prospects

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5060087

Authors: Stanislaus Antony Ceasar

Climate change and widespread micronutrient deficiencies threaten food security in the semi-arid tropics. Finger millet (Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.) is a climate-resilient “nutri-cereal” rich in calcium, zinc, iron and dietary fiber. Finger millet is a promising crop for addressing climate stress and nutrient deficiencies. However, it remains under-explored and relatively neglected in breeding and genetic improvement programs compared to major cereals. This review synthesizes recent biotechnological advances and outlines future directions for finger millet improvement. Foundational resources now include a chromosome-scale reference genome, expanding transcriptome, diverse global germplasm panels, and growing reports of genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and quantitative trait loci (QTL) for key traits including yield, stress tolerance, blast resistance, and mineral contents. Tissue culture studies reported both somatic embryogenesis and direct regeneration. Stable genetic transformation has been achieved in finger millet via Agrobacterium-mediated methods, particularly using shoot apical meristem (SAM) and by biolistics (gene gun) methods. Genome editing has not yet been reported, but we propose a practical roadmap leveraging reported tissue culture genetic transformation protocols for applying the CRISPR/Cas system for trait improvements. Using new biotechnological methods, along with pangenome, speed breeding, and helpful microbiomes, will make finger millet a strong and reliable food source for the future.

]]> Biotechnological Improvement of Nutri-Cereal Finger Millet: Current Status and Future Prospects Stanislaus Antony Ceasar doi: 10.3390/crops5060087 Crops 2025-11-25 Crops 2025-11-25 5 6 Review 87 10.3390/crops5060087 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/6/87 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 86: Effects of Row Spacing and Tropical Grass Intercropping on Biomass Sorghum Yield and Silage Quality https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/6/86 This study aimed to determine the optimal combination of forage grass and row spacing to maximize the balance between sorghum silage yield and quality in a simultaneous sowing system for integrated crop-livestock production. The experiment evaluated three cropping systems: biomass sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) in monoculture, and intercropped with Urochloa brizantha cv. Marandu and Megathyrsus maximus cv. BRS Zuri. These systems were tested under two row spacings: 45 cm and 90 cm. The field trial was conducted in Vicentina, Mato Grosso do Sul State, Brazil, using a randomized complete block design in a 3 × 2 factorial arrangement with four replications. Dry matter production, fermentative parameters, and chemical composition were measured. The 45 cm spacing provided higher productivity (23.1 t/ha of TDMY), while the intercropping with Zuri grass showed lower levels of NDF (73.46%) and ADF (49.61%), indicating better nutritional quality. The silages exhibited ideal pH (4.0–4.1) and low levels of butyric acid (<0.33%), with higher total digestible nutrients (TDN) (54.33%) at the 90 cm spacing. The Sorghum + Zuri (ZS) intercropping at the narrower spacing (45 cm) is viable for quality silage production, showing a better balance between overall chemical quality and biomass production. 2025-11-25 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 86: Effects of Row Spacing and Tropical Grass Intercropping on Biomass Sorghum Yield and Silage Quality

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5060086

Authors: Giuliano Reis Pereira Muglia Marco Antonio Previdelli Orrico Junior Isabele Paola de Oliveira Amaral Marciana Retore Gessí Ceccon Ana Carolina Amorim Orrico Pedro Henrique Felipe da Silva Yara América da Silva

This study aimed to determine the optimal combination of forage grass and row spacing to maximize the balance between sorghum silage yield and quality in a simultaneous sowing system for integrated crop-livestock production. The experiment evaluated three cropping systems: biomass sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) in monoculture, and intercropped with Urochloa brizantha cv. Marandu and Megathyrsus maximus cv. BRS Zuri. These systems were tested under two row spacings: 45 cm and 90 cm. The field trial was conducted in Vicentina, Mato Grosso do Sul State, Brazil, using a randomized complete block design in a 3 × 2 factorial arrangement with four replications. Dry matter production, fermentative parameters, and chemical composition were measured. The 45 cm spacing provided higher productivity (23.1 t/ha of TDMY), while the intercropping with Zuri grass showed lower levels of NDF (73.46%) and ADF (49.61%), indicating better nutritional quality. The silages exhibited ideal pH (4.0–4.1) and low levels of butyric acid (<0.33%), with higher total digestible nutrients (TDN) (54.33%) at the 90 cm spacing. The Sorghum + Zuri (ZS) intercropping at the narrower spacing (45 cm) is viable for quality silage production, showing a better balance between overall chemical quality and biomass production.

]]> Effects of Row Spacing and Tropical Grass Intercropping on Biomass Sorghum Yield and Silage Quality Giuliano Reis Pereira Muglia Marco Antonio Previdelli Orrico Junior Isabele Paola de Oliveira Amaral Marciana Retore Gessí Ceccon Ana Carolina Amorim Orrico Pedro Henrique Felipe da Silva Yara América da Silva doi: 10.3390/crops5060086 Crops 2025-11-25 Crops 2025-11-25 5 6 Article 86 10.3390/crops5060086 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/6/86 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 85: RGB-Derived Indices Accurately Detect Genotypic and Agronomic Differences in Canopy Variation in Durum Wheat https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/6/85 Durum wheat (Triticum turgidum ssp. durum) represents a strategic crop for the Mediterranean basin and global semiarid regions, being the raw material for pasta and a key component of sustainable cereal production. Improving early vigor and canopy development is essential to enhance resource-use efficiency and yield stability under variable agronomic conditions. For these reasons, we report the application of a series of RGB-derived vegetation indices (VIs) from Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAVs) to evaluate their effectiveness in capturing canopy variation in the early growth stages in a large collection of durum wheat varieties and on their validation under different agronomic managements. Digital RGB images from seedling emergence to grain filling were taken in two field experiments, and RGB-based indices were calculated over four consecutive growing seasons. In the first experiment, 521 durum wheat varieties were evaluated, showing highly significant genotypic differences for all VIs (p < 0.001) and explaining up to 72% of the phenotypic variance at the end of tillering. In addition, TGI explained more variation than CSI when recorded at the end of the tillering stage. In the second experiment, two contrasting genotypes managed under two sowing rates and six nitrogen (N) treatments displayed a strong discriminating capacity of NGRDI and TGI for genotype and sowing density (η2 = 0.50). These results highlight the potential use of RGB-derived VIs for high-throughput phenotypic selection of soil coverage ability in durum wheat, even under different agronomic conditions. 2025-11-19 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 85: RGB-Derived Indices Accurately Detect Genotypic and Agronomic Differences in Canopy Variation in Durum Wheat

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5060085

Authors: Fabio Fania Ivano Pecorella Elio Romano Patrizio Spadanuda Nicola Pecchioni Salvatore Esposito Pasquale De Vita

Durum wheat (Triticum turgidum ssp. durum) represents a strategic crop for the Mediterranean basin and global semiarid regions, being the raw material for pasta and a key component of sustainable cereal production. Improving early vigor and canopy development is essential to enhance resource-use efficiency and yield stability under variable agronomic conditions. For these reasons, we report the application of a series of RGB-derived vegetation indices (VIs) from Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAVs) to evaluate their effectiveness in capturing canopy variation in the early growth stages in a large collection of durum wheat varieties and on their validation under different agronomic managements. Digital RGB images from seedling emergence to grain filling were taken in two field experiments, and RGB-based indices were calculated over four consecutive growing seasons. In the first experiment, 521 durum wheat varieties were evaluated, showing highly significant genotypic differences for all VIs (p < 0.001) and explaining up to 72% of the phenotypic variance at the end of tillering. In addition, TGI explained more variation than CSI when recorded at the end of the tillering stage. In the second experiment, two contrasting genotypes managed under two sowing rates and six nitrogen (N) treatments displayed a strong discriminating capacity of NGRDI and TGI for genotype and sowing density (η2 = 0.50). These results highlight the potential use of RGB-derived VIs for high-throughput phenotypic selection of soil coverage ability in durum wheat, even under different agronomic conditions.

]]> RGB-Derived Indices Accurately Detect Genotypic and Agronomic Differences in Canopy Variation in Durum Wheat Fabio Fania Ivano Pecorella Elio Romano Patrizio Spadanuda Nicola Pecchioni Salvatore Esposito Pasquale De Vita doi: 10.3390/crops5060085 Crops 2025-11-19 Crops 2025-11-19 5 6 Article 85 10.3390/crops5060085 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/6/85 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 84: Peach Postharvest Fungal Diseases: Sustainable Management and an Integrative Review of Emerging Strategies https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/6/84 Postharvest fungal diseases represent a major constraint to the storage, transport, and marketability of peach (Prunus persica) fruits. Pathogens such as Monilinia spp. (Brown rot), Penicillium expansum (Blue rot), Rhizopus stolonifera (Soft rot), Botrytis cinerea (Gray rot), and Geotrichum candidum (Acid rot) cause significant economic losses globally. Traditional control methods primarily rely on chemical fungicides, which are increasingly challenged by issues of resistance development, consumer health concerns, and regulatory restrictions. This review critically synthesizes the biology, infection mechanisms, and optimal environmental conditions of key fungal pathogens affecting postharvest peaches. It further evaluates the current landscape of chemical, physical, and biological control methods, emphasizing novel approaches including essential oils, microbial antagonists, induced resistance, and eco-friendly sanitizers. Comparative efficacy, sustainability, and practical implementation of these strategies are discussed. Integrated management approaches that combine multiple interventions under low-residue or residue-free systems are highlighted as the most promising direction. This review concludes that the future of peach postharvest protection lies in tailor-made, multi-faceted integrated programs that are both effective and environmentally sound. 2025-11-17 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 84: Peach Postharvest Fungal Diseases: Sustainable Management and an Integrative Review of Emerging Strategies

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5060084

Authors: Sahar El Maazouzi Adil Asfers Antonio Cano Josefa Hernández-Ruiz Ahlem Hamdache Abdelhadi Ait Houssa Mohammed Ezziyyani Marino B. Arnao

Postharvest fungal diseases represent a major constraint to the storage, transport, and marketability of peach (Prunus persica) fruits. Pathogens such as Monilinia spp. (Brown rot), Penicillium expansum (Blue rot), Rhizopus stolonifera (Soft rot), Botrytis cinerea (Gray rot), and Geotrichum candidum (Acid rot) cause significant economic losses globally. Traditional control methods primarily rely on chemical fungicides, which are increasingly challenged by issues of resistance development, consumer health concerns, and regulatory restrictions. This review critically synthesizes the biology, infection mechanisms, and optimal environmental conditions of key fungal pathogens affecting postharvest peaches. It further evaluates the current landscape of chemical, physical, and biological control methods, emphasizing novel approaches including essential oils, microbial antagonists, induced resistance, and eco-friendly sanitizers. Comparative efficacy, sustainability, and practical implementation of these strategies are discussed. Integrated management approaches that combine multiple interventions under low-residue or residue-free systems are highlighted as the most promising direction. This review concludes that the future of peach postharvest protection lies in tailor-made, multi-faceted integrated programs that are both effective and environmentally sound.

]]> Peach Postharvest Fungal Diseases: Sustainable Management and an Integrative Review of Emerging Strategies Sahar El Maazouzi Adil Asfers Antonio Cano Josefa Hernández-Ruiz Ahlem Hamdache Abdelhadi Ait Houssa Mohammed Ezziyyani Marino B. Arnao doi: 10.3390/crops5060084 Crops 2025-11-17 Crops 2025-11-17 5 6 Review 84 10.3390/crops5060084 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/6/84 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 83: Insecticidal and Insectistatic Activity Assessment of Lantana camara (L.) (Verbenaceae) Essential Oil and endo-Borneol Against Tenebrio molitor (L.) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/6/83 Tenebrio molitor is a common stored grains pest. The conventional way for its management involves the use of synthetic fumigants. Despite their effectiveness, these can cause environmental damage. The use of essential oils has emerged as an alternative for its management. Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess Lantana camara essential oil (EO) and endo-borneol biological activities against T. molitor. Insecticidal activity and weight gain were evaluated through the impregnated paper method against larvae and adults, while repellency was conducted with a Y-tube olfactometer; L. camara EO showed higher mortality for T. molitor adults (LC50 = 7.2 μL EO L−1 air) than for larvae (LC50 = 13.7 μL EO L−1 air) after 30 d. Furthermore, L. camara EO was found to be repellent for T. molitor adults (RC50 = 0.08 μL EO cm−2). Regarding the EO composition, endo-borneol was identified by GC-MS as a major compound with 14.24% abundance. Larvae exhibited higher susceptibility (LC50 = 7.8 μL L−1 air) to endo-borneol than adults (LC50 = 46 μL L−1 air) after 72 h. Notably, endo-borneol demonstrated significantly higher repellent activity (RC50 = 0.03 μL cm−2) than L. camara EO (RC50 = 0.08 μL EO cm−2). These findings suggest that endo-borneol has potential as a natural source alternative for T. molitor management. 2025-11-13 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 83: Insecticidal and Insectistatic Activity Assessment of Lantana camara (L.) (Verbenaceae) Essential Oil and endo-Borneol Against Tenebrio molitor (L.) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae)

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5060083

Authors: Vanessa Fernanda Pérez-Castro Amanda Kim Rico-Chávez Marco Martín González-Chávez Juan Campos-Guillén Carlos Eduardo Zavala-Gómez Sergio de Jesús Romero-Gómez Aldo Amaro-Reyes Rodolfo Figueroa-Brito Karla Elizabeth Mariscal-Ureta Armando Valdez-Ramírez Antonio Flores-Macías Manolo Rodríguez-Cervantes Miguel Angel Ramos-López

Tenebrio molitor is a common stored grains pest. The conventional way for its management involves the use of synthetic fumigants. Despite their effectiveness, these can cause environmental damage. The use of essential oils has emerged as an alternative for its management. Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess Lantana camara essential oil (EO) and endo-borneol biological activities against T. molitor. Insecticidal activity and weight gain were evaluated through the impregnated paper method against larvae and adults, while repellency was conducted with a Y-tube olfactometer; L. camara EO showed higher mortality for T. molitor adults (LC50 = 7.2 μL EO L−1 air) than for larvae (LC50 = 13.7 μL EO L−1 air) after 30 d. Furthermore, L. camara EO was found to be repellent for T. molitor adults (RC50 = 0.08 μL EO cm−2). Regarding the EO composition, endo-borneol was identified by GC-MS as a major compound with 14.24% abundance. Larvae exhibited higher susceptibility (LC50 = 7.8 μL L−1 air) to endo-borneol than adults (LC50 = 46 μL L−1 air) after 72 h. Notably, endo-borneol demonstrated significantly higher repellent activity (RC50 = 0.03 μL cm−2) than L. camara EO (RC50 = 0.08 μL EO cm−2). These findings suggest that endo-borneol has potential as a natural source alternative for T. molitor management.

]]> Insecticidal and Insectistatic Activity Assessment of Lantana camara (L.) (Verbenaceae) Essential Oil and endo-Borneol Against Tenebrio molitor (L.) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) Vanessa Fernanda Pérez-Castro Amanda Kim Rico-Chávez Marco Martín González-Chávez Juan Campos-Guillén Carlos Eduardo Zavala-Gómez Sergio de Jesús Romero-Gómez Aldo Amaro-Reyes Rodolfo Figueroa-Brito Karla Elizabeth Mariscal-Ureta Armando Valdez-Ramírez Antonio Flores-Macías Manolo Rodríguez-Cervantes Miguel Angel Ramos-López doi: 10.3390/crops5060083 Crops 2025-11-13 Crops 2025-11-13 5 6 Article 83 10.3390/crops5060083 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/6/83 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 82: Optimization of Yield and Fiber Yield of Cotton Cultivars Under Water Regimes in the Tropical Dry Season https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/6/82 This study pioneers the integration of the water sensitivity coefficient (Ky) with cotton yield performance under varying water regimes in the Brazilian Cerrado. The objective was to evaluate the productive performance and fiber yield of cotton cultivars under different water regimes during the tropical dry season. The experiment followed a randomized block design in a 5 × 4 factorial scheme with four replications, totaling 80 plots. Treatments consisted of five irrigation levels based on crop evapotranspiration (25%, 50%, 75%, 100% and 125% of ETc) and four cultivars (TMG44B2RF, FM944GL, IMA5801B2RF and IMA709B2RF). Increasing water supply enhanced cotton lint yield, reaching 3209.4 kg ha−1 at the highest regime. Water regimes between 25 and 125% of the ETc significantly improved yield components, leading to an increase of up to 221% in lint yield. Fiber quality remained stable across irrigation levels and was mainly genotype-dependent. Among the cultivars, FM944GL showed high productivity and fiber yield, while IMA5801B2RF demonstrated greater water resilience (Ky = 0.73), making it suitable for water-limited environments. The findings reflect the specific conditions of the evaluated growing season. Thus, long-term studies under diverse environmental conditions are recommended to confirm these trends and enhance understanding of cotton responses to water regimes in the Cerrado. 2025-11-10 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 82: Optimization of Yield and Fiber Yield of Cotton Cultivars Under Water Regimes in the Tropical Dry Season

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5060082

Authors: Alisson Silva Costa Custódio Tonny José Araújo Da Silva Sérgio Plens Andrade Edna Maria Bonfim-Silva Patrícia Ferreira Da Silva Ivis Andrei Campos e Silva Luana Aparecida Menegaz Meneghetti Niclene Ponce Rodrigues De Oliveira Thiago Franco Duarte Alessana Franciele Schlichting Salomão Lima Guimarães Rosana Andreia Da Silva Rocha Jholian Maicon Ribeiro Santos

This study pioneers the integration of the water sensitivity coefficient (Ky) with cotton yield performance under varying water regimes in the Brazilian Cerrado. The objective was to evaluate the productive performance and fiber yield of cotton cultivars under different water regimes during the tropical dry season. The experiment followed a randomized block design in a 5 × 4 factorial scheme with four replications, totaling 80 plots. Treatments consisted of five irrigation levels based on crop evapotranspiration (25%, 50%, 75%, 100% and 125% of ETc) and four cultivars (TMG44B2RF, FM944GL, IMA5801B2RF and IMA709B2RF). Increasing water supply enhanced cotton lint yield, reaching 3209.4 kg ha−1 at the highest regime. Water regimes between 25 and 125% of the ETc significantly improved yield components, leading to an increase of up to 221% in lint yield. Fiber quality remained stable across irrigation levels and was mainly genotype-dependent. Among the cultivars, FM944GL showed high productivity and fiber yield, while IMA5801B2RF demonstrated greater water resilience (Ky = 0.73), making it suitable for water-limited environments. The findings reflect the specific conditions of the evaluated growing season. Thus, long-term studies under diverse environmental conditions are recommended to confirm these trends and enhance understanding of cotton responses to water regimes in the Cerrado.

