Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6030067

Authors: Sina Khoshnevisan Saeid Gharechelou Fatemeh Khakzad Mohammadreza Asli Charandabi Amir Ghayebi Milad Zibaei Shirvan

Precise identification and monitoring of small agricultural water bodies are essential for sustainable water resources management in arid and semi-arid regions, where even limited water losses can significantly affect agricultural productivity and local water security. However, the accurate detection of small ponds remains a major challenge in remote sensing, to address this challenge, this study proposes an integrated three-step framework that combines high-resolution remote sensing imagery, machine and deep learning techniques, and hydrological analysis to identify agricultural ponds and quantify their evaporation losses in Bastam, Iran. In the first step, a dedicated annotated dataset comprising 1061 RGB satellite images, each with a spatial size of 256 × 256 pixels and a ground resolution of 0.5 m, was developed for model training and evaluation. Using this dataset, three deep learning models BiSeNet, UNet3+, and SegNet and four traditional supervised classifiers Maximum Likelihood, Neural Network, Mahalanobis Distance, and Minimum Distance were implemented and compared for pond detection. The results demonstrated that deep learning models consistently outperformed conventional classifiers in delineating small agricultural ponds. Among all evaluated methods, BiSeNet achieved the highest segmentation performance, with an IoU of 82.08%, an F1-score of 90.15%, a precision of 91.86%, and a recall of 88.50%. Among the conventional classifiers, Maximum Likelihood combined with a 5 × 5 spatial kernel produced the best performance, achieving an IoU of 76.90%, an F1-score of 86.93%, a precision of 90.87%, and a recall of 83.32%, whereas simpler classifiers such as Minimum Distance showed only marginal improvements after kernelization. In the final step, the detected ponds were used to estimate evaporation losses through the Meyer method. The hydrological analysis revealed a clear periodic pattern in evaporation and a cumulative water loss of 388,636.7 m3 over a nine-month period, highlighting the considerable impact of evaporation on the efficiency of small agricultural water storage systems in dry environments. Based on these findings, practical mitigation strategies, including evaporation-reducing chemical surface films and floating covers, are discussed as potential options for reducing water loss. Overall, the proposed framework demonstrates the clear advantage of deep learning for the accurate identification of small agricultural ponds and provides an integrated methodological basis for monitoring water bodies and evaluating associated evaporation losses. The study offers a practical and transferable approach for supporting agricultural water management and improving water-use efficiency in arid and semi-arid regions.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6030066

Authors: Éric Robitaille

Complete neighbourhoods, places where residents can meet their daily needs on foot, have become a central component of healthy and sustainable urban planning. Yet most assessment frameworks are calibrated for dense metropolitan environments, leaving rural and peri-urban municipalities without operational tools suited to their territorial needs. This article presents MilieuxVie, an open-source, browser-based interactive mapping application developed for the Laurentides health region of Québec (76 municipalities, 11 land-based unorganised territories, 2 indigenous territories and 4 aquatic administrative units; 93 territorial units in total; ~680,000 inhabitants). The tool evaluates the spatial accessibility of 12 service categories drawn from the Vivre en Ville (2026) complete-neighbourhood framework and OpenStreetMap data, using 2026 residential parcels from the provincial property assessment roll as origin points and weighting results by number of dwelling units. Three adaptive radius tiers (dense, intermediate, rural), based on residential dwelling-unit density (dwellings per km2 of residentially designated urban land), scale the distance standards to settlement density. Because thresholds are scaled to settlement density, scores express context-relative service proximity rather than a uniform pedestrian standard and should not be read as directly comparable absolute accessibility across rural, peri-urban, and urban settings. A dedicated urban perimeter mode further disaggregates analysis to sub-municipal built-up zones, aligning the tool with Québec’s provincial Government land-use planning guidelines (GLPG). Gap analysis outputs identify which service types fall below the 70% coverage target, helping elected officials and planners identify where to focus further analysis. Results illustrate the scope of accessibility deficits across the region and highlight the analytical limits of uniform distance thresholds when applied beyond metropolitan contexts. Scores differ significantly across different settings (Kruskal–Wallis p = 0.006); the adaptive radius tiers narrow but do not close the structural gap, with rural municipalities scoring significantly lower than dense ones. The tool is freely available and requires no software installation, making it directly deployable by local planning offices.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6030065

Authors: Danijela Vukoičić Dušan Kićović Dragan Petrović Ljiljana Mihajlović Dušan Ristić

Mountain tourism destinations are increasingly challenged by climate change, environmental degradation, and the need to balance economic development with the long-term conservation of natural resources. This study evaluates alternative pathways for the sustainable development of mountain tourism in Central Serbia by applying an integrated multi-criteria decision-making framework that combines conventional and fuzzy approaches to account for uncertainty in expert judgments. A set of economic, environmental, social, developmental, and governance-related criteria was used to assess different tourism development models and identify those with the greatest potential to support long-term sustainability. The findings indicate that development strategies emphasizing climate adaptation, environmental protection, tourism diversification, and active participation of local communities provide the most promising basis for sustainable mountain tourism development. The study also highlights the importance of diversifying tourism products beyond winter-based activities through nature-based forms of tourism, including geotourism, which builds upon the region’s rich geoheritage, geomorphological diversity, and cultural landscapes while strengthening destination resilience to climate change. The proposed evaluation framework provides a practical decision-support tool that can be adapted to other mountain regions facing similar environmental and developmental challenges.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6030064

Authors: Álvaro-Francisco Morote Jorge Olcina Daniel López-Rodríguez Bàrbara Micó-Vicent Jorge Jordán-Núñez Antonio Belda

This study analyses the Master Plan for Analysis, Anticipation and Reaction to Natural Disasters of the Valencian Community (Spain) from the perspective of geographical risk literacy. The research adopts a qualitative methodology based on documentary analysis and conceptual assessment of public policy. The corpus includes Valencian institutional documents, Spanish civil protection and education regulations, international disaster risk reduction frameworks and the scientific literature on geography education, risk perception, social vulnerability and school preparedness. The findings show that the plan can strengthen institutional coordination, public communication and preventive culture through its preventive orientation, phased structure, official sources, attention to vulnerable groups, updated cartography and promotion of drills. However, its social effectiveness will depend on transforming protocols and guides into verifiable citizen capacities: identifying hazards, recognizing local exposure, interpreting warnings and maps, selecting safe routes, preparing households and rehearsing decisions in realistic contexts. The article proposes complementing the plan with a geographical literacy programme for territorial resilience based on local risk sheets, school atlases, evaluated drills, community mediation, accessible viewers and public monitoring indicators. The discussion places the Valencian case within international debates on disaster risk reduction, anticipatory governance, people-centred early warning systems and school safety. Because no empirical implementation data are yet available, the contribution is framed as an analytical and design-oriented framework requiring subsequent validation through pilots, surveys, interviews and evaluated drills.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6030063

Authors: Rizqi Abdulharis Susilo Kusdiwanggo Ida Nurlinda Gustaff Harriman Iskandar Angga Dwiartama Andri Hernandi Teguh Purnama Sidiq Walter Timo de Vries

Indigenous knowledge and associated indigenous resource management practices are at the root of sustainable land and marine management. Typically, they point to the necessity of maintaining biodiversity and of ensuring the sustenance of social and economic systems, which benefit the well-being of indigenous communities. Conscious of these core attributes, the Government of Indonesia has enabled formal access for indigenous communities to forests for their livelihoods. Nonetheless, meeting the sustainable development goals through such forest management and conservation in Indonesia is threatened by various competing interests and power imbalances. These lead to the disproportionate conversion of naturally vegetated areas, as well as the inability of communities to benefit from economic opportunities. Moreover, the Government of Indonesia has insufficiently regulated the utilisation of indigenous knowledge to conserve the forest areas. This creates a policy design and implementation gap which is not properly understood or addressed. In this conceptual article, we posit that applying cultural space methodology fills the gaps. This methodology combines cultural space and land administration concepts and connects people to land and marine space. This article discusses how and why using the methodology proves to be effective for agricultural and maritime communities in Indonesia and helps to reform the administration capacities of the territories. It identifies and assesses people and land/marine space relationships by the existence of (1) knowledge, practices, and/or objects that represent the relationship, (2) the social, economic, and environmental function of space for the community, and (3) administration of the forest and conservation areas. The methodology also provides a procedure to convert information on the interrelation of the indigenous community, its cultural space in the forest and conservation areas, and indigenous knowledge into geospatial information and data that represent the cultural space unit as a geographic feature.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6030062