]]> Optimization of Yield and Fiber Yield of Cotton Cultivars Under Water Regimes in the Tropical Dry Season Alisson Silva Costa Custódio Tonny José Araújo Da Silva Sérgio Plens Andrade Edna Maria Bonfim-Silva Patrícia Ferreira Da Silva Ivis Andrei Campos e Silva Luana Aparecida Menegaz Meneghetti Niclene Ponce Rodrigues De Oliveira Thiago Franco Duarte Alessana Franciele Schlichting Salomão Lima Guimarães Rosana Andreia Da Silva Rocha Jholian Maicon Ribeiro Santos doi: 10.3390/crops5060082 Crops 2025-11-10 Crops 2025-11-10 5 6 Article 82 10.3390/crops5060082 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/6/82 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 81: Transcriptional Regulation of Salt Stress Tolerance in Triticum aestivum (Wheat): NAC Transcription Factors and Their Target Genes https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/6/81 Salinity is one of the key threats to food security and sustainability. To make saline soils productive again, we need to develop salt-tolerant crop varieties. Developing salt-tolerant wheat requires a detailed understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying salt stress responses. In this study, we analyzed the Chinese Spring genome and identified 559 putative NAC transcription factors (TFs), which are recognized as key regulators of both abiotic and biotic stress. Protein family analysis revealed four distinct domain architectures, with more than 95% of the proteins containing a single NAC domain, consistent with their conserved regulatory role. Through in silico analyses, four salt stress-responsive TFs, NAC_1D, NAC_2D, NAC_4A, and NAC_5A, were highlighted, sharing nine of 13 DNA-binding residues. Promoter analysis of their putative target genes identified seven candidates, which, together with the NAC TFs, were subjected to RT-qPCR expression analysis in BARI Gom-25 plants exposed to 100 mM NaCl. The expression data revealed contrasting regulatory patterns between NAC TFs and their target genes. For example, Hsp70 was strongly upregulated in both shoots and roots, despite opposite patterns of NAC_1D expression between tissues. Similarly, bZIP expression mirrored the downregulation of NAC_2D, whereas HKT8 expression remained stable under salt stress. NAC_4A showed a root-specific pattern suggestive of positive regulation of a Non-specific serine/threonine protein kinase, while NAC_5A upregulation corresponded with downregulation of Plant cadmium resistance 2. Collectively, these results provide functional insights into four NAC TFs and identify potential molecular targets for improving wheat salt tolerance. By targeting key tolerance genes at the DNA level offers greater precision and can significantly reduce breeding time. 2025-11-06 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 81: Transcriptional Regulation of Salt Stress Tolerance in Triticum aestivum (Wheat): NAC Transcription Factors and Their Target Genes

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5060081

Authors: Xin Liu Selvakumar Sukumaran Tanvir Abedin Md. Abu Sayed Sameer Hassan Henrik Aronsson

Salinity is one of the key threats to food security and sustainability. To make saline soils productive again, we need to develop salt-tolerant crop varieties. Developing salt-tolerant wheat requires a detailed understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying salt stress responses. In this study, we analyzed the Chinese Spring genome and identified 559 putative NAC transcription factors (TFs), which are recognized as key regulators of both abiotic and biotic stress. Protein family analysis revealed four distinct domain architectures, with more than 95% of the proteins containing a single NAC domain, consistent with their conserved regulatory role. Through in silico analyses, four salt stress-responsive TFs, NAC_1D, NAC_2D, NAC_4A, and NAC_5A, were highlighted, sharing nine of 13 DNA-binding residues. Promoter analysis of their putative target genes identified seven candidates, which, together with the NAC TFs, were subjected to RT-qPCR expression analysis in BARI Gom-25 plants exposed to 100 mM NaCl. The expression data revealed contrasting regulatory patterns between NAC TFs and their target genes. For example, Hsp70 was strongly upregulated in both shoots and roots, despite opposite patterns of NAC_1D expression between tissues. Similarly, bZIP expression mirrored the downregulation of NAC_2D, whereas HKT8 expression remained stable under salt stress. NAC_4A showed a root-specific pattern suggestive of positive regulation of a Non-specific serine/threonine protein kinase, while NAC_5A upregulation corresponded with downregulation of Plant cadmium resistance 2. Collectively, these results provide functional insights into four NAC TFs and identify potential molecular targets for improving wheat salt tolerance. By targeting key tolerance genes at the DNA level offers greater precision and can significantly reduce breeding time.

]]> Transcriptional Regulation of Salt Stress Tolerance in Triticum aestivum (Wheat): NAC Transcription Factors and Their Target Genes Xin Liu Selvakumar Sukumaran Tanvir Abedin Md. Abu Sayed Sameer Hassan Henrik Aronsson doi: 10.3390/crops5060081 Crops 2025-11-06 Crops 2025-11-06 5 6 Article 81 10.3390/crops5060081 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/6/81 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 80: The Sprayed Application of Recombinantly Expressed CpRap2.4A Confers Protective Activity Against Heat Stress in Nicotiana tabacum https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/6/80 Drastic changes in temperature, salinity of soils and drought are some of the most studied abiotic stressors in important crops. Plants have developed various biochemical mechanisms to counteract these conditions. Transcription factors play a significant role in regulating stress responses. Previously, in our lab, it was identified that the CpRap2.4a protein, which belongs to the AP2/ERF superfamily, is related to the response to abiotic stress from extreme temperature, and confers thermal tolerance to Carica papaya CV. This study presents a randomized experimental strategy for the analysis of the physiological and biochemical responses of Nicotiana tabacum plants subjected to heat stress, and how the foliar application of the recombinantly expressed CpRap2.4a can modulate beneficial responses. Plants subjected to heat stress present a healthier physiology, as clearly shown by biochemical parameters. Moreover, physiological parameters also suggest an improvement of heat tolerance compared with the control group. Scanning electron microscopy suggests that stomatal aperture and conductance are the key mechanisms for how recombinantly expressed CpRap2.4a can act as a regulatory player to heat stress. 2025-11-06 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 80: The Sprayed Application of Recombinantly Expressed CpRap2.4A Confers Protective Activity Against Heat Stress in Nicotiana tabacum

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5060080

Authors: Diobel González-Stewart Francisco Guillén-Chable Miguel Ángel Herrera-Alamillo Roberth Armando Us Santamaría José Luis Andrade Anne C. Gschaedler Mathis Enrique Castaño Luis Joel Figueroa-Yáñez Luis Carlos Rodríguez-Zapata

Drastic changes in temperature, salinity of soils and drought are some of the most studied abiotic stressors in important crops. Plants have developed various biochemical mechanisms to counteract these conditions. Transcription factors play a significant role in regulating stress responses. Previously, in our lab, it was identified that the CpRap2.4a protein, which belongs to the AP2/ERF superfamily, is related to the response to abiotic stress from extreme temperature, and confers thermal tolerance to Carica papaya CV. This study presents a randomized experimental strategy for the analysis of the physiological and biochemical responses of Nicotiana tabacum plants subjected to heat stress, and how the foliar application of the recombinantly expressed CpRap2.4a can modulate beneficial responses. Plants subjected to heat stress present a healthier physiology, as clearly shown by biochemical parameters. Moreover, physiological parameters also suggest an improvement of heat tolerance compared with the control group. Scanning electron microscopy suggests that stomatal aperture and conductance are the key mechanisms for how recombinantly expressed CpRap2.4a can act as a regulatory player to heat stress.

]]> The Sprayed Application of Recombinantly Expressed CpRap2.4A Confers Protective Activity Against Heat Stress in Nicotiana tabacum Diobel González-Stewart Francisco Guillén-Chable Miguel Ángel Herrera-Alamillo Roberth Armando Us Santamaría José Luis Andrade Anne C. Gschaedler Mathis Enrique Castaño Luis Joel Figueroa-Yáñez Luis Carlos Rodríguez-Zapata doi: 10.3390/crops5060080 Crops 2025-11-06 Crops 2025-11-06 5 6 Article 80 10.3390/crops5060080 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/6/80 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 79: Balancing Feed Demand and Energy Supply: Technical Potential of Permanent Grassland Biomass in Poland https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/6/79 This study presents a comprehensive methodology for assessing the technical potential of hay biomass from permanent grasslands (TUZ) in Poland, aimed at evaluating its energy use possibilities. This research was based on detailed data from the Agency for Restructuring and Modernization of Agriculture (ARiMR) and included both environmentally subsidized and non-subsidized parcels. Using statistical hay yield values adjusted for drought impacts through the Climatic Water Balance (KBW), a realistic estimation of technical hay potential was obtained. Results show a total theoretical hay potential of 15 million tonnes in 2024. The results indicate that the total theoretical hay potential in the country in 2024 amounted to 15 million tons, but its technical potential is reduced to almost zero. The methane productivity of this biomass could generate 3.5 Mt CH4 (at STP) if most of it could not be used for animal feeding purposes. The findings highlight the underutilized energetic potential of grasslands and the critical role of land use policy in unlocking sustainable bioenergy resources. Research into the potential of biomass is important in view of supporting energy independence, sustainable use of agricultural resources and agroecological synergy by combining production, energy and environmental objectives. It should be remembered that biomass potential studies are subject to limitations resulting from the uncertainty of statistical data, variability of climatic and soil conditions and model assumptions, which may affect the accuracy and comparability of the obtained results. 2025-11-05 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 79: Balancing Feed Demand and Energy Supply: Technical Potential of Permanent Grassland Biomass in Poland

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5060079

Authors: Magdalena Borzęcka

This study presents a comprehensive methodology for assessing the technical potential of hay biomass from permanent grasslands (TUZ) in Poland, aimed at evaluating its energy use possibilities. This research was based on detailed data from the Agency for Restructuring and Modernization of Agriculture (ARiMR) and included both environmentally subsidized and non-subsidized parcels. Using statistical hay yield values adjusted for drought impacts through the Climatic Water Balance (KBW), a realistic estimation of technical hay potential was obtained. Results show a total theoretical hay potential of 15 million tonnes in 2024. The results indicate that the total theoretical hay potential in the country in 2024 amounted to 15 million tons, but its technical potential is reduced to almost zero. The methane productivity of this biomass could generate 3.5 Mt CH4 (at STP) if most of it could not be used for animal feeding purposes. The findings highlight the underutilized energetic potential of grasslands and the critical role of land use policy in unlocking sustainable bioenergy resources. Research into the potential of biomass is important in view of supporting energy independence, sustainable use of agricultural resources and agroecological synergy by combining production, energy and environmental objectives. It should be remembered that biomass potential studies are subject to limitations resulting from the uncertainty of statistical data, variability of climatic and soil conditions and model assumptions, which may affect the accuracy and comparability of the obtained results.

]]> Balancing Feed Demand and Energy Supply: Technical Potential of Permanent Grassland Biomass in Poland Magdalena Borzęcka doi: 10.3390/crops5060079 Crops 2025-11-05 Crops 2025-11-05 5 6 Article 79 10.3390/crops5060079 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/6/79 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 78: Rethinking Variable Rate Seeding: Why Can Increasing Soybean Population Decrease Yield in Nutrient-Limited Soils? https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/6/78 Variable Rate Seeding (VRS) in soybean (Glycine max [L.] Merr.) cultivation is a critical strategy for managing soil spatial variability, which often constrains yield. However, conventional practices that increase plant density in low-yield zones to compensate for poor fertility may unintentionally intensify intraspecific competition for already limited resources. This study addresses the need for a mechanistically sound basis for VRS prescriptions that moves beyond this counterproductive assumption. Field experiments were conducted in the Cerrado region of Brazil to evaluate different soybean population densities within management zones (MZs) delineated according to Liebig’s Law of the Minimum. This approach identified soil potassium (K) as the most growth-limiting nutrient and was used to define MZs representing distinct yield potentials. Three seeding densities were tested, Low (200,000 seeds ha−1), Medium (240,000 seeds ha−1), and High (280,000 seeds ha−1), with particular emphasis on comparing the medium and high populations in potassium-limited zones. Results revealed that, contrary to the conventional strategy, increasing the soybean population from medium to high in low-fertility (low-K) MZs significantly decreased grain yield. This yield reduction was attributed to intensified intraspecific competition, which promoted excessive vegetative growth (increased plant height) at the expense of root development and photosynthetic efficiency. Notably, maintaining a moderate population (240,000 seeds ha−1) in these low-fertility zones produced yields statistically equivalent to those in higher-fertility areas. These findings demonstrate that applying Liebig’s Law of the Minimum to identify the most limiting factor provides a robust, mechanistically sound foundation for developing VRS prescriptions. For nutrient-limited zones, the optimal and most resilient strategy is not to increase sowing density but to maintain a moderate population that balances yield potential with resource availability. Future research should investigate the phenotypic plasticity of different cultivars under this VRS strategy and assess its economic viability at a commercial scale. 2025-11-04 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 78: Rethinking Variable Rate Seeding: Why Can Increasing Soybean Population Decrease Yield in Nutrient-Limited Soils?

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5060078

Authors: Fábio Henrique Rojo Baio Job Teixeira de Oliveira Fernando França da Cunha Paulo Eduardo Teodoro Larissa Pereira Ribeiro Teodoro Cid Naudi Silva Campos Ricardo Gava José Carlos Nogueira Alves Junior Marcos Eduardo Miranda Alves Fernanda Ganassim

Variable Rate Seeding (VRS) in soybean (Glycine max [L.] Merr.) cultivation is a critical strategy for managing soil spatial variability, which often constrains yield. However, conventional practices that increase plant density in low-yield zones to compensate for poor fertility may unintentionally intensify intraspecific competition for already limited resources. This study addresses the need for a mechanistically sound basis for VRS prescriptions that moves beyond this counterproductive assumption. Field experiments were conducted in the Cerrado region of Brazil to evaluate different soybean population densities within management zones (MZs) delineated according to Liebig’s Law of the Minimum. This approach identified soil potassium (K) as the most growth-limiting nutrient and was used to define MZs representing distinct yield potentials. Three seeding densities were tested, Low (200,000 seeds ha−1), Medium (240,000 seeds ha−1), and High (280,000 seeds ha−1), with particular emphasis on comparing the medium and high populations in potassium-limited zones. Results revealed that, contrary to the conventional strategy, increasing the soybean population from medium to high in low-fertility (low-K) MZs significantly decreased grain yield. This yield reduction was attributed to intensified intraspecific competition, which promoted excessive vegetative growth (increased plant height) at the expense of root development and photosynthetic efficiency. Notably, maintaining a moderate population (240,000 seeds ha−1) in these low-fertility zones produced yields statistically equivalent to those in higher-fertility areas. These findings demonstrate that applying Liebig’s Law of the Minimum to identify the most limiting factor provides a robust, mechanistically sound foundation for developing VRS prescriptions. For nutrient-limited zones, the optimal and most resilient strategy is not to increase sowing density but to maintain a moderate population that balances yield potential with resource availability. Future research should investigate the phenotypic plasticity of different cultivars under this VRS strategy and assess its economic viability at a commercial scale.

]]> Rethinking Variable Rate Seeding: Why Can Increasing Soybean Population Decrease Yield in Nutrient-Limited Soils? Fábio Henrique Rojo Baio Job Teixeira de Oliveira Fernando França da Cunha Paulo Eduardo Teodoro Larissa Pereira Ribeiro Teodoro Cid Naudi Silva Campos Ricardo Gava José Carlos Nogueira Alves Junior Marcos Eduardo Miranda Alves Fernanda Ganassim doi: 10.3390/crops5060078 Crops 2025-11-04 Crops 2025-11-04 5 6 Article 78 10.3390/crops5060078 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/6/78 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 77: Differential Photosynthetic Response of Tomato Plants—Ailsa Craig and Carotenoid Mutant tangerine—To Low Light Intensity and Low Temperature Treatment https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/6/77 The response of tomato plants, Ailsa Craig and the carotenoid mutant tangerine, to five days of treatment by low light intensity at normal and low temperature with respect to the photosynthetic performance as well as their capacity to recover after three days under normal conditions was evaluated. Tangerine plants are characterized by defective prolycopene isomerase (CRTISO) and accumulate tetra-cis lycopene instead of all-trans lycopene. The gas exchange parameters were evaluated on intact plants and the pigment content in leaves was estimated. The photosynthetic competence of photosystem II (PSII) and photosystem I (PSI) and the effectiveness of the energy dissipation were assessed by pulse-amplitude-modulated (PAM) fluorometry. The abundance of reaction center proteins of PSII and PSI was estimated by immunoblotting. The application of low light alone or low light and low temperature reduced the chlorophyll content in both types of plants, which was more strongly expressed in Ailsa Craig. The net photosynthetic rate and photochemical activities of PSII and PSI were negatively affected by low light and much more strongly decreased when low light was applied at low temperature. The low-light-induced increase in excitation pressure on PSII and the effectiveness of non-photochemical quenching were not temperature-dependent. The negative effect of the combined treatment in tangerine was more strongly expressed in comparison with Ailsa Craig with respect to the abundance of reaction center proteins of both photosystems. Most probably, the differential photosynthetic response of the carotenoid mutant tangerine and Ailsa Craig to the combined treatment by low light and low temperature is related to the accumulation of tetra-cis-lycopene instead of all-trans-lycopene. 2025-10-31 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 77: Differential Photosynthetic Response of Tomato Plants—Ailsa Craig and Carotenoid Mutant tangerine—To Low Light Intensity and Low Temperature Treatment

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5060077

Authors: Antoaneta V. Popova Martin Stefanov Tsonko Tsonev Violeta Velikova Maya Velitchkova

The response of tomato plants, Ailsa Craig and the carotenoid mutant tangerine, to five days of treatment by low light intensity at normal and low temperature with respect to the photosynthetic performance as well as their capacity to recover after three days under normal conditions was evaluated. Tangerine plants are characterized by defective prolycopene isomerase (CRTISO) and accumulate tetra-cis lycopene instead of all-trans lycopene. The gas exchange parameters were evaluated on intact plants and the pigment content in leaves was estimated. The photosynthetic competence of photosystem II (PSII) and photosystem I (PSI) and the effectiveness of the energy dissipation were assessed by pulse-amplitude-modulated (PAM) fluorometry. The abundance of reaction center proteins of PSII and PSI was estimated by immunoblotting. The application of low light alone or low light and low temperature reduced the chlorophyll content in both types of plants, which was more strongly expressed in Ailsa Craig. The net photosynthetic rate and photochemical activities of PSII and PSI were negatively affected by low light and much more strongly decreased when low light was applied at low temperature. The low-light-induced increase in excitation pressure on PSII and the effectiveness of non-photochemical quenching were not temperature-dependent. The negative effect of the combined treatment in tangerine was more strongly expressed in comparison with Ailsa Craig with respect to the abundance of reaction center proteins of both photosystems. Most probably, the differential photosynthetic response of the carotenoid mutant tangerine and Ailsa Craig to the combined treatment by low light and low temperature is related to the accumulation of tetra-cis-lycopene instead of all-trans-lycopene.