Authors: Dino Bečić

Platform-mediated short-term rental (STR) markets concentrate intensely in heritage urban cores, yet the temporal stability of this concentration remains poorly understood. This study examines spatial dynamics of STR concentration in Dubrovnik’s UNESCO-listed historic core across five biennial cross-sections (2017–2025) using complete administrative eVisitor registration data and an H3 hexagonal grid at resolution 11. Global and local spatial autocorrelation (Moran’s I, LISA, Getis-Ord Gi*), Emerging Hot Spot Analysis for spatiotemporal typologies, and bivariate LISA to distinguish capacity saturation from fragmentation were applied. Results demonstrate structural persistence: Moran’s I remained highly significant (p < 0.001) across all periods including COVID-19 disruption (range 0.417–0.467, CV = 4.4%), despite 53% supply growth and only 3.7% spatial expansion. Consecutive hotspots dominated typological classification, indicating active consolidation. Capacity analysis revealed concordant High–High patterns (56.8% of significant cells) with zero High–Low associations, confirming saturation not fragmentation. Findings support spatial lock-in in STR markets: concentration persists because locational advantages are properties of place rather than market volume, requiring spatially differentiated regulation rather than aggregate supply controls.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6030061

Authors: Avinoam Meir

This article argues that there is a “substance” within places that is essential for understanding local space and its spatial processes but remains a research lacuna in human geography. It consists of geographical entities which, through relationships with the place, participate significantly in processes within it, e.g., production of its space, configuring the nature of its space, and transforming the nature of the place. I first address the issue of a geographical entity and its agency that is attributed to it under the posthuman paradigm and how it may be viewed relationally, highlighting commonalities and differences between human geography and sociology, why entitativity does not defy relationality, the nature of relationality of geographical entities, and how it may be studied practically. Three geographical entities with different natures and geographical contexts are illustrated: the spatiality of an urban military base; the nature of a rural space created and transformed by an industrial compound; and the transformed nature of a place by an intentional community. The discussion highlights the merit of geographical entities as significant “substances” for understanding local space and the various issues and questions that surface when engaging with them. The conclusion dwells upon the value of studying geographical entities for human geography and for geography in general.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6030060

Authors: Rosny Jean Patricia Tello Reátegui

Coffee production in Peru plays a crucial socio-economic role, supporting over 200,000 families and contributing significantly to export income. However, the spatial variation in coffee farming across ecological and socio-economic regions remains poorly understood. This study examines spatial patterns of coffee farm clustering in three Peruvian mountainous regions (Moyobamba, Tingo María, and Tocache) using descriptive statistics, geospatial visualization, and unsupervised clustering techniques. Farm-level reports and government geospatial records covering 2019–2023 were analyzed to evaluate cultivation area, altitude, and spatial distribution. Kernel density mapping, Moran’s I spatial autocorrelation, and Local Indicators of Spatial Association (LISA) were applied to identify statistically significant clustering patterns, while regression analysis and DBSCAN clustering were used to evaluate spatial trends and production hotspots. Moran’s I indicated moderate spatial clustering (0.34, p < 0.001), while regression analysis showed a weak negative association between altitude and cultivation area (β = −1.144 × 10−4, adjusted R2 = 0.023). Results suggest that measured environmental variables explain only a limited proportion of spatial variation in coffee production, indicating that additional unmeasured factors, potentially including socio-economic influences, may contribute to observed clustering patterns. These findings highlight the value of spatial analysis for understanding production heterogeneity and for supporting regionally adapted agricultural planning strategies.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6020059