]]> Differential Photosynthetic Response of Tomato Plants—Ailsa Craig and Carotenoid Mutant tangerine—To Low Light Intensity and Low Temperature Treatment Antoaneta V. Popova Martin Stefanov Tsonko Tsonev Violeta Velikova Maya Velitchkova doi: 10.3390/crops5060077 Crops 2025-10-31 Crops 2025-10-31 5 6 Article 77 10.3390/crops5060077 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/6/77 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 76: Screening of Winter Wheat Accessions from International Variety Trials for Drought Resistance in Southeastern Kazakhstan https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/6/76 Wheat production, globally and in Kazakhstan, is significantly limited by heat stress and drought. The evaluation of agronomic traits related to yield under stress conditions is crucial for identifying yield-limiting factors and selecting drought-tolerant germplasm. The aim of this study was to evaluate the variability of the main agronomic and physiological characteristics of 45 winter wheat collection accessions obtained during CIMMYT international variety trials (23IWWYT-IRR and 22IWWYT-SA) in the arid conditions of Southeastern Kazakhstan (foothills of the Zailiyskiy Alatau, 48° N, 77° E, 740 m above sea level) and to identify drought-resistant germplasm. As a result of three years of research (2019–2022) under drought conditions during the 2020–2021 growing season with a high negative environment index (Ij = −3.07), three adapted genotypes were identified: BONITO-37/MV10-2000, LYMARIVNA, and OK12D22004-016. They had yields of 5.3, 5.6, and 5.2 t/ha, respectively, significantly exceeding the yield of the local commercial variety STEKLOVIDNAYA 24 by 15.4–22.8%. The correlation coefficient between productivity variables was significant and varied from 0.55 ** to 0.82 ***. The percentage decrease in yield under drought conditions was 72.3%, while the drought resistance index was 0.27. 2025-10-24 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 76: Screening of Winter Wheat Accessions from International Variety Trials for Drought Resistance in Southeastern Kazakhstan

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5060076

Authors: Karlyga Jiyenbayeva Minura Yessimbekova Sholpan Bastaubayeva Alexey Morgounov Kadyrzhan Mukin

Wheat production, globally and in Kazakhstan, is significantly limited by heat stress and drought. The evaluation of agronomic traits related to yield under stress conditions is crucial for identifying yield-limiting factors and selecting drought-tolerant germplasm. The aim of this study was to evaluate the variability of the main agronomic and physiological characteristics of 45 winter wheat collection accessions obtained during CIMMYT international variety trials (23IWWYT-IRR and 22IWWYT-SA) in the arid conditions of Southeastern Kazakhstan (foothills of the Zailiyskiy Alatau, 48° N, 77° E, 740 m above sea level) and to identify drought-resistant germplasm. As a result of three years of research (2019–2022) under drought conditions during the 2020–2021 growing season with a high negative environment index (Ij = −3.07), three adapted genotypes were identified: BONITO-37/MV10-2000, LYMARIVNA, and OK12D22004-016. They had yields of 5.3, 5.6, and 5.2 t/ha, respectively, significantly exceeding the yield of the local commercial variety STEKLOVIDNAYA 24 by 15.4–22.8%. The correlation coefficient between productivity variables was significant and varied from 0.55 ** to 0.82 ***. The percentage decrease in yield under drought conditions was 72.3%, while the drought resistance index was 0.27.

]]> Screening of Winter Wheat Accessions from International Variety Trials for Drought Resistance in Southeastern Kazakhstan Karlyga Jiyenbayeva Minura Yessimbekova Sholpan Bastaubayeva Alexey Morgounov Kadyrzhan Mukin doi: 10.3390/crops5060076 Crops 2025-10-24 Crops 2025-10-24 5 6 Article 76 10.3390/crops5060076 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/6/76 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 75: AI and Robotics in Agriculture: A Systematic and Quantitative Review of Research Trends (2015–2025) https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/75 The swift integration of AI, robotics, and advanced sensing technologies has revolutionized agriculture into a data-centric, autonomous, and sustainable sector. This systematic study examines the interplay between artificial intelligence and agricultural robotics in intelligent farming systems. Artificial intelligence, machine learning, computer vision, swarm robotics, and generative AI are analyzed for crop monitoring, precision irrigation, autonomous harvesting, and post-harvest processing. Employing PRISMA to categorize more than 10,000 high-impact publications from Scopus, WoS, and IEEE. Drones and vision-based models predominate the industry, while IoT integration, digital twins, and generative AI are on the rise. Insufficient field validation rates, inadequate crop and regional representation, and the implementation of explainable AI continue to pose significant challenges. Inadequate model generalization, energy limitations, and infrastructural restrictions impede scalability. We identify solutions in federated learning, swarm robotics, and climate-smart agricultural artificial intelligence. This paper presents a framework for inclusive, resilient, and feasible AI-robotic agricultural systems. 2025-10-21 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 75: AI and Robotics in Agriculture: A Systematic and Quantitative Review of Research Trends (2015–2025)

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5050075

Authors: Hamrani Allouhi Bouarab Jayachandran

The swift integration of AI, robotics, and advanced sensing technologies has revolutionized agriculture into a data-centric, autonomous, and sustainable sector. This systematic study examines the interplay between artificial intelligence and agricultural robotics in intelligent farming systems. Artificial intelligence, machine learning, computer vision, swarm robotics, and generative AI are analyzed for crop monitoring, precision irrigation, autonomous harvesting, and post-harvest processing. Employing PRISMA to categorize more than 10,000 high-impact publications from Scopus, WoS, and IEEE. Drones and vision-based models predominate the industry, while IoT integration, digital twins, and generative AI are on the rise. Insufficient field validation rates, inadequate crop and regional representation, and the implementation of explainable AI continue to pose significant challenges. Inadequate model generalization, energy limitations, and infrastructural restrictions impede scalability. We identify solutions in federated learning, swarm robotics, and climate-smart agricultural artificial intelligence. This paper presents a framework for inclusive, resilient, and feasible AI-robotic agricultural systems.

]]> AI and Robotics in Agriculture: A Systematic and Quantitative Review of Research Trends (2015–2025) Hamrani Allouhi Bouarab Jayachandran doi: 10.3390/crops5050075 Crops 2025-10-21 Crops 2025-10-21 5 5 Review 75 10.3390/crops5050075 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/75 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 74: Western Corn Rootworm (Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte) and Southern Corn Rootworm (Diabrotica undecimpunctata howardi Barber) Identified as Vectors of Late-Season Decline Disease-Causing Pantoea ananatis https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/74 Pantoea ananatis was recently described as the causative agent of late-season decline, a new bacterial disease first observed affecting field corn plants, in the Texas Panhandle. The rapid spread of the disease throughout the region and the patchy distribution of symptomatic plants in affected fields, as well as routine observations of edge effects, in which plants with severe symptoms are observed on the edges of affected fields, led us to hypothesize that vectors might be involved in the dissemination of the disease pathogen. In this study, we investigated the western corn rootworm (Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte) and southern corn rootworm (Diabrotica undecimpunctata howardi Barber) for any naturally occurring association with P. ananatis and potential to acquire and transmit the bacterial pathogen. Additionally, we investigated the transgenic corn encoding insecticidal Bacillus thuringiensis proteins (Bt) pyramided with RNAi interference anti-rootworm technology for its potential to protect against any larval role in the transmission of the pathogen through their feeding activities on corn roots. We successfully recovered naturally occurring P. ananatis from samples of both rootworm species collected from corn plants in the field. Following acquisition assays, the acquired pathogen was successfully recovered from previously P. ananatis-free adult rootworms, their eggs, as well as first-instar larvae, suggesting an affinity of the bacteria to establish an endosymbiotic and transovarial association with both rootworm species. Additionally, the transgenic Bt corn with RNAi anti-rootworm technology was ineffective in preventing the transmission of the pathogen by the infected larvae. Findings from this study confirm a vector role in the transmission of the disease pathogen. 2025-10-19 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 74: Western Corn Rootworm (Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte) and Southern Corn Rootworm (Diabrotica undecimpunctata howardi Barber) Identified as Vectors of Late-Season Decline Disease-Causing Pantoea ananatis

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5050074

Authors: Ken Obasa José Santiago-González

Pantoea ananatis was recently described as the causative agent of late-season decline, a new bacterial disease first observed affecting field corn plants, in the Texas Panhandle. The rapid spread of the disease throughout the region and the patchy distribution of symptomatic plants in affected fields, as well as routine observations of edge effects, in which plants with severe symptoms are observed on the edges of affected fields, led us to hypothesize that vectors might be involved in the dissemination of the disease pathogen. In this study, we investigated the western corn rootworm (Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte) and southern corn rootworm (Diabrotica undecimpunctata howardi Barber) for any naturally occurring association with P. ananatis and potential to acquire and transmit the bacterial pathogen. Additionally, we investigated the transgenic corn encoding insecticidal Bacillus thuringiensis proteins (Bt) pyramided with RNAi interference anti-rootworm technology for its potential to protect against any larval role in the transmission of the pathogen through their feeding activities on corn roots. We successfully recovered naturally occurring P. ananatis from samples of both rootworm species collected from corn plants in the field. Following acquisition assays, the acquired pathogen was successfully recovered from previously P. ananatis-free adult rootworms, their eggs, as well as first-instar larvae, suggesting an affinity of the bacteria to establish an endosymbiotic and transovarial association with both rootworm species. Additionally, the transgenic Bt corn with RNAi anti-rootworm technology was ineffective in preventing the transmission of the pathogen by the infected larvae. Findings from this study confirm a vector role in the transmission of the disease pathogen.

]]> Western Corn Rootworm (Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte) and Southern Corn Rootworm (Diabrotica undecimpunctata howardi Barber) Identified as Vectors of Late-Season Decline Disease-Causing Pantoea ananatis Ken Obasa José Santiago-González doi: 10.3390/crops5050074 Crops 2025-10-19 Crops 2025-10-19 5 5 Article 74 10.3390/crops5050074 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/74 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 73: Occurrence and Abundance of Hemiptera Auchenorrhyncha Associated with Traditional and Super-High-Density Olive Groves in Tuscany (Central Italy), with a Particular Focus on Xylella fastidiosa Vectors https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/73 In recent years, the spread of the phytopathogenic bacterium Xylella fastidiosa Wells et al., 1987 (Bacteria: Proteobacteria, Gammaproteobacteria) has posed a significant threat to olive cultivation in Italy, particularly in regions of high economic and agronomic value such as Apulia (Southern Italy). In this two-year study (2019–2020), we investigated the Auchenorrhyncha community in three representative olive farms in Tuscany (Central Italy), another region with highly valuable olive-growing, comparing traditional (400 trees/ha) and super-high-density (1500 trees/ha) management systems. Adult insects were collected monthly from May to November using sweep net sampling on both olive tree canopies and herbaceous ground cover. In total, 1844 individuals belonging to 25 genera and five families were identified. Philaenus spumarius L. and Neophilaenus campestris (Fallén) (Cercopoidea: Aphrophoridae) were confirmed as the most prevalent X. fastidiosa vectors in each site. However, data analysis revealed that Auchenorrhyncha community composition was significantly influenced by site and vegetation stratum, but not by olive grove management systems. These findings contribute to a deeper understanding of the composition of Auchenorrhyncha communities associated with olive groves, highlighting that new super-high-density management does not influence the presence and abundance of X. fastidiosa vectors. 2025-10-18 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 73: Occurrence and Abundance of Hemiptera Auchenorrhyncha Associated with Traditional and Super-High-Density Olive Groves in Tuscany (Central Italy), with a Particular Focus on Xylella fastidiosa Vectors

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5050073

Authors: Gargani Elisabetta Francardi Valeria Cutino Ilaria Simoni Sauro Nencioni Anita Bigiotti Gaia Landi Silvia

In recent years, the spread of the phytopathogenic bacterium Xylella fastidiosa Wells et al., 1987 (Bacteria: Proteobacteria, Gammaproteobacteria) has posed a significant threat to olive cultivation in Italy, particularly in regions of high economic and agronomic value such as Apulia (Southern Italy). In this two-year study (2019–2020), we investigated the Auchenorrhyncha community in three representative olive farms in Tuscany (Central Italy), another region with highly valuable olive-growing, comparing traditional (400 trees/ha) and super-high-density (1500 trees/ha) management systems. Adult insects were collected monthly from May to November using sweep net sampling on both olive tree canopies and herbaceous ground cover. In total, 1844 individuals belonging to 25 genera and five families were identified. Philaenus spumarius L. and Neophilaenus campestris (Fallén) (Cercopoidea: Aphrophoridae) were confirmed as the most prevalent X. fastidiosa vectors in each site. However, data analysis revealed that Auchenorrhyncha community composition was significantly influenced by site and vegetation stratum, but not by olive grove management systems. These findings contribute to a deeper understanding of the composition of Auchenorrhyncha communities associated with olive groves, highlighting that new super-high-density management does not influence the presence and abundance of X. fastidiosa vectors.

]]> Occurrence and Abundance of Hemiptera Auchenorrhyncha Associated with Traditional and Super-High-Density Olive Groves in Tuscany (Central Italy), with a Particular Focus on Xylella fastidiosa Vectors Gargani Elisabetta Francardi Valeria Cutino Ilaria Simoni Sauro Nencioni Anita Bigiotti Gaia Landi Silvia doi: 10.3390/crops5050073 Crops 2025-10-18 Crops 2025-10-18 5 5 Article 73 10.3390/crops5050073 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/73 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 72: Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Floral Development Mediated by Blue Light and Other Integrated Signals: Research Findings and Perspectives https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/72 Blue light (BL) is a key environmental signal influencing plant flowering, yet its role in floral development beyond the transition phase remains underexplored. This review provides a comprehensive synthesis of current research on BL-mediated floral development, with a particular emphasis on horticultural crops grown in a controlled environment. Unlike prior reviews that focus primarily on floral induction, this article systematically examines BL’s effects on later stages of flowering, including floral organ morphogenesis, sex expression, bud abortion, flower opening, scent emission, coloration, pollination, and senescence. Drawing on evidence from both model plants (e.g., Arabidopsis thaliana) and crop species, this review identifies key photoreceptors, hormonal regulators, and signaling components involved in BL responses. It also highlights species-specific and context-dependent outcomes of BL manipulation, proposes mechanistic hypotheses to explain conflicting findings, and outlines critical knowledge gaps. By integrating molecular, physiological, and environmental perspectives, this review offers a framework for optimizing BL applications to improve flowering traits and postharvest quality in horticultural production systems. 2025-10-15 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 72: Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Floral Development Mediated by Blue Light and Other Integrated Signals: Research Findings and Perspectives

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5050072

Authors: Yun Kong Youbin Zheng

Blue light (BL) is a key environmental signal influencing plant flowering, yet its role in floral development beyond the transition phase remains underexplored. This review provides a comprehensive synthesis of current research on BL-mediated floral development, with a particular emphasis on horticultural crops grown in a controlled environment. Unlike prior reviews that focus primarily on floral induction, this article systematically examines BL’s effects on later stages of flowering, including floral organ morphogenesis, sex expression, bud abortion, flower opening, scent emission, coloration, pollination, and senescence. Drawing on evidence from both model plants (e.g., Arabidopsis thaliana) and crop species, this review identifies key photoreceptors, hormonal regulators, and signaling components involved in BL responses. It also highlights species-specific and context-dependent outcomes of BL manipulation, proposes mechanistic hypotheses to explain conflicting findings, and outlines critical knowledge gaps. By integrating molecular, physiological, and environmental perspectives, this review offers a framework for optimizing BL applications to improve flowering traits and postharvest quality in horticultural production systems.

]]> Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Floral Development Mediated by Blue Light and Other Integrated Signals: Research Findings and Perspectives Yun Kong Youbin Zheng doi: 10.3390/crops5050072 Crops 2025-10-15 Crops 2025-10-15 5 5 Review 72 10.3390/crops5050072 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/72 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 71: Exploring Genetic Variability, Heritability, and Interrelationship in Phenotypic Traits of Recombinant Inbred Lines in Durum Wheat (Triticum turgidum L. ssp. Durum, Desf.) https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/71 Durum wheat is a vital wheat species cultivated worldwide for human consumption, ranking second to bread wheat. The Ethiopian durum wheat allele pool shows wide gene diversity; however, limited improvement work has been done to exploit this diversity. Thus, this study aimed to assess the genetic variability, heritability, and interrelationship among different phenotypic traits in 210 recombinant inbred lines (RILs) using an alpha lattice design with two replications. The analysis of variance revealed a significant difference for all the measured traits. The phenotypic coefficient of variation (PCV) was greater than the genotypic coefficient of variation (GCV) for all the characters, which reflects that the existing range of variability within the genotypes was not only due to the varying influence of genotype but also the environment. A correlation analysis disclosed that grain yield was positively related to the traits of plant height and 1000-kernel weight, suggesting that selecting these traits could enhance yield. Path analysis revealed that days to booting, maturity, and 1000-kernel weight directly affect grain yield. Among the measured traits, early developmental traits revealed higher broad-sense heritability. The findings of this study highlight high genetic diversity among Ethiopian durum wheat genotypes, opening up opportunities to integrate these materials into future wheat-breeding programs through introgression with other germplasm sources in Ethiopia and beyond. 2025-10-15 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 71: Exploring Genetic Variability, Heritability, and Interrelationship in Phenotypic Traits of Recombinant Inbred Lines in Durum Wheat (Triticum turgidum L. ssp. Durum, Desf.)

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5050071

Authors: Hanan Shiferaw Faris Hailu Behailu Mulugeta Matteo Dell’Acqua

Durum wheat is a vital wheat species cultivated worldwide for human consumption, ranking second to bread wheat. The Ethiopian durum wheat allele pool shows wide gene diversity; however, limited improvement work has been done to exploit this diversity. Thus, this study aimed to assess the genetic variability, heritability, and interrelationship among different phenotypic traits in 210 recombinant inbred lines (RILs) using an alpha lattice design with two replications. The analysis of variance revealed a significant difference for all the measured traits. The phenotypic coefficient of variation (PCV) was greater than the genotypic coefficient of variation (GCV) for all the characters, which reflects that the existing range of variability within the genotypes was not only due to the varying influence of genotype but also the environment. A correlation analysis disclosed that grain yield was positively related to the traits of plant height and 1000-kernel weight, suggesting that selecting these traits could enhance yield. Path analysis revealed that days to booting, maturity, and 1000-kernel weight directly affect grain yield. Among the measured traits, early developmental traits revealed higher broad-sense heritability. The findings of this study highlight high genetic diversity among Ethiopian durum wheat genotypes, opening up opportunities to integrate these materials into future wheat-breeding programs through introgression with other germplasm sources in Ethiopia and beyond.

]]> Exploring Genetic Variability, Heritability, and Interrelationship in Phenotypic Traits of Recombinant Inbred Lines in Durum Wheat (Triticum turgidum L. ssp. Durum, Desf.) Hanan Shiferaw Faris Hailu Behailu Mulugeta Matteo Dell’Acqua doi: 10.3390/crops5050071 Crops 2025-10-15 Crops 2025-10-15 5 5 Article 71 10.3390/crops5050071 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/71 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 70: Agronomic and Utilization Potential of Three Elephant Grass Cultivars for Energy, Forage, and Soil Improvement in Vietnam https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/70 Elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum Schumach, EG) is a promising biomass energy crop due to its high productivity and adaptability to harsh environments. In the transition to renewable energy, varietal evaluation is essential to identify cultivars that maximize biomass and energy yield. This study assessed three varieties (VS-19, VA-06, and VDP as control) across three harvest cycles (new planting, first regrowth, and second regrowth) between 2022 and 2024 at the Cotton and Agricultural Development Research Institute, Ninh Thuan Province, Vietnam. The site was characterized by mean temperatures of 25–36 °C, relative humidity of 65–82%, and average precipitation of 75.7 mm per month. Agronomic traits, energy potential (heating oil equivalent per hectare, HOE/ha), forage quality, and soil amendment value of the EG were examined to address the research question whether EG can be integrated into a three-cycle utilization model (energy, forage, soil amendment) to support a circular bioeconomy in Vietnam. All cultivars showed good growth, strong drought tolerance, and resistance to pests and diseases. VS-19 showed superior tillering, strong lodging resistance, and the highest biomass yield (63.8 t/ha) with an energy output of 32,636 HOE/ha, while VA-06 (56.1 t/ha; 28,699 HOE/ha) and VDP (54.7 t/ha; 27,952 HOE/ha) produced slightly lower but comparable outputs. Forage evaluation indicated moderate nutritional quality, while residues from the third cycle showed favorable carbon and nutrients content, making EG suitable as a soil amendment. EG thus demonstrates high biomass and energy yields, forage potential, and soil improvement capacity, reinforcing its role in integrated bioenergy and agricultural systems. 2025-10-14 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 70: Agronomic and Utilization Potential of Three Elephant Grass Cultivars for Energy, Forage, and Soil Improvement in Vietnam

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5050070

Authors: Lovisa Panduleni Johannes Tran Thi Ngoc Minh Nguyen Van Son Do Thanh Tung Tran Duc Viet Tran Dang Xuan

Elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum Schumach, EG) is a promising biomass energy crop due to its high productivity and adaptability to harsh environments. In the transition to renewable energy, varietal evaluation is essential to identify cultivars that maximize biomass and energy yield. This study assessed three varieties (VS-19, VA-06, and VDP as control) across three harvest cycles (new planting, first regrowth, and second regrowth) between 2022 and 2024 at the Cotton and Agricultural Development Research Institute, Ninh Thuan Province, Vietnam. The site was characterized by mean temperatures of 25–36 °C, relative humidity of 65–82%, and average precipitation of 75.7 mm per month. Agronomic traits, energy potential (heating oil equivalent per hectare, HOE/ha), forage quality, and soil amendment value of the EG were examined to address the research question whether EG can be integrated into a three-cycle utilization model (energy, forage, soil amendment) to support a circular bioeconomy in Vietnam. All cultivars showed good growth, strong drought tolerance, and resistance to pests and diseases. VS-19 showed superior tillering, strong lodging resistance, and the highest biomass yield (63.8 t/ha) with an energy output of 32,636 HOE/ha, while VA-06 (56.1 t/ha; 28,699 HOE/ha) and VDP (54.7 t/ha; 27,952 HOE/ha) produced slightly lower but comparable outputs. Forage evaluation indicated moderate nutritional quality, while residues from the third cycle showed favorable carbon and nutrients content, making EG suitable as a soil amendment. EG thus demonstrates high biomass and energy yields, forage potential, and soil improvement capacity, reinforcing its role in integrated bioenergy and agricultural systems.

]]> Agronomic and Utilization Potential of Three Elephant Grass Cultivars for Energy, Forage, and Soil Improvement in Vietnam Lovisa Panduleni Johannes Tran Thi Ngoc Minh Nguyen Van Son Do Thanh Tung Tran Duc Viet Tran Dang Xuan doi: 10.3390/crops5050070 Crops 2025-10-14 Crops 2025-10-14 5 5 Article 70 10.3390/crops5050070 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/70 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 69: Predicting Plant Breeder Decisions Across Multiple Selection Stages in a Wheat Breeding Program https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/69 Selection decisions in plant breeding programs are complex, and breeders aim to integrate phenotypic impressions, genotypic data, and agronomic performance across multiple selection stages to develop successful varieties. This study investigates whether such decisions can be predicted in a commercial winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) breeding program using elastic net models trained on genome-wide distributed markers and genomic estimated breeding values. For this purpose, a dataset of several thousand lines tested between 2015 and 2019 in preliminary, advanced, and elite multi-environment yield trials was analyzed across three decision-making scenarios. The predictive models achieved a higher precision than random selection in all scenarios, with an increased performance when genomic estimated breeding values were included as predictors. Comparisons of breeder selections and model recommendations in terms of selection differentials for key agronomic traits showed a substantial overlap in breeding objectives, while both the breeder’s decisions and the model’s suggestions maintained similar levels of genetic diversity. Although the precision of the elastic net model was of moderate magnitude, divergent model recommendations often identified promising alternative lines, highlighting the potential of artificial intelligence to support decision-making in plant breeding. 2025-10-02 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 69: Predicting Plant Breeder Decisions Across Multiple Selection Stages in a Wheat Breeding Program

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5050069

Authors: Sebastian Michel Franziska Löschenberger Christian Ametz Herbert Bistrich Hermann Bürstmayr

Selection decisions in plant breeding programs are complex, and breeders aim to integrate phenotypic impressions, genotypic data, and agronomic performance across multiple selection stages to develop successful varieties. This study investigates whether such decisions can be predicted in a commercial winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) breeding program using elastic net models trained on genome-wide distributed markers and genomic estimated breeding values. For this purpose, a dataset of several thousand lines tested between 2015 and 2019 in preliminary, advanced, and elite multi-environment yield trials was analyzed across three decision-making scenarios. The predictive models achieved a higher precision than random selection in all scenarios, with an increased performance when genomic estimated breeding values were included as predictors. Comparisons of breeder selections and model recommendations in terms of selection differentials for key agronomic traits showed a substantial overlap in breeding objectives, while both the breeder’s decisions and the model’s suggestions maintained similar levels of genetic diversity. Although the precision of the elastic net model was of moderate magnitude, divergent model recommendations often identified promising alternative lines, highlighting the potential of artificial intelligence to support decision-making in plant breeding.

]]> Predicting Plant Breeder Decisions Across Multiple Selection Stages in a Wheat Breeding Program Sebastian Michel Franziska Löschenberger Christian Ametz Herbert Bistrich Hermann Bürstmayr doi: 10.3390/crops5050069 Crops 2025-10-02 Crops 2025-10-02 5 5 Article 69 10.3390/crops5050069 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/69 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 68: Impact of Coated Phosphorus Fertilizers and Application Methods on Soil Fertility, Yield, and Ionic Regulation of Common Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) Grown in Saline Soil https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/68 Salinity is a major limitation on common bean productivity, while phosphorus in many soils is often immobilized, limiting its availability to plants. This study investigated the effects of coated and uncoated superphosphate fertilizers, applied at different rates and using distinct methods, on soil properties, plant growth, and ion regulation in common beans grown in saline soil over two seasons (2023–2024). Treatments combined two fertilizer types (coated with potassium sulfate and uncoated), two P rates (360 and 480 kg/ha), and two application methods: (1) conventional application, broadcasting followed by plowing to 30 cm depth during soil preparation; (2) surface application, broadcasting without incorporation. Six treatments were applied: T1: 360 kg/ha of uncoated superphosphate (conventional method); T2: 480 kg/ha of uncoated superphosphate (conventional method); T3: 360 kg/ha of coated superphosphate (conventional method); T4: 480 kg/ha of coated superphosphate (conventional method); T5: 360 kg/ha of coated superphosphate (surface method); and T6: 480 kg/ha of coated superphosphate (surface method). The results demonstrated that soil pH was unaffected across treatments. However, T4 and T6 significantly improved nutrient availability (N, P, and K), biomass, grain yield, and seed nutritional quality (protein, P, K, and Ca). Despite increased soil EC, these treatments enhanced ionic balance (higher K/Na and Ca/Na ratios) indicating improved stress tolerance. Importantly, T3 (360 kg/ha coated) performed comparably to T2 (480 kg/ha uncoated), suggesting that coated superphosphate at lower rates can reduce input costs without compromising yield. These results demonstrate the agronomic and environmental benefits of coated superphosphate, particularly under saline conditions, through enhanced nutrient use efficiency and improved crop performance. 2025-09-29 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 68: Impact of Coated Phosphorus Fertilizers and Application Methods on Soil Fertility, Yield, and Ionic Regulation of Common Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) Grown in Saline Soil

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5050068

Authors: Sara A. El-Shabasy Tamer H. Khalifa Tarek M. El-Zehery Alaa El-Dein Omara

Salinity is a major limitation on common bean productivity, while phosphorus in many soils is often immobilized, limiting its availability to plants. This study investigated the effects of coated and uncoated superphosphate fertilizers, applied at different rates and using distinct methods, on soil properties, plant growth, and ion regulation in common beans grown in saline soil over two seasons (2023–2024). Treatments combined two fertilizer types (coated with potassium sulfate and uncoated), two P rates (360 and 480 kg/ha), and two application methods: (1) conventional application, broadcasting followed by plowing to 30 cm depth during soil preparation; (2) surface application, broadcasting without incorporation. Six treatments were applied: T1: 360 kg/ha of uncoated superphosphate (conventional method); T2: 480 kg/ha of uncoated superphosphate (conventional method); T3: 360 kg/ha of coated superphosphate (conventional method); T4: 480 kg/ha of coated superphosphate (conventional method); T5: 360 kg/ha of coated superphosphate (surface method); and T6: 480 kg/ha of coated superphosphate (surface method). The results demonstrated that soil pH was unaffected across treatments. However, T4 and T6 significantly improved nutrient availability (N, P, and K), biomass, grain yield, and seed nutritional quality (protein, P, K, and Ca). Despite increased soil EC, these treatments enhanced ionic balance (higher K/Na and Ca/Na ratios) indicating improved stress tolerance. Importantly, T3 (360 kg/ha coated) performed comparably to T2 (480 kg/ha uncoated), suggesting that coated superphosphate at lower rates can reduce input costs without compromising yield. These results demonstrate the agronomic and environmental benefits of coated superphosphate, particularly under saline conditions, through enhanced nutrient use efficiency and improved crop performance.

]]> Impact of Coated Phosphorus Fertilizers and Application Methods on Soil Fertility, Yield, and Ionic Regulation of Common Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) Grown in Saline Soil Sara A. El-Shabasy Tamer H. Khalifa Tarek M. El-Zehery Alaa El-Dein Omara doi: 10.3390/crops5050068 Crops 2025-09-29 Crops 2025-09-29 5 5 Article 68 10.3390/crops5050068 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/68 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 67: Influence of Crop Phenology and Seasonality on Soil Conditions Across Depth Profiles https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/67 The regulation of nutrient availability and microbial processes in agroecosystems are strongly mediated by soil physico-chemical factors. Yet, their seasonal dynamics in different crops are not fully understood. This study monitored pH, redox potential (Eh), electrical conductivity (EC), and nitrite (NO2−) in soils grown with clover, maize, and triticale from November to May. Monthly samples were collected in four depth layers (0–20, 20–40, 40–60, 60–80 cm) and analyzed to reveal patterns over time and space. Soil pH remained near neutral, with slight decreases in spring, and it appeared that maize maintained more stable values than clover or triticale. Eh was highest in winter, indicating oxidizing conditions, but decreased in spring, especially at depth under triticale. EC showed moderate variation, with higher surface values under maize. NO2− was uniformly low in winter but increased in spring, especially in deeper soils with triticale, while clover had lower accumulation. Overall, clover supported greater soil stability, maize increased surface EC, and triticale enhanced nitrite accumulation at depth. These results highlight the need for crop-specific, depth-aware management to maintain soil quality and optimize nitrogen cycling in agricultural systems. 2025-09-26 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 67: Influence of Crop Phenology and Seasonality on Soil Conditions Across Depth Profiles

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5050067

Authors: Ramona Bălc Delia Maria Gligor Carmen Andreea Roba Tiberius Dicu Gheorghe Roșian Laura Mico

The regulation of nutrient availability and microbial processes in agroecosystems are strongly mediated by soil physico-chemical factors. Yet, their seasonal dynamics in different crops are not fully understood. This study monitored pH, redox potential (Eh), electrical conductivity (EC), and nitrite (NO2−) in soils grown with clover, maize, and triticale from November to May. Monthly samples were collected in four depth layers (0–20, 20–40, 40–60, 60–80 cm) and analyzed to reveal patterns over time and space. Soil pH remained near neutral, with slight decreases in spring, and it appeared that maize maintained more stable values than clover or triticale. Eh was highest in winter, indicating oxidizing conditions, but decreased in spring, especially at depth under triticale. EC showed moderate variation, with higher surface values under maize. NO2− was uniformly low in winter but increased in spring, especially in deeper soils with triticale, while clover had lower accumulation. Overall, clover supported greater soil stability, maize increased surface EC, and triticale enhanced nitrite accumulation at depth. These results highlight the need for crop-specific, depth-aware management to maintain soil quality and optimize nitrogen cycling in agricultural systems.