Authors: Sandy Alawna Xavier Garcia

Access to safe and reliable water resources is one of the most critical global challenges of the twenty-first century. In developing regions, such as Palestine, ensuring adequate water access has become increasingly difficult due to rapid population growth and the intensifying impacts of climate change, which place additional pressure on limited water resources. In this context, alternative water sources, such as rooftop rainwater harvesting (RWH), represent a promising option for enhancing water resilience. This study assesses the impacts of climate change on water resilience in the West Bank by evaluating the future performance of rooftop RWH systems. The potential effects of climate change on optimal storage capacity, system reliability, and deficit ratio are assessed spatially across different West Bank governorates. Monthly rainfall projections for the period 2021–2100 were obtained under three climate change scenarios (SSP126, SSP370, and SSP585). The results indicate that climate change is expected to negatively affect both optimal storage capacity and system reliability, with the most pronounced impacts occurring under the high-emission scenarios. However, the magnitude of these impacts varies spatially among governorates. At the West Bank level, the reliability of the RWH system decreases from 38% to 34% when shifting from the low-emission scenario to the high-emission scenario. Additionally, the optimal storage capacity and the harvested volume will decrease from 65 m3 to 58 m3. This study is the first in this area to use the mass balance approach to predict the future impact of climate risk on the storage capacity of rooftop rainwater harvesting systems. Overall, the findings provide a comprehensive assessment of the feasibility of rooftop RWH as a mitigation and adaptation measure to climate risks and its potential role in enhancing water resilience in the West Bank. This study presents the full framework for assessing the reliability of rainwater harvesting systems under conditions of climate uncertainty.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6020058

Authors: Louise Gil Soares Ferreira Samir de Souza Oliveira Alves Leonardo Vieira Barbalho Giselle Megumi Martino Tanaka Jonatas Goulart Marinho Falcão Yara Vieira Lopes Andrew Santana da Silva Auzenan Pereira de Sá Fernando Dias de Almeida Barros Francisco Airasca Altónaga Luiz Felipe de Almeida Furtado Luiz Carlos Teixeira Coelho

In Brazil, approximately 16.4 million people (8.1% of the population) live in informal settlements (favelas), with Rio de Janeiro among the most heavily affected. This situation results from rapid rural–urban migration and unplanned urbanization, leading to persistent land tenure conflicts, exemplified by the decades-long struggle in the Santa Luzia favela. This study demonstrates how participatory geospatial methodologies can support land regularization while preventing displacement. Unlike conventional participatory mapping studies that often prioritize community empowerment over technical precision or, conversely, state-led cadastres that prioritize accuracy over local participation, this study integrates two complementary frameworks: counter-cartographies (to redress power asymmetries) and fit-for-purpose land administration (to ensure minimal technical standards for tenure security). Through a university–community collaboration, a low-cost cadastral survey of Santa Luzia was conducted using remotely piloted aircraft photogrammetry to generate high-resolution orthoimagery (2 cm ground sample distance), GIS vectorization integrated with resident interviews and local knowledge, and spatial analysis compliant with local technical standards. The findings demonstrate three specific innovations: (1) methodological: volunteer students and community residents co-produced cartography achieving 2 cm precision, meeting legal requirements for land regularization without expensive professional surveys; (2) participatory: unlike purely community-led mapping that may lack legal enforceability or top-down systems that exclude local knowledge, this model embeds participatory data collection within Brazil’s Social Interest Regularization (REURB-S) framework, ensuring both grassroots legitimacy and state recognition; and (3) policy-making: the project operationalizes counter-cartographies not as symbolic resistance but as a legally compliant pathway to tenure security, offering a transferable model for democratizing land administration in informal settlements while challenging exclusionary urban planning.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6020057

Authors: Maria de Belém Costa Freitas Miguel Domingos Teixeira Carla Rolo Antunes Henrique César Ribeiro Maria do Rosário Partidário

Land management is a relevant problem in rural areas all over the world, conditioning the planning decisions and the applicability of planning instruments. This study evaluates the limitations of cadastral data in representing land fragmentation and management patterns in wild-fire-prone landscapes, using Alferce (Portugal) as a case study with broader international relevance. Similar challenges—fragmented ownership, incomplete land registries, and increasing wildfire risk—affect many regions worldwide, particularly across the Mediterranean basin and other fire-prone rural landscapes. A mixed-methods approach combines cadastral data with field data from 23 landowners producing two datasets: cadaster-only and ownership-enhanced. Fragmentation is assessed using Simmons and Januszewki indices, supported by spatial analysis (Kernel Density and Moran’s I). Results show that cadastral data alone significantly overestimates fragmentation. While parcel-based analysis suggests a highly fragmented landscape, incorporating ownership information reveals more aggregated management structures. The 23 landowners manage 1247 ha (≈13% of the area), forming a “keystone” group with strong potential for coordinated land management and fire prevention. Higher fragmentation is associated with population centers. These findings demonstrate that cadastral units do not reflect functional management units and considerations about property fragmentation are biased by the lack of information about the owners, a key theoretical contribution with implications beyond Portugal. For policymakers, integrating ownership data and targeting key land managers can improve land use planning and wildfire mitigation and, overall, the sustainability of the territory. Despite limitations (small sample), the approach is transferable to other regions facing similar structural constraints.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6020056