]]> Influence of Crop Phenology and Seasonality on Soil Conditions Across Depth Profiles Ramona Bălc Delia Maria Gligor Carmen Andreea Roba Tiberius Dicu Gheorghe Roșian Laura Mico doi: 10.3390/crops5050067 Crops 2025-09-26 Crops 2025-09-26 5 5 Article 67 10.3390/crops5050067 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/67 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 66: Evaluation of the Pathogenicity of Metarhizium taii and Trichoderma afroharzianum on Immature Stages of Bemisia tabaci in Tomato Plants https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/66 The whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) is a small phytophagous invertebrate of herbaceous plants, shrubs, trees, wild plants, and crops of economic importance. It generates substantial economic losses due to direct damage caused by sap sucking and virus transmission. This work presents referential images of the morphology of B. tabaci and one of its main biological controllers in southern South America, thus serving as a reference for other researchers. In addition, results are presented of studies carried out to evaluate the pathogenicity of two fungal isolates (previously selected in vitro against Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and Botrytis cinerea and plant growth promoters) identified as Metarhizium taii CEP-722 and Trichoderma afroharzianum CEP-754 in immature stages of B. tabaci in tomato plants (Solanum lycopersicum). The trials were conducted under controlled conditions in controlled chambers, ensuring optimal growth conditions for B. tabaci, after morphological prospection, collection, identification, and mass rearing of adults in entomological cages. The results indicate that M. taii CEP-722 caused approximately 30% mortality in the immature stages of B. tabaci, while T. afroharzianum CEP-754 did not increase mortality under the experimental conditions. This study provides new knowledge on the potential of M. taii as a biological control agent against B. tabaci, offering a promising alternative in integrated pest management strategies. The results with T. afroharzianum suggest that further methodologies or combinations should be explored to improve its efficacy. 2025-09-26 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 66: Evaluation of the Pathogenicity of Metarhizium taii and Trichoderma afroharzianum on Immature Stages of Bemisia tabaci in Tomato Plants

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5050066

Authors: Ricardo A. Varela-Pardo Gustavo Curaqueo Alejandra Fuentes-Quiroz Paola Díaz-Navarrete Claudia López-Lastra Cecilia Mónaco Eduardo Wright

The whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) is a small phytophagous invertebrate of herbaceous plants, shrubs, trees, wild plants, and crops of economic importance. It generates substantial economic losses due to direct damage caused by sap sucking and virus transmission. This work presents referential images of the morphology of B. tabaci and one of its main biological controllers in southern South America, thus serving as a reference for other researchers. In addition, results are presented of studies carried out to evaluate the pathogenicity of two fungal isolates (previously selected in vitro against Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and Botrytis cinerea and plant growth promoters) identified as Metarhizium taii CEP-722 and Trichoderma afroharzianum CEP-754 in immature stages of B. tabaci in tomato plants (Solanum lycopersicum). The trials were conducted under controlled conditions in controlled chambers, ensuring optimal growth conditions for B. tabaci, after morphological prospection, collection, identification, and mass rearing of adults in entomological cages. The results indicate that M. taii CEP-722 caused approximately 30% mortality in the immature stages of B. tabaci, while T. afroharzianum CEP-754 did not increase mortality under the experimental conditions. This study provides new knowledge on the potential of M. taii as a biological control agent against B. tabaci, offering a promising alternative in integrated pest management strategies. The results with T. afroharzianum suggest that further methodologies or combinations should be explored to improve its efficacy.

]]> Evaluation of the Pathogenicity of Metarhizium taii and Trichoderma afroharzianum on Immature Stages of Bemisia tabaci in Tomato Plants Ricardo A. Varela-Pardo Gustavo Curaqueo Alejandra Fuentes-Quiroz Paola Díaz-Navarrete Claudia López-Lastra Cecilia Mónaco Eduardo Wright doi: 10.3390/crops5050066 Crops 2025-09-26 Crops 2025-09-26 5 5 Communication 66 10.3390/crops5050066 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/66 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 65: Water Deficit During Pod Development Affects Eco-Physiological Traits, Growth, and Yield in Pea Varieties Under Greenhouse Conditions in Tropical Highlands https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/65 Water deficit during reproductive development is one of the main constraints on pea (Pisum sativum L.) productivity in tropical highlands. In this study, five varieties with contrasting leaf architectures were evaluated under controlled greenhouse conditions, with and without water deficit applied from the time of pod formation. Key ecophysiological variables, including leaf area index (LAI), radiation extinction coefficient (k), interception efficiency (RIE), radiation use efficiency (RUE), and water use efficiency (WUE), along with yield components, were measured. Deficit significantly reduced biomass, RUE, and yield, although the harvest index (HI) remained relatively stable. Varieties with the afila gene showed greater stability in LAI and WUE, but lower biomass accumulation. Correlation analyses revealed that, under optimal conditions, yield was closely associated with structural and functional traits, a relationship that weakened under stress. These results demonstrate the importance of integrating morphophysiological characteristics into breeding and agronomic management programs to develop more efficient and resilient varieties under water deficit conditions in the high tropics. 2025-09-25 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 65: Water Deficit During Pod Development Affects Eco-Physiological Traits, Growth, and Yield in Pea Varieties Under Greenhouse Conditions in Tropical Highlands

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5050065

Authors: Diego Alejandro Gutiérrez-Villamil Oscar Humberto Alvarado-Sanabria Javier Giovanni Álvarez-Herrera

Water deficit during reproductive development is one of the main constraints on pea (Pisum sativum L.) productivity in tropical highlands. In this study, five varieties with contrasting leaf architectures were evaluated under controlled greenhouse conditions, with and without water deficit applied from the time of pod formation. Key ecophysiological variables, including leaf area index (LAI), radiation extinction coefficient (k), interception efficiency (RIE), radiation use efficiency (RUE), and water use efficiency (WUE), along with yield components, were measured. Deficit significantly reduced biomass, RUE, and yield, although the harvest index (HI) remained relatively stable. Varieties with the afila gene showed greater stability in LAI and WUE, but lower biomass accumulation. Correlation analyses revealed that, under optimal conditions, yield was closely associated with structural and functional traits, a relationship that weakened under stress. These results demonstrate the importance of integrating morphophysiological characteristics into breeding and agronomic management programs to develop more efficient and resilient varieties under water deficit conditions in the high tropics.

]]> Water Deficit During Pod Development Affects Eco-Physiological Traits, Growth, and Yield in Pea Varieties Under Greenhouse Conditions in Tropical Highlands Diego Alejandro Gutiérrez-Villamil Oscar Humberto Alvarado-Sanabria Javier Giovanni Álvarez-Herrera doi: 10.3390/crops5050065 Crops 2025-09-25 Crops 2025-09-25 5 5 Article 65 10.3390/crops5050065 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/65 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 64: Seed Morphometry and Germination of Four Edible Species of Passiflora spp. Conserved in a Gene Bank https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/64 The Passifloraceae family is one of the most representative in tropical America, with food, pharmaceutical, and ornamental importance. This study evaluated seed morphometry and germination of eight accessions of four Passiflora edible species, P. edulis; P. ligularis; P. quadrangularis; and P. tripartita var. mollissima, by studying accessions conserved several years in the gene bank (−15 °C) and recently collected accessions. Four experimental phases were carried out as follows: (1) morphometric characterization of seeds with qualitative and quantitative variables; (2) evaluation of germination under two thermal regimes (20 °C/30 °C and 25 °C); (3) application of six pre-germination treatments to overcome dormancy; and (4) tetrazolium tests. In phase 1, P. quadrangularis stood out for its unique morphological characteristics according to multivariate analysis. In phase 2, the alternating thermal regime (20 °C/30 °C) promoted the highest germination. In phase 3, the germination response was specific to each species: mechanical scarification in P. edulis (85.7%), KNO3 (0.5%) in P. ligularis (35.7%), control in P. quadrangularis (71.1%), and gibberellic acid (GA3 400 ppm) in P. tripartita (71.4%). The tetrazolium phase 4 identified the viability status of the seeds. It is concluded that the differences in morphometry and germination reflect the intrinsic characteristics of each species, highlighting the importance of specific protocols for their germination. This study provides tools to optimize the conservation and regeneration of Passiflora spp. germplasm under ex situ conditions, as a genetic base to be utilized in the future. 2025-09-23 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 64: Seed Morphometry and Germination of Four Edible Species of Passiflora spp. Conserved in a Gene Bank

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5050064

Authors: Fabricio Verdezoto-Merino Álvaro Monteros-Altamirano Alberto Roura Héctor Andrade-Bolaños

The Passifloraceae family is one of the most representative in tropical America, with food, pharmaceutical, and ornamental importance. This study evaluated seed morphometry and germination of eight accessions of four Passiflora edible species, P. edulis; P. ligularis; P. quadrangularis; and P. tripartita var. mollissima, by studying accessions conserved several years in the gene bank (−15 °C) and recently collected accessions. Four experimental phases were carried out as follows: (1) morphometric characterization of seeds with qualitative and quantitative variables; (2) evaluation of germination under two thermal regimes (20 °C/30 °C and 25 °C); (3) application of six pre-germination treatments to overcome dormancy; and (4) tetrazolium tests. In phase 1, P. quadrangularis stood out for its unique morphological characteristics according to multivariate analysis. In phase 2, the alternating thermal regime (20 °C/30 °C) promoted the highest germination. In phase 3, the germination response was specific to each species: mechanical scarification in P. edulis (85.7%), KNO3 (0.5%) in P. ligularis (35.7%), control in P. quadrangularis (71.1%), and gibberellic acid (GA3 400 ppm) in P. tripartita (71.4%). The tetrazolium phase 4 identified the viability status of the seeds. It is concluded that the differences in morphometry and germination reflect the intrinsic characteristics of each species, highlighting the importance of specific protocols for their germination. This study provides tools to optimize the conservation and regeneration of Passiflora spp. germplasm under ex situ conditions, as a genetic base to be utilized in the future.

]]> Seed Morphometry and Germination of Four Edible Species of Passiflora spp. Conserved in a Gene Bank Fabricio Verdezoto-Merino Álvaro Monteros-Altamirano Alberto Roura Héctor Andrade-Bolaños doi: 10.3390/crops5050064 Crops 2025-09-23 Crops 2025-09-23 5 5 Article 64 10.3390/crops5050064 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/64 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 63: Spring Wheat Breeding in Northern Kazakhstan: Drivers of Diversity and Performance https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/63 Kazakhstan cultivates over 12 million hectares of wheat, primarily spring wheat in the northern region. Spring wheat yields are low, ranging from 1.2 to 1.7 t/ha depending on weather conditions. Northern Kazakhstan is served by five spring wheat breeding programs: A.I. Barayev Research and Production Centre for Grain Farming and Agricultural Experimental Stations located in the Aktobe, Karagandy, Kostanay, and North Kazakhstan regions. In 2022, a germplasm set was assembled, including cultivars and breeding lines from the five breeding programs, totaling 84 genotypes. This set was evaluated in field trials during 2022 and 2023 at the breeding programs that contributed to the germplasm (except Aktobe). The material was also screened for molecular markers associated with genes for agronomic traits. The study objective was to compare the diversity and performance of germplasm originating from different breeding programs and identify potential underlying drivers. Breeding sites grouped based on variations in air temperature, precipitation, and grain yield demonstrated both similarities and differences among sites. However, these similarities were not reflected in the agronomic performance of materials originating from different locations. The expectation that germplasm would perform best for grain yield at its “home” location was not always confirmed. Grouping of germplasm based on genetic diversity of 20 molecular markers was not related to similarities in environmental conditions at the places of origin. The performance and diversity of germplasm from each of the five breeding programs is apparently driven by factors beyond environment, including breeding strategy and methodology, parental pool, and, in the absence of modern tools, breeders’ intuition and selection robustness. Kazakh spring wheat breeding programs require improvement to remain competitive in the face of increasing pressure from introduced foreign cultivars. 2025-09-17 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 63: Spring Wheat Breeding in Northern Kazakhstan: Drivers of Diversity and Performance

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5050063

Authors: Timur Savin Yerlan Turuspekov Akerke Amalova Shynar Anuarbek Adylkhan Babkenov Vladimir Chudinov Elena Fedorenko Yelzhas Kairzhanov Akerke Maulenbay Grigoriy Sereda Sergey Sereda Daniyar Tajibayev Vladimir Tsygankov Artem Tsygankov Lyudmila Zotova Alexey Morgounov

Kazakhstan cultivates over 12 million hectares of wheat, primarily spring wheat in the northern region. Spring wheat yields are low, ranging from 1.2 to 1.7 t/ha depending on weather conditions. Northern Kazakhstan is served by five spring wheat breeding programs: A.I. Barayev Research and Production Centre for Grain Farming and Agricultural Experimental Stations located in the Aktobe, Karagandy, Kostanay, and North Kazakhstan regions. In 2022, a germplasm set was assembled, including cultivars and breeding lines from the five breeding programs, totaling 84 genotypes. This set was evaluated in field trials during 2022 and 2023 at the breeding programs that contributed to the germplasm (except Aktobe). The material was also screened for molecular markers associated with genes for agronomic traits. The study objective was to compare the diversity and performance of germplasm originating from different breeding programs and identify potential underlying drivers. Breeding sites grouped based on variations in air temperature, precipitation, and grain yield demonstrated both similarities and differences among sites. However, these similarities were not reflected in the agronomic performance of materials originating from different locations. The expectation that germplasm would perform best for grain yield at its “home” location was not always confirmed. Grouping of germplasm based on genetic diversity of 20 molecular markers was not related to similarities in environmental conditions at the places of origin. The performance and diversity of germplasm from each of the five breeding programs is apparently driven by factors beyond environment, including breeding strategy and methodology, parental pool, and, in the absence of modern tools, breeders’ intuition and selection robustness. Kazakh spring wheat breeding programs require improvement to remain competitive in the face of increasing pressure from introduced foreign cultivars.

]]> Spring Wheat Breeding in Northern Kazakhstan: Drivers of Diversity and Performance Timur Savin Yerlan Turuspekov Akerke Amalova Shynar Anuarbek Adylkhan Babkenov Vladimir Chudinov Elena Fedorenko Yelzhas Kairzhanov Akerke Maulenbay Grigoriy Sereda Sergey Sereda Daniyar Tajibayev Vladimir Tsygankov Artem Tsygankov Lyudmila Zotova Alexey Morgounov doi: 10.3390/crops5050063 Crops 2025-09-17 Crops 2025-09-17 5 5 Article 63 10.3390/crops5050063 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/63 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 62: Mitigating Salinity Stress in Solanaceae: The Role of Nanoparticles in Seed Germination and Growth Development https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/62 Salinity is a significant challenge that limits agricultural productivity worldwide. This study examined the use of nanoparticles to improve the growth and development of Solanaceae crops under salinity stress. Specifically, titanium dioxide (TiO2NPs), copper oxide (CuONPs), and zinc oxide (ZnONPs) were applied at 750, 1250, and 1500 mg/kg per seed, respectively, to assess their effects on seed germination and growth of tomato, eggplant, and pepper plants. Results showed that tomato plants under salinity stress performed best with CuONPs, which improved key traits. The combination of salinity and TiO2NPs reduced flower abortion and increased seed yield and 1000-Seed weight. In eggplants, CuONPs and ZnONPs, both individually and in combination with salinity, enhanced plant characteristics, with CuONPs showing particularly strong effects. Control plants consistently recorded the lowest values across traits. For peppers, ZnONPs applied individually most effectively improved growth traits, while CuONPs reduced flower abortion and enhanced seed and germination rates. However, salinity stress itself severely reduced pepper growth parameters. The findings highlight the potential of nanoparticle applications to mitigate salinity stress, enhance growth performance, and support sustainable crop production in tomatoes, eggplants, and peppers, offering practical solutions for salinity-affected agriculture. 2025-09-12 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 62: Mitigating Salinity Stress in Solanaceae: The Role of Nanoparticles in Seed Germination and Growth Development

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5050062

Authors: Chinur Hadi Mahmood Kamaran Salh Rasul Hawar Sleman Halshoy

Salinity is a significant challenge that limits agricultural productivity worldwide. This study examined the use of nanoparticles to improve the growth and development of Solanaceae crops under salinity stress. Specifically, titanium dioxide (TiO2NPs), copper oxide (CuONPs), and zinc oxide (ZnONPs) were applied at 750, 1250, and 1500 mg/kg per seed, respectively, to assess their effects on seed germination and growth of tomato, eggplant, and pepper plants. Results showed that tomato plants under salinity stress performed best with CuONPs, which improved key traits. The combination of salinity and TiO2NPs reduced flower abortion and increased seed yield and 1000-Seed weight. In eggplants, CuONPs and ZnONPs, both individually and in combination with salinity, enhanced plant characteristics, with CuONPs showing particularly strong effects. Control plants consistently recorded the lowest values across traits. For peppers, ZnONPs applied individually most effectively improved growth traits, while CuONPs reduced flower abortion and enhanced seed and germination rates. However, salinity stress itself severely reduced pepper growth parameters. The findings highlight the potential of nanoparticle applications to mitigate salinity stress, enhance growth performance, and support sustainable crop production in tomatoes, eggplants, and peppers, offering practical solutions for salinity-affected agriculture.

]]> Mitigating Salinity Stress in Solanaceae: The Role of Nanoparticles in Seed Germination and Growth Development Chinur Hadi Mahmood Kamaran Salh Rasul Hawar Sleman Halshoy doi: 10.3390/crops5050062 Crops 2025-09-12 Crops 2025-09-12 5 5 Article 62 10.3390/crops5050062 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/62 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 61: Moroccan Ulva rigida Extracts: A Promising Biostimulant for Improving Growth and Photosynthetic Performance in Salt-Stressed Bean Plants https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/61 Soil salinity is a crucial factor that limits agricultural production, negatively impacting the growth and physiological functions of salt-sensitive crops, such as beans. The present study examined the efficiency of Ulva rigida seaweed extracts (URE) as biostimulants to enhance the growth and photosynthetic ability of bean plants (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) under saline conditions (51.33 mM NaCl). Seaweed extracts were obtained by maceration and ultrasonic assistance at two concentrations, 25% and 50% (v/v), and applied as a foliar spray or irrigation. The most significant improvement was observed following foliar sprays of 50% ultrasonic extract (UP-50), with an increase of 96% in CCI compared to salt-stressed controls and by 71% compared to non-stressed controls. Stomatal conductance (SC) was also significantly improved with UP-50, reaching levels that were 146% higher than those of salt-stressed plants and 53% higher than those of non-stressed plants. The OJIP transients under salinity were significantly improved by both ultrasonic-assisted and maceration extracts; especially, 50% maceration extracts (MP-50) restored PSII quantum efficiency (ΦPo) and total performance index (PItotal) of salinity-stressed seedlings to 107% and 255% of non-stressed control and 122% and 314% of salt-stressed control, respectively. Root length and indole acetic acid (IAA) levels in treated plants were also enhanced, particularly in response to higher concentrations of the extract, suggesting improved root growth as well as hormonal homeostasis in the presence of salt stress. According to these findings, U. rigida extracts, specifically those applied at high concentrations as a foliar spray, serve as biostimulants that mitigate the adverse effects of salt stress on beans by preventing chlorophyll degradation and enhancing photosynthesis, root development, and hormonal balance. 2025-09-08 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 61: Moroccan Ulva rigida Extracts: A Promising Biostimulant for Improving Growth and Photosynthetic Performance in Salt-Stressed Bean Plants

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5050061

Authors: Salma Latique

Soil salinity is a crucial factor that limits agricultural production, negatively impacting the growth and physiological functions of salt-sensitive crops, such as beans. The present study examined the efficiency of Ulva rigida seaweed extracts (URE) as biostimulants to enhance the growth and photosynthetic ability of bean plants (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) under saline conditions (51.33 mM NaCl). Seaweed extracts were obtained by maceration and ultrasonic assistance at two concentrations, 25% and 50% (v/v), and applied as a foliar spray or irrigation. The most significant improvement was observed following foliar sprays of 50% ultrasonic extract (UP-50), with an increase of 96% in CCI compared to salt-stressed controls and by 71% compared to non-stressed controls. Stomatal conductance (SC) was also significantly improved with UP-50, reaching levels that were 146% higher than those of salt-stressed plants and 53% higher than those of non-stressed plants. The OJIP transients under salinity were significantly improved by both ultrasonic-assisted and maceration extracts; especially, 50% maceration extracts (MP-50) restored PSII quantum efficiency (ΦPo) and total performance index (PItotal) of salinity-stressed seedlings to 107% and 255% of non-stressed control and 122% and 314% of salt-stressed control, respectively. Root length and indole acetic acid (IAA) levels in treated plants were also enhanced, particularly in response to higher concentrations of the extract, suggesting improved root growth as well as hormonal homeostasis in the presence of salt stress. According to these findings, U. rigida extracts, specifically those applied at high concentrations as a foliar spray, serve as biostimulants that mitigate the adverse effects of salt stress on beans by preventing chlorophyll degradation and enhancing photosynthesis, root development, and hormonal balance.

]]> Moroccan Ulva rigida Extracts: A Promising Biostimulant for Improving Growth and Photosynthetic Performance in Salt-Stressed Bean Plants Salma Latique doi: 10.3390/crops5050061 Crops 2025-09-08 Crops 2025-09-08 5 5 Article 61 10.3390/crops5050061 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/61 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 60: Dual Role of Triazole Fungicides in Managing Alternaria Blight and Promoting Growth in Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/60 Alternaria leaf blight (ALB) is a major constraint to groundnut production, particularly in North Gujarat, where its incidence has intensified in recent years due to changing climatic conditions. Effective and sustainable disease management requires fungicides that not only suppress the pathogen but also promote plant growth. To identify such options, field experiments were conducted during 2016–2018 to evaluate the bioefficacy of nine fungicides, including five systemic, two contact, and two combination formulations. Among these, propiconazole 25 EC, tebuconazole 25 WG, and carbendazim 50 WP were the most effective in reducing disease intensity and slowing disease progression. The highest pod and haulm yields were recorded in plots treated with tebuconazole 25 WG, followed by propiconazole 25 EC and carbendazim 50 WP. However, the highest cost–benefit ratio was observed with carbendazim 50 WP, followed by propiconazole 25 EC and tebuconazole 25 WG. In addition, propiconazole 25 EC and tebuconazole 25 WG exhibited notable plant growth-promoting effects, enhancing plant height, root length, and chlorophyll content. Based on these findings, the application of propiconazole 25 EC or tebuconazole 25 WG is recommended for the effective and economical management of ALB in groundnut. 2025-09-02 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 60: Dual Role of Triazole Fungicides in Managing Alternaria Blight and Promoting Growth in Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.)

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5050060

Authors: Jyotika Purohit Anirudha Chattopadhyay Dasharathlal S. Patel Somabhai M. Chaudhari Kantilal K. Patel

Alternaria leaf blight (ALB) is a major constraint to groundnut production, particularly in North Gujarat, where its incidence has intensified in recent years due to changing climatic conditions. Effective and sustainable disease management requires fungicides that not only suppress the pathogen but also promote plant growth. To identify such options, field experiments were conducted during 2016–2018 to evaluate the bioefficacy of nine fungicides, including five systemic, two contact, and two combination formulations. Among these, propiconazole 25 EC, tebuconazole 25 WG, and carbendazim 50 WP were the most effective in reducing disease intensity and slowing disease progression. The highest pod and haulm yields were recorded in plots treated with tebuconazole 25 WG, followed by propiconazole 25 EC and carbendazim 50 WP. However, the highest cost–benefit ratio was observed with carbendazim 50 WP, followed by propiconazole 25 EC and tebuconazole 25 WG. In addition, propiconazole 25 EC and tebuconazole 25 WG exhibited notable plant growth-promoting effects, enhancing plant height, root length, and chlorophyll content. Based on these findings, the application of propiconazole 25 EC or tebuconazole 25 WG is recommended for the effective and economical management of ALB in groundnut.

]]> Dual Role of Triazole Fungicides in Managing Alternaria Blight and Promoting Growth in Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) Jyotika Purohit Anirudha Chattopadhyay Dasharathlal S. Patel Somabhai M. Chaudhari Kantilal K. Patel doi: 10.3390/crops5050060 Crops 2025-09-02 Crops 2025-09-02 5 5 Article 60 10.3390/crops5050060 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/60 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 59: Effect of Row Spacing in the Period Prior to Weed Interference in Peanut Cultivation Under Azorean Conditions https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/59 Peanut cultivation currently plays a minor role in Portuguese agriculture, despite the country’s favorable soil and climatic conditions. In the Azores archipelago, where agriculture is a key economic activity, peanut production has recently sparked interest among rural producers. Weeds pose a major threat to crop development, particularly for short-cycle species like peanuts. This study aimed to determine the period prior to weed interference (PPI) in peanut crops under two row spacings (40 cm and 60 cm) on São Miguel Island, Azores. Eight treatments were established—0–15, 0–30, 0–45, 0–60, 0–75, 0–90 days after emergence (DAE), full-season coexistence, and a weed-free control—to represent increasing periods of weed competition. A randomized block design with four replicates was used for each spacing. The weed community included eight species, with Cyperus spp., Digitaria spp., Amaranthus blitum, and Portulaca oleracea being the most prevalent. Weed interference throughout the entire cycle led to yield losses exceeding 81% and 86% at 40 cm and 60 cm row spacings, respectively. The PPI was defined at a 5% yield reduction threshold, which is a commonly accepted benchmark in weed science to determine the beginning of the critical period of weed interference. 2025-08-31 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 59: Effect of Row Spacing in the Period Prior to Weed Interference in Peanut Cultivation Under Azorean Conditions

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5050059

Authors: Mariana Casari Parreira Vasco Rafael Rodrigues Costa David João Horta Lopes João Martim de Portugal e Vasconcelos João da Silva Madruga Vitor Adriano Benedito Arthur Nardi Campalle Heytor Lemos Martins

Peanut cultivation currently plays a minor role in Portuguese agriculture, despite the country’s favorable soil and climatic conditions. In the Azores archipelago, where agriculture is a key economic activity, peanut production has recently sparked interest among rural producers. Weeds pose a major threat to crop development, particularly for short-cycle species like peanuts. This study aimed to determine the period prior to weed interference (PPI) in peanut crops under two row spacings (40 cm and 60 cm) on São Miguel Island, Azores. Eight treatments were established—0–15, 0–30, 0–45, 0–60, 0–75, 0–90 days after emergence (DAE), full-season coexistence, and a weed-free control—to represent increasing periods of weed competition. A randomized block design with four replicates was used for each spacing. The weed community included eight species, with Cyperus spp., Digitaria spp., Amaranthus blitum, and Portulaca oleracea being the most prevalent. Weed interference throughout the entire cycle led to yield losses exceeding 81% and 86% at 40 cm and 60 cm row spacings, respectively. The PPI was defined at a 5% yield reduction threshold, which is a commonly accepted benchmark in weed science to determine the beginning of the critical period of weed interference.

]]> Effect of Row Spacing in the Period Prior to Weed Interference in Peanut Cultivation Under Azorean Conditions Mariana Casari Parreira Vasco Rafael Rodrigues Costa David João Horta Lopes João Martim de Portugal e Vasconcelos João da Silva Madruga Vitor Adriano Benedito Arthur Nardi Campalle Heytor Lemos Martins doi: 10.3390/crops5050059 Crops 2025-08-31 Crops 2025-08-31 5 5 Article 59 10.3390/crops5050059 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/59 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 58: A Novel Spectral Vegetation Index for Improved Detection of Soybean Cyst Nematode (SCN) Infestation Using Hyperspectral Data https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/58 Soybean cyst nematode (SCN) is a pathogen with serious impacts on soybean yields, yet traditional field-based assessment is labor-intensive and often ineffective for early interventions, and the existing spectral vegetation indices (VIs) also lack the ability to accurately detect SCN infested plants. This study aimed to develop an improved detection method using hyperspectral data. A greenhouse-based experiment was designed to collect 100 hyperspectral datasets from 20 soybean plants inoculated with four SCN egg levels (0–10,000) from the 68th to 97th day after planting. Based on spectral similarity and inoculation levels, three stress classes were defined as proxies for actual plant stress: healthy (0 egg), moderate (1000 and 5000 eggs), and severe (10,000 eggs). These classifications are based on predefined inoculation thresholds and spectral trends, which may not fully align with direct physiological stress measurements due to inherent variability in individual plant responses. Through analysis of variance (ANOVA), principal component analysis (PCA), feature selection, and classification comparison, a new spectral VI, called SCNVI, was proposed using bands 338 nm and 665 nm. The SCNVI coupled with eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) achieved an accurate classification of 70% for three classes and outperformed the 12 traditional VIs. These findings suggest that integrating the SCNVI and XGBoost algorithm provides the potential for improving the detection of SCN infestation, though further validation in field environments is required to confirm its practical applicability. 2025-08-29 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 58: A Novel Spectral Vegetation Index for Improved Detection of Soybean Cyst Nematode (SCN) Infestation Using Hyperspectral Data

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5050058

Authors: Yuhua Wang Ruopu Li Jason Bond Ahmad Fakhoury Justin Schoof

Soybean cyst nematode (SCN) is a pathogen with serious impacts on soybean yields, yet traditional field-based assessment is labor-intensive and often ineffective for early interventions, and the existing spectral vegetation indices (VIs) also lack the ability to accurately detect SCN infested plants. This study aimed to develop an improved detection method using hyperspectral data. A greenhouse-based experiment was designed to collect 100 hyperspectral datasets from 20 soybean plants inoculated with four SCN egg levels (0–10,000) from the 68th to 97th day after planting. Based on spectral similarity and inoculation levels, three stress classes were defined as proxies for actual plant stress: healthy (0 egg), moderate (1000 and 5000 eggs), and severe (10,000 eggs). These classifications are based on predefined inoculation thresholds and spectral trends, which may not fully align with direct physiological stress measurements due to inherent variability in individual plant responses. Through analysis of variance (ANOVA), principal component analysis (PCA), feature selection, and classification comparison, a new spectral VI, called SCNVI, was proposed using bands 338 nm and 665 nm. The SCNVI coupled with eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) achieved an accurate classification of 70% for three classes and outperformed the 12 traditional VIs. These findings suggest that integrating the SCNVI and XGBoost algorithm provides the potential for improving the detection of SCN infestation, though further validation in field environments is required to confirm its practical applicability.

]]> A Novel Spectral Vegetation Index for Improved Detection of Soybean Cyst Nematode (SCN) Infestation Using Hyperspectral Data Yuhua Wang Ruopu Li Jason Bond Ahmad Fakhoury Justin Schoof doi: 10.3390/crops5050058 Crops 2025-08-29 Crops 2025-08-29 5 5 Article 58 10.3390/crops5050058 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/58 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 57: Growth and Physiological Traits Associated with Water Use Efficiency in Different Popcorn Genotypes Grown Under Water-Stress Conditions https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/57 Climate change may soon impact popcorn productivity. The aim was to assess physiological and growth traits in two popcorn genotypes with different water use efficiency under water-deficit stress. The plants were grown in a greenhouse under either water stress (WS) or non-water stress (WW) conditions. Gas exchange, chlorophyll fluorescence, and leaf temperature were assessed every three days, for a total of nine measurements. At the end of the assessment period, growth traits and the SPAD index were evaluated. Our hypotheses were as follows: (a) plants of the P7 genotype (water-efficient agronomic genotype) would take longer than L65 plants (water-inefficient agronomic genotype) to reduce photosynthetic rates under water stress conditions; (b) after re-irrigation, P7 plants would recover photosynthetic capacity with values similar to the period without water stress; and (c) P7 plants would recover photosynthetic capacity faster than L65 plants when subjected to the same period of water stress. The P7 genotype (agronomic water-efficient genotype) absorbed water more quickly due to higher root biomass, root length, and root volume. Yet, at 14 days after suspending irrigation (DASI), the P7 genotype had the lowest net CO2 assimilation rate (Anet), stomatal conductance (gs), and transpiration rates (E) values. However, L65 (agronomic water-inefficient genotype) had the lowest Anet, gs, and E values only at 17 DASI. As a consequence of stomatal closure in both genotypes, the E rates were reduced, and there was an increase in leaf temperature for WS plants, while L65 had higher leaf temperature at maximum water stress. No photochemical damage was detected, indicating that the reduced Anet in WS was likely due to stomatal limitations and biochemical disturbances in both genotypes. Photosynthetic recovery occurred gradually, with full restoration of rates in both genotypes at the end of the experiment. Although our initial hypothesis expected the P7 genotype to maintain photosynthesis longer under water stress, our findings showed an earlier decline in Anet compared to L65. This result is likely due to the large root system of P7 exhausting the limited soil water more rapidly in pot conditions, accelerating the onset of stress. 2025-08-29 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 57: Growth and Physiological Traits Associated with Water Use Efficiency in Different Popcorn Genotypes Grown Under Water-Stress Conditions

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5050057

Authors: Emile Caroline Silva Lopes Paulo Ricardo dos Santos Luciene Souza Ferreira Guilherme Augusto Rodrigues de Souza Weverton Pereira Rodrigues Samuel Henrique Kamphorst Valter Jário de Lima Deivisson Pelegrino de Abreu Antônio Teixeira do Amaral Junior Eliemar Campostrini

Climate change may soon impact popcorn productivity. The aim was to assess physiological and growth traits in two popcorn genotypes with different water use efficiency under water-deficit stress. The plants were grown in a greenhouse under either water stress (WS) or non-water stress (WW) conditions. Gas exchange, chlorophyll fluorescence, and leaf temperature were assessed every three days, for a total of nine measurements. At the end of the assessment period, growth traits and the SPAD index were evaluated. Our hypotheses were as follows: (a) plants of the P7 genotype (water-efficient agronomic genotype) would take longer than L65 plants (water-inefficient agronomic genotype) to reduce photosynthetic rates under water stress conditions; (b) after re-irrigation, P7 plants would recover photosynthetic capacity with values similar to the period without water stress; and (c) P7 plants would recover photosynthetic capacity faster than L65 plants when subjected to the same period of water stress. The P7 genotype (agronomic water-efficient genotype) absorbed water more quickly due to higher root biomass, root length, and root volume. Yet, at 14 days after suspending irrigation (DASI), the P7 genotype had the lowest net CO2 assimilation rate (Anet), stomatal conductance (gs), and transpiration rates (E) values. However, L65 (agronomic water-inefficient genotype) had the lowest Anet, gs, and E values only at 17 DASI. As a consequence of stomatal closure in both genotypes, the E rates were reduced, and there was an increase in leaf temperature for WS plants, while L65 had higher leaf temperature at maximum water stress. No photochemical damage was detected, indicating that the reduced Anet in WS was likely due to stomatal limitations and biochemical disturbances in both genotypes. Photosynthetic recovery occurred gradually, with full restoration of rates in both genotypes at the end of the experiment. Although our initial hypothesis expected the P7 genotype to maintain photosynthesis longer under water stress, our findings showed an earlier decline in Anet compared to L65. This result is likely due to the large root system of P7 exhausting the limited soil water more rapidly in pot conditions, accelerating the onset of stress.