Authors: Andri Hernandi Irwan Meilano Asep Yusup Saptari Deni Suwardhi Rizqi Abdulharis Alfita Puspa Handayani Sella Lestari Nurmaulia Nabila Sofia Eryan Putri Ratri Widyastuti Putri Merdekawati Fitri Nur Cahyani

Property taxation serves as a critical instrument for fiscal efficiency and equitable distribution, yet implementation faces significant challenges including valuation inaccuracies, insufficient administrative capacity, and diminished public trust. Indonesia’s Land and Building Tax (PBB-P2) utilizes the Sales Value of Taxable Objects (NJOP) as an administrative proxy for market value, which frequently deviates from actual land prices. These disparities create horizontal inequities, diminish local revenue potential, and generate taxpayer resistance, especially in decentralized regions with constrained technical resources. This research presents the Spatially Adaptive Land Value Determination (SALAD) model as a comprehensive framework for enhancing property tax governance and modernizing fiscal cadastre systems. Unlike conventional mass appraisal methods, SALAD integrates spatial zoning, assessment ratio analysis, land-use characteristics, and the Index of Developing Villages (IDM) with socio-economic indicators including purchasing power and community fiscal behavior. The model incorporates structured social validation to improve public acceptance. Field validation in Lebak Regency employed mixed-methods design with surveys of 75 respondents across 20 villages and interviews with village heads and tax officials. Results demonstrate that transparency, fairness, and visible public benefits are essential for community support. Validation indices vary significantly by IDM category (ANOVA: F = 4.23, p = 0.03 for economic; F = 3.81, p = 0.04 for institutional), confirming that the SALAD model’s adaptive mechanism is empirically grounded.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6020055

Authors: Subham Roy Alireza Mohammadi Ranjan Roy

Road Traffic Accidents (RTAs) represent a significant public safety issue in rapidly urbanising nations, resulting in considerable fatalities, injuries, and economic losses. This research investigates the spatio-temporal distribution and hotspot dynamics of RTAs in Siliguri City, India, a principal transnational transport corridor connecting northeastern India with adjacent countries. A geocoded dataset comprising RTA incidents from 2021 to 2023 was analysed using integrated GIS-based machine learning and statistical methods. Temporal clusters were identified through Kulldorff’s purely temporal scan statistics, while Kernel Density Estimation (KDE) quantified accident density during morning peak, midday/off-peak, evening peak, and lean/night-time intervals. Spatial clustering was further assessed using LISA-Moran’s I, purely spatial scan statistics, and Hierarchical Density-Based Spatial Clustering of Applications with Noise (HDBSCAN). Emerging Hotspot Analysis (EHA) was employed to detect evolving hotspot patterns over time. The findings indicate that major accident hotspots are concentrated at key intersections and transport corridors, such as Hill Cart Road, Darjeeling More, Sevoke Road, Eastern Bypass, and Burdwan Road. Moran’s I (0.157; p = 0.007) demonstrates significant but moderate spatial autocorrelation, and spatial scan statistics identified three principal high-risk zones. HDBSCAN classified 81.90% of incidents within clustered areas. Lean/night-time periods exhibited the highest accident densities, reaching 14.21 accidents/km2 at critical intersections. These results underscore the utility of integrating GIS and machine learning techniques for urban traffic safety planning and hotspot-focused intervention strategies.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6020054

Authors: Alfita Puspa Handayani Sandy Hardian Susanto Herho Iwan Pramesti Anwar Faruq Khadami Karina Aprilia Sujatmiko Sella Lestari Nurmaulia Walter Timo de Vries