]]> Growth and Physiological Traits Associated with Water Use Efficiency in Different Popcorn Genotypes Grown Under Water-Stress Conditions Emile Caroline Silva Lopes Paulo Ricardo dos Santos Luciene Souza Ferreira Guilherme Augusto Rodrigues de Souza Weverton Pereira Rodrigues Samuel Henrique Kamphorst Valter Jário de Lima Deivisson Pelegrino de Abreu Antônio Teixeira do Amaral Junior Eliemar Campostrini doi: 10.3390/crops5050057 Crops 2025-08-29 Crops 2025-08-29 5 5 Article 57 10.3390/crops5050057 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/57 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 56: Valorization of Expired Milk into Protein Hydrolysate as a Plant Biostimulant: Characterization and Application on Hydroponically Grown Cos Lettuce https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/56 To meet global food demand, agricultural systems must enhance crop performance, productivity, and sustainability. Biostimulants have emerged as a promising strategy, particularly in vegetable production, due to their ability to enhance plant growth and resilience. This study characterized milk-derived protein hydrolysates (MPH) produced from expired milk and evaluated their potential as biostimulants for hydroponic cos lettuce. Hydrolysis of expired milk with hydrochloric acid achieved 94.55% hydrolysis and yielded 80.77% free amino acids. MPH was applied at volumes of 0, 1, 3, and 5 mL L−1 in combination with Hoagland and Arnon nutrient solution. The 1 mL L−1 (MPH1) treatment significantly increased shoot and root biomass and canopy size while reducing nitrate accumulation and enhancing total flavonoid and ascorbic acid content, as well as antioxidant capacity. HPLC analysis showed that MPH1 treatment promoted the accumulation of key metabolites, including vanillic acid, para-coumaric acid, salicylic acid, ferulic acid, gallic acid, syringic acid, quercetin, myricetin, and naringenin. MPH1 improved uptake of phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and iron, contributing to mineral biofortification and nutritional quality. These results demonstrate that MPH at 1 mL L−1 is an effective biostimulant, improving yield and quality while reducing nitrate levels in hydroponically grown cos lettuce, offering a sustainable solution for food waste valorization. 2025-08-28 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 56: Valorization of Expired Milk into Protein Hydrolysate as a Plant Biostimulant: Characterization and Application on Hydroponically Grown Cos Lettuce

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5050056

Authors: Aryanis Mutia Zahra Apiradee Uthairatanakij Natta Laohakunjit Pongphen Jitareerat Nattapon Kaisangsri Arak Tira-Umphon

To meet global food demand, agricultural systems must enhance crop performance, productivity, and sustainability. Biostimulants have emerged as a promising strategy, particularly in vegetable production, due to their ability to enhance plant growth and resilience. This study characterized milk-derived protein hydrolysates (MPH) produced from expired milk and evaluated their potential as biostimulants for hydroponic cos lettuce. Hydrolysis of expired milk with hydrochloric acid achieved 94.55% hydrolysis and yielded 80.77% free amino acids. MPH was applied at volumes of 0, 1, 3, and 5 mL L−1 in combination with Hoagland and Arnon nutrient solution. The 1 mL L−1 (MPH1) treatment significantly increased shoot and root biomass and canopy size while reducing nitrate accumulation and enhancing total flavonoid and ascorbic acid content, as well as antioxidant capacity. HPLC analysis showed that MPH1 treatment promoted the accumulation of key metabolites, including vanillic acid, para-coumaric acid, salicylic acid, ferulic acid, gallic acid, syringic acid, quercetin, myricetin, and naringenin. MPH1 improved uptake of phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and iron, contributing to mineral biofortification and nutritional quality. These results demonstrate that MPH at 1 mL L−1 is an effective biostimulant, improving yield and quality while reducing nitrate levels in hydroponically grown cos lettuce, offering a sustainable solution for food waste valorization.

]]> Valorization of Expired Milk into Protein Hydrolysate as a Plant Biostimulant: Characterization and Application on Hydroponically Grown Cos Lettuce Aryanis Mutia Zahra Apiradee Uthairatanakij Natta Laohakunjit Pongphen Jitareerat Nattapon Kaisangsri Arak Tira-Umphon doi: 10.3390/crops5050056 Crops 2025-08-28 Crops 2025-08-28 5 5 Article 56 10.3390/crops5050056 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/5/56 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 55: Machine Learning vs. Langmuir: A Multioutput XGBoost Regressor Better Captures Soil Phosphorus Adsorption Dynamics https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/4/55 Accurate prediction of soil phosphorus (P) adsorption capacity is essential for efficient fertilizer management and environmental protection. Traditional isotherm models, such as the Langmuir equation, have been widely used to quantify P sorption, but they do not adequately capture the nonlinear and multivariate nature of soil systems. This study evaluates the performance of a multi-output XGBoost regression model trained on laboratory-measured P adsorption data from 147 soils, representing a wide range of textures, pH levels, and CaCO3 contents. The model was developed to simultaneously predict P adsorption at five different equilibrium concentrations (1, 2, 4, 6, and 10 mg/L). SHAP analysis and causal discovery via DirectLiNGAM revealed that initial Olsen P concentration and sand content are the primary factors reducing P adsorption. The multi-output XGBoost model was compared against classical Langmuir isotherms using an extended dataset of 10,389 soil samples. The extended dataset was binned into four groups based on Olsen P concentrations and four groups based on sand content. This binning was based on the identification of these variables as highly influential by the XGBoost model, and on their demonstrated causal relationship with soil P sorption capacity through causal inference analysis. The XGBoost model outperformed the Langmuir model in capturing the effect of Olsen P and sand content, as it predicted a 12.6% drop in P adsorption in the very high Olsen P group and a 19.2% drop in the very high sand content groups, which are substantially higher than the reductions estimated by Langmuir isotherms. These results demonstrate that machine learning models, trained on well-designed experimental data, offer a superior alternative to classical isotherms for modeling P sorption dynamics. 2025-08-13 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 55: Machine Learning vs. Langmuir: A Multioutput XGBoost Regressor Better Captures Soil Phosphorus Adsorption Dynamics

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5040055

Authors: Miltiadis Iatrou Aristotelis Papadopoulos

Accurate prediction of soil phosphorus (P) adsorption capacity is essential for efficient fertilizer management and environmental protection. Traditional isotherm models, such as the Langmuir equation, have been widely used to quantify P sorption, but they do not adequately capture the nonlinear and multivariate nature of soil systems. This study evaluates the performance of a multi-output XGBoost regression model trained on laboratory-measured P adsorption data from 147 soils, representing a wide range of textures, pH levels, and CaCO3 contents. The model was developed to simultaneously predict P adsorption at five different equilibrium concentrations (1, 2, 4, 6, and 10 mg/L). SHAP analysis and causal discovery via DirectLiNGAM revealed that initial Olsen P concentration and sand content are the primary factors reducing P adsorption. The multi-output XGBoost model was compared against classical Langmuir isotherms using an extended dataset of 10,389 soil samples. The extended dataset was binned into four groups based on Olsen P concentrations and four groups based on sand content. This binning was based on the identification of these variables as highly influential by the XGBoost model, and on their demonstrated causal relationship with soil P sorption capacity through causal inference analysis. The XGBoost model outperformed the Langmuir model in capturing the effect of Olsen P and sand content, as it predicted a 12.6% drop in P adsorption in the very high Olsen P group and a 19.2% drop in the very high sand content groups, which are substantially higher than the reductions estimated by Langmuir isotherms. These results demonstrate that machine learning models, trained on well-designed experimental data, offer a superior alternative to classical isotherms for modeling P sorption dynamics.

]]> Machine Learning vs. Langmuir: A Multioutput XGBoost Regressor Better Captures Soil Phosphorus Adsorption Dynamics Miltiadis Iatrou Aristotelis Papadopoulos doi: 10.3390/crops5040055 Crops 2025-08-13 Crops 2025-08-13 5 4 Article 55 10.3390/crops5040055 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/4/55 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 54: Trade-Off Between Yield and Water-Use Efficiency in Piper nigrum https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/4/54 Water-use efficiency (WUE) plays a crucial role in sustainable crop production, particularly in water-limited environments where maximizing natural resource use is essential. This study evaluated the physiological and agronomic performance of two Piper nigrum cultivars, Clonada and Uthirankotta, grown under different soil water potential conditions. The trial was conducted in a 1930 m2 field using a randomized block design and drip irrigation system, calibrated to 3.55 L h−1 with a uniformity of 97%. Soil water availability was managed based on daily tensiometer readings at 20 and 30 cm depths, triggering irrigation at defined tensions (10–55 kPa). Clonada exhibited higher net CO2 assimilation rates (A) and stomatal conductance (gs), but these responses did not lead to higher yields. In contrast, Uthirankotta consistently maintained superior water-use efficiency and yield across all soil moisture conditions by favoring water conservation and targeted biomass allocation over maximized gas exchange. Both cultivars performed optimally at a soil water potential range of 25–35 kPa, with declines in yield and gas exchange parameters at higher tensions (45–55 kPa). Under such conditions, Uthirankotta was 51.3% more water-use efficient and 40.8% more productive than Clonada. Based on this, a Principal Component Analysis (PCA) further demonstrated distinct physiological profiles, underscoring trade-offs between yield and water-use strategies. These results highlight the significance of cultivar selection for optimizing WUE and provide valuable insights into irrigation management and breeding programs aimed at boosting black pepper performance under water-limited conditions. 2025-08-12 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 54: Trade-Off Between Yield and Water-Use Efficiency in Piper nigrum

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5040054

Authors: Helane C. A. Santos Joaquim A. L. Junior Olavo P. Silva Rafaela S. Guerino Mariele C. Alves Deiviane B. da Silva William L. C. de Aviz Maria do B. C. L. Medeiros Oriel F. Lemos João P. C. L. Both Luana M. Luz Lucas C. Costa

Water-use efficiency (WUE) plays a crucial role in sustainable crop production, particularly in water-limited environments where maximizing natural resource use is essential. This study evaluated the physiological and agronomic performance of two Piper nigrum cultivars, Clonada and Uthirankotta, grown under different soil water potential conditions. The trial was conducted in a 1930 m2 field using a randomized block design and drip irrigation system, calibrated to 3.55 L h−1 with a uniformity of 97%. Soil water availability was managed based on daily tensiometer readings at 20 and 30 cm depths, triggering irrigation at defined tensions (10–55 kPa). Clonada exhibited higher net CO2 assimilation rates (A) and stomatal conductance (gs), but these responses did not lead to higher yields. In contrast, Uthirankotta consistently maintained superior water-use efficiency and yield across all soil moisture conditions by favoring water conservation and targeted biomass allocation over maximized gas exchange. Both cultivars performed optimally at a soil water potential range of 25–35 kPa, with declines in yield and gas exchange parameters at higher tensions (45–55 kPa). Under such conditions, Uthirankotta was 51.3% more water-use efficient and 40.8% more productive than Clonada. Based on this, a Principal Component Analysis (PCA) further demonstrated distinct physiological profiles, underscoring trade-offs between yield and water-use strategies. These results highlight the significance of cultivar selection for optimizing WUE and provide valuable insights into irrigation management and breeding programs aimed at boosting black pepper performance under water-limited conditions.

]]> Trade-Off Between Yield and Water-Use Efficiency in Piper nigrum Helane C. A. Santos Joaquim A. L. Junior Olavo P. Silva Rafaela S. Guerino Mariele C. Alves Deiviane B. da Silva William L. C. de Aviz Maria do B. C. L. Medeiros Oriel F. Lemos João P. C. L. Both Luana M. Luz Lucas C. Costa doi: 10.3390/crops5040054 Crops 2025-08-12 Crops 2025-08-12 5 4 Article 54 10.3390/crops5040054 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/4/54 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 53: Physicochemical and Microbiological Properties of Hazelnuts from Three Varieties Cultivated in Portugal https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/4/53 Hazelnut is an important crop worldwide, and the characteristics of the fruits are quite variable according to a number of factors, including variety and cultivation conditions, which in turn can vary according to harvest year. This study aimed to investigate some physical and chemical characteristics of three hazelnut varieties grown in Portugal (Grada de Viseu, Tonda di Giffoni and Butler) along two different harvesting years (2021 and 2022). Also, the microbial quality was investigated for its relevance to the conservation of the fruits. The physical properties evaluated were biometric characteristics and colour, the chemical components analysed were moisture, lipids, protein, ash and fibre, and the microbial properties investigated were the microorganisms, moulds and yeasts. The results showed that, generically, statistically significant differences were found between the three varieties under study on several properties investigated. The kernel was confirmed as the lighter part of all hazelnuts, and when comparing between varieties, Tonda di Giffoni presented the lighter fruits in both harvesting years. With respect to weight, the Tonda di Giffoni variety was the lightest in both harvest years. Moisture content was observed to be higher than the recommended limits for two of the samples (Grada de Viseu in 2021: 6.01 ± 0.26 g/100 g and Butler in 2022: 6.02 ± 0.37 g/100 g), although the difference was marginal given that the recommended limit is 6%. Not surprisingly, lipids were the major chemical component, ranging from 66.46 ± 1.67 to 70.14 ± 1.75 g/100 g in 2021 and from 64.38 ± 1.67 to 77.77 g/100 g in 2022. It was further observed that the three varieties presented a satisfactory microbiological quality. Finally, applying factor analysis with principal components and Varimax rotation, a solution that explains 92.8% of the variance was obtained. This study provided information that is relevant for the characterisation and evaluation of variability according to the year of hazelnuts of three varieties cultivated in Portugal. 2025-08-07 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 53: Physicochemical and Microbiological Properties of Hazelnuts from Three Varieties Cultivated in Portugal

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5040053

Authors: Ana Cristina Ferrão Raquel P. F. Guiné Marco Silva Arminda Lopes Paula M. R. Correia

Hazelnut is an important crop worldwide, and the characteristics of the fruits are quite variable according to a number of factors, including variety and cultivation conditions, which in turn can vary according to harvest year. This study aimed to investigate some physical and chemical characteristics of three hazelnut varieties grown in Portugal (Grada de Viseu, Tonda di Giffoni and Butler) along two different harvesting years (2021 and 2022). Also, the microbial quality was investigated for its relevance to the conservation of the fruits. The physical properties evaluated were biometric characteristics and colour, the chemical components analysed were moisture, lipids, protein, ash and fibre, and the microbial properties investigated were the microorganisms, moulds and yeasts. The results showed that, generically, statistically significant differences were found between the three varieties under study on several properties investigated. The kernel was confirmed as the lighter part of all hazelnuts, and when comparing between varieties, Tonda di Giffoni presented the lighter fruits in both harvesting years. With respect to weight, the Tonda di Giffoni variety was the lightest in both harvest years. Moisture content was observed to be higher than the recommended limits for two of the samples (Grada de Viseu in 2021: 6.01 ± 0.26 g/100 g and Butler in 2022: 6.02 ± 0.37 g/100 g), although the difference was marginal given that the recommended limit is 6%. Not surprisingly, lipids were the major chemical component, ranging from 66.46 ± 1.67 to 70.14 ± 1.75 g/100 g in 2021 and from 64.38 ± 1.67 to 77.77 g/100 g in 2022. It was further observed that the three varieties presented a satisfactory microbiological quality. Finally, applying factor analysis with principal components and Varimax rotation, a solution that explains 92.8% of the variance was obtained. This study provided information that is relevant for the characterisation and evaluation of variability according to the year of hazelnuts of three varieties cultivated in Portugal.

]]> Physicochemical and Microbiological Properties of Hazelnuts from Three Varieties Cultivated in Portugal Ana Cristina Ferrão Raquel P. F. Guiné Marco Silva Arminda Lopes Paula M. R. Correia doi: 10.3390/crops5040053 Crops 2025-08-07 Crops 2025-08-07 5 4 Article 53 10.3390/crops5040053 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/4/53 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 52: State of the Art on the Interaction of Entomopathogenic Nematodes and Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria to Innovate a Sustainable Plant Health Product https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/4/52 Insect pests cause severe damage and yield losses to many agricultural crops globally. The use of chemical pesticides on agricultural crops is not recommended because of their toxic effects on the environment and consumers. In addition, pesticide toxicity reduces soil fertility, poisons ground waters, and is hazardous to soil biota. Therefore, applications of entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) and plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) are an alternative, eco-friendly solution to chemical pesticides and mineral-based fertilizers to enhance plant health and promote sustainable food security. This review focuses on the biological and ecological aspects of these organisms while also highlighting the practical application of molecular communication approaches in developing a novel plant health product. This insight will support this innovative approach that combines PGPR and EPNs for sustainable crop production. Several studies have reported positive interactions between nematodes and bacteria. Although the combined presence of both organisms has been shown to promote plant growth, the molecular interactions between them are still under investigation. Integrating molecular communication studies in the development of a new product could help in understanding their relationships and, in turn, support the combination of these organisms into a single plant health product. 2025-08-06 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 52: State of the Art on the Interaction of Entomopathogenic Nematodes and Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria to Innovate a Sustainable Plant Health Product

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5040052

Authors: Islam Ahmed Abdelalim Darwish Daniel P. Martins David Ryan Thomais Kakouli-Duarte

Insect pests cause severe damage and yield losses to many agricultural crops globally. The use of chemical pesticides on agricultural crops is not recommended because of their toxic effects on the environment and consumers. In addition, pesticide toxicity reduces soil fertility, poisons ground waters, and is hazardous to soil biota. Therefore, applications of entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) and plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) are an alternative, eco-friendly solution to chemical pesticides and mineral-based fertilizers to enhance plant health and promote sustainable food security. This review focuses on the biological and ecological aspects of these organisms while also highlighting the practical application of molecular communication approaches in developing a novel plant health product. This insight will support this innovative approach that combines PGPR and EPNs for sustainable crop production. Several studies have reported positive interactions between nematodes and bacteria. Although the combined presence of both organisms has been shown to promote plant growth, the molecular interactions between them are still under investigation. Integrating molecular communication studies in the development of a new product could help in understanding their relationships and, in turn, support the combination of these organisms into a single plant health product.

]]> State of the Art on the Interaction of Entomopathogenic Nematodes and Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria to Innovate a Sustainable Plant Health Product Islam Ahmed Abdelalim Darwish Daniel P. Martins David Ryan Thomais Kakouli-Duarte doi: 10.3390/crops5040052 Crops 2025-08-06 Crops 2025-08-06 5 4 Review 52 10.3390/crops5040052 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/4/52 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 51: Influence of Partial Vermicompost Tea Substitution for Mineral Nitrogen Fertilizers on Yield and Nutrient Content of Wheat Cultivars https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/4/51 Chemical fertilizers pose significant risks to both human health and the environment. To investigate the effect of substituting nitrogen fertilizer with vermicompost tea on wheat yield, shoot chemical constituents, and grain quality under clay-loam soil conditions, two field experiments were conducted at the Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University, Egypt, during the winter seasons of 2021–2022 and 2022–2023. A split-plot design in randomized complete blocks with three replications was employed. Vermicompost tea was assigned to the main plots, while wheat cultivars were assigned to the subplots. The cultivars were evaluated under four treatments involving partial substitution of mineral nitrogen (recommended dose of nitrogen (RDN%, 190 kg N ha−1): a control (90% of RDN + 25 kg vermicompost tea), 80% of RDN + 37.5 kg vermicompost tea, and 70% of RDN + 50 kg vermicompost tea. Nitrogen fertilizer (RDN%) was applied at rates of 190 (control), 170 (90%), 150 (80%), and 130 (70%) kg N ha−1. The results indicated that partially substituting mineral nitrogen with vermicompost tea significantly increased grain weight/Ha, chlorophyll A, chlorophyll B, carotenoids, nitrogen, phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) content in shoots, as well as ash, crude protein, crude fiber, total sugar, and N, P, and K content in wheat grains. The grain weight/Ha of the Sakha-95, Giza-171, and Sads-14 cultivars increased by 38.6%, 33.5%, and 39.3%, respectively, when treated with 70% RDN + 50 kg vermicompost tea. The combination of the Sads-14 cultivar and 70% RDN + 50 kg vermicompost tea resulted in the highest values for grain weight/ha (9.43 tons ha−1), chlorophyll A (1.39 mg/g), chlorophyll B (1.04 mg/g), N (5.08%), P (1.63%), and P (2.43%) content in shoots. The same combination also improved ash (2.89%), crude fiber (2.84%), and K (6.05%) content in grains. In conclusion, the application of vermicompost tea in conjunction with chemical fertilizers offers a viable alternative to using chemical fertilizers alone, promoting sustainable agricultural practices and improving wheat production. It is recommended that mineral nitrogen fertilizer be partially replaced with vermicompost tea to enhance both the productivity and grain quality of wheat while minimizing environmental pollution. 2025-08-05 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 51: Influence of Partial Vermicompost Tea Substitution for Mineral Nitrogen Fertilizers on Yield and Nutrient Content of Wheat Cultivars

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5040051

Authors: Hashim Abdel-Lattif Mohamed Abbas

Chemical fertilizers pose significant risks to both human health and the environment. To investigate the effect of substituting nitrogen fertilizer with vermicompost tea on wheat yield, shoot chemical constituents, and grain quality under clay-loam soil conditions, two field experiments were conducted at the Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University, Egypt, during the winter seasons of 2021–2022 and 2022–2023. A split-plot design in randomized complete blocks with three replications was employed. Vermicompost tea was assigned to the main plots, while wheat cultivars were assigned to the subplots. The cultivars were evaluated under four treatments involving partial substitution of mineral nitrogen (recommended dose of nitrogen (RDN%, 190 kg N ha−1): a control (90% of RDN + 25 kg vermicompost tea), 80% of RDN + 37.5 kg vermicompost tea, and 70% of RDN + 50 kg vermicompost tea. Nitrogen fertilizer (RDN%) was applied at rates of 190 (control), 170 (90%), 150 (80%), and 130 (70%) kg N ha−1. The results indicated that partially substituting mineral nitrogen with vermicompost tea significantly increased grain weight/Ha, chlorophyll A, chlorophyll B, carotenoids, nitrogen, phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) content in shoots, as well as ash, crude protein, crude fiber, total sugar, and N, P, and K content in wheat grains. The grain weight/Ha of the Sakha-95, Giza-171, and Sads-14 cultivars increased by 38.6%, 33.5%, and 39.3%, respectively, when treated with 70% RDN + 50 kg vermicompost tea. The combination of the Sads-14 cultivar and 70% RDN + 50 kg vermicompost tea resulted in the highest values for grain weight/ha (9.43 tons ha−1), chlorophyll A (1.39 mg/g), chlorophyll B (1.04 mg/g), N (5.08%), P (1.63%), and P (2.43%) content in shoots. The same combination also improved ash (2.89%), crude fiber (2.84%), and K (6.05%) content in grains. In conclusion, the application of vermicompost tea in conjunction with chemical fertilizers offers a viable alternative to using chemical fertilizers alone, promoting sustainable agricultural practices and improving wheat production. It is recommended that mineral nitrogen fertilizer be partially replaced with vermicompost tea to enhance both the productivity and grain quality of wheat while minimizing environmental pollution.

]]> Influence of Partial Vermicompost Tea Substitution for Mineral Nitrogen Fertilizers on Yield and Nutrient Content of Wheat Cultivars Hashim Abdel-Lattif Mohamed Abbas doi: 10.3390/crops5040051 Crops 2025-08-05 Crops 2025-08-05 5 4 Article 51 10.3390/crops5040051 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/4/51 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 50: Implications of Fertilisation on Soil Nematode Community Structure and Nematode-Mediated Nutrient Cycling https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/4/50 Soil nematodes are essential components of the soil food web and are widely recognised as key bioindicators of soil health because of their sensitivity to environmental factors and disturbance. In agriculture, many studies have documented the effects of fertilisation on nematode communities and explored their role in nutrient cycling. Despite this, a key gap in knowledge still exists regarding how fertilisation-induced changes in nematode communities modify their role in nutrient cycling. We reviewed the literature on the mechanisms by which nematodes contribute to nutrient cycling and on how organic, inorganic, and recycling-derived fertilisers (RDFs) impact nematode communities. The literature revealed that the type of organic matter and its C:N ratio are key factors shaping nematode communities in organically fertilised soils. In contrast, soil acidification and ammonium suppression have a greater influence in inorganically fertilised soils. The key sources of variability across studies include differences in the amount of fertiliser applied, the duration of the fertiliser use, management practices, and context-specific factors, all of which led to differences in how nematode communities respond to both fertilisation regimes. The influence of RDFs on nematode communities is largely determined by the fertiliser’s origin and its chemical composition. While fertilisation-induced changes in nematode communities affect their role in nutrient cycling, oversimplifying experiments makes it difficult to understand nematodes’ functions in these processes. The challenges and knowledge gaps for further research to understand the effects of fertilisation on soil nematodes and their impact on nutrient cycling have been highlighted in this review to inform sustainable agricultural practices. 2025-07-30 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 50: Implications of Fertilisation on Soil Nematode Community Structure and Nematode-Mediated Nutrient Cycling

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5040050

Authors: Lilian Salisi Atira Thomais Kakouli-Duarte

Soil nematodes are essential components of the soil food web and are widely recognised as key bioindicators of soil health because of their sensitivity to environmental factors and disturbance. In agriculture, many studies have documented the effects of fertilisation on nematode communities and explored their role in nutrient cycling. Despite this, a key gap in knowledge still exists regarding how fertilisation-induced changes in nematode communities modify their role in nutrient cycling. We reviewed the literature on the mechanisms by which nematodes contribute to nutrient cycling and on how organic, inorganic, and recycling-derived fertilisers (RDFs) impact nematode communities. The literature revealed that the type of organic matter and its C:N ratio are key factors shaping nematode communities in organically fertilised soils. In contrast, soil acidification and ammonium suppression have a greater influence in inorganically fertilised soils. The key sources of variability across studies include differences in the amount of fertiliser applied, the duration of the fertiliser use, management practices, and context-specific factors, all of which led to differences in how nematode communities respond to both fertilisation regimes. The influence of RDFs on nematode communities is largely determined by the fertiliser’s origin and its chemical composition. While fertilisation-induced changes in nematode communities affect their role in nutrient cycling, oversimplifying experiments makes it difficult to understand nematodes’ functions in these processes. The challenges and knowledge gaps for further research to understand the effects of fertilisation on soil nematodes and their impact on nutrient cycling have been highlighted in this review to inform sustainable agricultural practices.

]]> Implications of Fertilisation on Soil Nematode Community Structure and Nematode-Mediated Nutrient Cycling Lilian Salisi Atira Thomais Kakouli-Duarte doi: 10.3390/crops5040050 Crops 2025-07-30 Crops 2025-07-30 5 4 Review 50 10.3390/crops5040050 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/4/50 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 49: Biocontrol Potential of a New Beauveria varroae Strain Isolated from an Urban Ecosystem Against Two Species of Noctuidae Pests https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/4/49 Entomopathogenic fungi are among the most promising non-chemical alternatives for the control of many serious phytophagous insect pests, such as moth species. The present research investigates the use of the little-studied entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria varroae as a biocontrol agent against the notorious pests Helicoverpa armigera and Sesamia nonagrioides in laboratory conditions. Conidial suspensions of B. varroae were prepared at 103-104-105-106-107-108 conidia/mL to assess their insecticidal potential. In this study, we used 100 3rd-instar larvae for each concentration. During the lab bioassays, almost complete mortality of 35–96.6% was recorded for H. armigera larvae and 40–96.6% for S. nonagrioides larvae 10 days after exposure. The lethal effect of the entomopathogen was related to both dose and exposure time of the entomopathogen, with higher concentrations resulting in increased mortality. The survival effect of S. nonagrioides and H. armigera larvae was dependent on the hazard effect of the used dose and the exposure time. These findings indicate that B. varroae has potential as a biocontrol agent. Further research will elucidate this new isolate and optimize application methods in field conditions. 2025-07-29 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 49: Biocontrol Potential of a New Beauveria varroae Strain Isolated from an Urban Ecosystem Against Two Species of Noctuidae Pests

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5040049

Authors: Spiridon Mantzoukas Vasileios Papantzikos Ioannis Lagogiannis Panagiotis A. Eliopoulos George Patakioutas

Entomopathogenic fungi are among the most promising non-chemical alternatives for the control of many serious phytophagous insect pests, such as moth species. The present research investigates the use of the little-studied entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria varroae as a biocontrol agent against the notorious pests Helicoverpa armigera and Sesamia nonagrioides in laboratory conditions. Conidial suspensions of B. varroae were prepared at 103-104-105-106-107-108 conidia/mL to assess their insecticidal potential. In this study, we used 100 3rd-instar larvae for each concentration. During the lab bioassays, almost complete mortality of 35–96.6% was recorded for H. armigera larvae and 40–96.6% for S. nonagrioides larvae 10 days after exposure. The lethal effect of the entomopathogen was related to both dose and exposure time of the entomopathogen, with higher concentrations resulting in increased mortality. The survival effect of S. nonagrioides and H. armigera larvae was dependent on the hazard effect of the used dose and the exposure time. These findings indicate that B. varroae has potential as a biocontrol agent. Further research will elucidate this new isolate and optimize application methods in field conditions.

]]> Biocontrol Potential of a New Beauveria varroae Strain Isolated from an Urban Ecosystem Against Two Species of Noctuidae Pests Spiridon Mantzoukas Vasileios Papantzikos Ioannis Lagogiannis Panagiotis A. Eliopoulos George Patakioutas doi: 10.3390/crops5040049 Crops 2025-07-29 Crops 2025-07-29 5 4 Article 49 10.3390/crops5040049 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/4/49 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 48: Correction: Kularatna et al. Comparative Growth of Elephant Ear Taro (Alocasia macrorrhiza) and Giant Swamp Taro (Cyrtosperma merkusii) in Hawai‘i. Crops 2024, 4, 55–71 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/4/48 In the original publication [...] 2025-07-28 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 48: Correction: Kularatna et al. Comparative Growth of Elephant Ear Taro (Alocasia macrorrhiza) and Giant Swamp Taro (Cyrtosperma merkusii) in Hawai‘i. Crops 2024, 4, 55–71

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5040048

Authors: Thathmini D. Kularatna Norman Q. Arancon Jesse A. Eiben

In the original publication [...]

]]> Correction: Kularatna et al. Comparative Growth of Elephant Ear Taro (Alocasia macrorrhiza) and Giant Swamp Taro (Cyrtosperma merkusii) in Hawai‘i. Crops 2024, 4, 55–71 Thathmini D. Kularatna Norman Q. Arancon Jesse A. Eiben doi: 10.3390/crops5040048 Crops 2025-07-28 Crops 2025-07-28 5 4 Correction 48 10.3390/crops5040048 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/4/48 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 47: Rhizobium Inoculation Sustains Optimal Yields on Native Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) Under Nitrogen-Deficient Fertilization https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/4/47 Native bean genotypes (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) play a crucial role in ensuring food security in the Andean region. However, their cultivation faces challenges, such as low yields and a high dependence on nitrogen fertilizers. Addressing these issues requires the development of sustainable strategies to enhance productivity. This study evaluated the interaction between Rhizobium phaseoli inoculation and three levels of phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) fertilization on the growth, yield, and nutritional profile of the ‘Tiachos bayo’ native bean variety under Andean field conditions. Two R. phaseoli strains (UNC-1 and CIAT-2) were tested in combination with three levels of chemical fertilization (0%, 50%, and 100%) using a factorial design under field conditions. Parameters assessed included nodule number, plant height, phenology, yield, and proximal grain composition. Results indicated that inoculation and fertilization levels significantly influenced nodulation, phenological phases, and crop yield. The highest yield (2172 kg·ha−1) and nodule number (78) were observed with the combined treatment of R. phaseoli CIAT-2 strain with 100% fertilization. It was concluded that R. phaseoli inoculation, when integrated with appropriate fertilization, enhances the productivity of native beans. 2025-07-25 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 47: Rhizobium Inoculation Sustains Optimal Yields on Native Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) Under Nitrogen-Deficient Fertilization

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5040047

Authors: Danny Jarlis Vásquez Lozano Cledy Ureta Sierra Joseph Campos Ruiz Héctor Andrés Ramírez Maguiña Azucena Chávez-Collantes Leslie Diana Velarde-Apaza Richard Solórzano Attilio Israel Cadenillas Martínez

Native bean genotypes (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) play a crucial role in ensuring food security in the Andean region. However, their cultivation faces challenges, such as low yields and a high dependence on nitrogen fertilizers. Addressing these issues requires the development of sustainable strategies to enhance productivity. This study evaluated the interaction between Rhizobium phaseoli inoculation and three levels of phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) fertilization on the growth, yield, and nutritional profile of the ‘Tiachos bayo’ native bean variety under Andean field conditions. Two R. phaseoli strains (UNC-1 and CIAT-2) were tested in combination with three levels of chemical fertilization (0%, 50%, and 100%) using a factorial design under field conditions. Parameters assessed included nodule number, plant height, phenology, yield, and proximal grain composition. Results indicated that inoculation and fertilization levels significantly influenced nodulation, phenological phases, and crop yield. The highest yield (2172 kg·ha−1) and nodule number (78) were observed with the combined treatment of R. phaseoli CIAT-2 strain with 100% fertilization. It was concluded that R. phaseoli inoculation, when integrated with appropriate fertilization, enhances the productivity of native beans.

]]> Rhizobium Inoculation Sustains Optimal Yields on Native Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) Under Nitrogen-Deficient Fertilization Danny Jarlis Vásquez Lozano Cledy Ureta Sierra Joseph Campos Ruiz Héctor Andrés Ramírez Maguiña Azucena Chávez-Collantes Leslie Diana Velarde-Apaza Richard Solórzano Attilio Israel Cadenillas Martínez doi: 10.3390/crops5040047 Crops 2025-07-25 Crops 2025-07-25 5 4 Article 47 10.3390/crops5040047 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/4/47 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 46: Perennial Grains in Russia: History, Status, and Perspectives https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/4/46 The review summarizes the historical and current research on perennial grain breeding in Russia within the context of growing global interest in perennial crops. N.V. Tsitsin’s pioneering work in the 1930s produced the first wheat–wheatgrass amphiploids, which demonstrated the capacity to regrow after harvest and survive for 2–3 years. Subsequent research at the Main Botanical Garden in Moscow focused on characterizing Tsitsin’s material, selecting superior germplasm, and expanding genetic diversity through new cycles of hybridization and selection. This work led to the development of a new crop species, Trititrigia, and the release of cultivar ‘Pamyati Lyubimovoy’ in 2020, designed for dual-purpose production of high-quality grain and green biomass. Intermediate wheatgrass (Thinopyrum intermedium) is native to Russia, where several forage cultivars have been released and cultivated. Two large-grain cultivars (Sova and Filin) were developed from populations provided by the Land Institute and are now grown by farmers. Perennial rye was developed through interspecific crosses between Secale cereale and S. montanum, demonstrating persistence for 2–3 years with high biomass production and grain yields of 1.5–2.0 t/ha. Hybridization between Sorghum bicolor and S. halepense resulted in two released cultivars of perennial sorghum used primarily for forage production under arid conditions. Russia’s agroclimatic diversity in agricultural production systems provides significant opportunities for perennial crop development. The broader scientific and practical implications of perennial crops in Russia extend to climate-resilient, sustainable agriculture and international cooperation in this emerging field. 2025-07-23 Crops, Vol. 5, Pages 46: Perennial Grains in Russia: History, Status, and Perspectives

Crops doi: 10.3390/crops5040046

Authors: Alexey Morgounov Olga Shchuklina Inna Pototskaya Amanjol Aydarov Vladimir Shamanin

The review summarizes the historical and current research on perennial grain breeding in Russia within the context of growing global interest in perennial crops. N.V. Tsitsin’s pioneering work in the 1930s produced the first wheat–wheatgrass amphiploids, which demonstrated the capacity to regrow after harvest and survive for 2–3 years. Subsequent research at the Main Botanical Garden in Moscow focused on characterizing Tsitsin’s material, selecting superior germplasm, and expanding genetic diversity through new cycles of hybridization and selection. This work led to the development of a new crop species, Trititrigia, and the release of cultivar ‘Pamyati Lyubimovoy’ in 2020, designed for dual-purpose production of high-quality grain and green biomass. Intermediate wheatgrass (Thinopyrum intermedium) is native to Russia, where several forage cultivars have been released and cultivated. Two large-grain cultivars (Sova and Filin) were developed from populations provided by the Land Institute and are now grown by farmers. Perennial rye was developed through interspecific crosses between Secale cereale and S. montanum, demonstrating persistence for 2–3 years with high biomass production and grain yields of 1.5–2.0 t/ha. Hybridization between Sorghum bicolor and S. halepense resulted in two released cultivars of perennial sorghum used primarily for forage production under arid conditions. Russia’s agroclimatic diversity in agricultural production systems provides significant opportunities for perennial crop development. The broader scientific and practical implications of perennial crops in Russia extend to climate-resilient, sustainable agriculture and international cooperation in this emerging field.

]]> Perennial Grains in Russia: History, Status, and Perspectives Alexey Morgounov Olga Shchuklina Inna Pototskaya Amanjol Aydarov Vladimir Shamanin doi: 10.3390/crops5040046 Crops 2025-07-23 Crops 2025-07-23 5 4 Review 46 10.3390/crops5040046 https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7655/5/4/46