In multi-hazard environments, women’s social reproductive labor often constitutes a foundation of community survival, yet remains undertheorized in disaster scholarship. This study contributes to an active scholarly conversation by examining Daya Annisa, a women-led grassroots organization in Bantul Regency, Yogyakarta, Indonesia, a region under continuous geological stress from the Sunda Megathrust, the Opak Fault, and Mount Merapi. Drawing on in-depth interviews and focus group discussions analyzed through Social Reproduction Theory (SRT), with a Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) framework reinterpreted as an analytical lens on the structural conditions of reproductive labor, the analysis traces four interlinked practices: preparedness embedded in arisan and pengajian gatherings, community-based vulnerability mapping, trust-based crisis response, and informal post-disaster livelihoods. The paper argues that resilience in such settings is best understood not as a passive capacity to absorb shocks, but as the active, gendered, and largely uncompensated labor through which communities are materially sustained when formal systems are stretched. Three policy shifts follow: long-term flexible funding calibrated to continuous reproductive preparedness; institutional integration of community-generated vulnerability data with appropriate privacy and inclusion safeguards; and inclusion of grassroots women’s organizations as autonomous decision-making actors in disaster governance.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6020053

Authors: Tamer A. Al-Sabbagh Hamdy N. Eid Ahmed Ali Ahmed Ali Younes Mohamed A. El-Shenawy

This study analyzes the spatial distribution of restaurant services in Tanta, Egypt, using a multi-scalar framework that integrates spatial autocorrelation, kernel density estimation, diversity measures, and spatial econometric modeling. It is theoretically grounded in Central Place Theory (CPT) and Central Flow Theory (CFT) to examine how urban hierarchy and mobility dynamics jointly shape food service geography in a mid-sized Global South city. The findings reveal significant spatial inequalities, with nearly half of all restaurants concentrated in a limited number of central neighborhoods, while peripheral areas remain underserved. Spatial regression analysis indicates that these patterns are not adequately explained by population distribution, as total population and density variables showed non-significant effects in the OLS model. Instead, clustering is more strongly associated with accessibility and infrastructure. The transition from OLS to the Spatial Error Model (SEM) significantly improved the explanatory power (R2 increased from 0.369 to 0.534), with a highly significant Lambda coefficient (λ = 0.69, p < 0.00001) confirming that unobserved spatial processes and mobility flows are the primary drivers of restaurant concentration. Correlation results further indicate that road density (Coefficient = 2.10, p < 0.01) and educational facilities have significant positive relationships with restaurant density, whereas most demographic indicators show weak effects. Furthermore, a significant negative interaction between population and road density (−2.63, p = 0.014) underscores that mobility corridors can override traditional residential thresholds, providing empirical support for CFT. Diversity analysis highlights clear intra-urban disparities, with high-diversity clusters located along major accessibility axes. Kernel density results point to a hybrid spatial structure, where traditional urban cores coexist with emerging secondary nodes. Overall, the study demonstrates that restaurant distribution in Tanta is better explained through a hybrid CPT–CFT framework, where accessibility and mobility flows outweigh population thresholds. These findings challenge traditional models and emphasize the need for dynamic, accessibility-oriented planning approaches to address spatial inequalities in urban services.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6020052

Authors: Velimira Stoyanova Petja Ivanova-Radovanova Dessislava Poleganova Stefan Genchev Georgi Belev Gergana Metodieva

Rapid urbanization highlights the increasing importance of urban green infrastructure in shaping urban spatial organization, quality of life, and environmental sustainability. This study examines spatial inequalities in the provision of urban parks in Sofia (Bulgaria) and Istanbul (Republic of Türkiye) from a comparative urban geography perspective. The two cities are selected as contrasting urban contexts in Southeastern Europe, characterized by different patterns of urban development, population density, and spatial structures. A GIS-based analytical framework is applied at the district administrative level, integrating indicators such as the share of urban parks, park area per capita, Local Moran’s I, and the Gini coefficient. The results reveal distinct spatial patterns: Sofia demonstrates relatively higher levels of park provision but pronounced inequalities, characterized by the concentration of large park areas in a limited number of central districts. In contrast, Istanbul exhibits a more even spatial distribution but significantly lower levels of park area per capita, indicating an overall shortage of urban park space. The findings demonstrate that Sofia and Istanbul experience different forms of spatial disparities in park provision due to distinct trajectories of urban development.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6020051

Authors: Nihat Karakuş Serdar Selim Rifat Olgun Ceren Selim Namık Kemal Sönmez

This study aims to investigate the short-term dynamics of agricultural landscapes using AI-supported multi-temporal land use/land cover (LULC) data. The Finike district, located within the Mediterranean climate zone, was selected as the study area, and 10 m spatial resolution ArcGIS Living Atlas LULC raster datasets for the years 2017 and 2024 were used. Spatial dynamics of agricultural areas were analyzed using Fragstats by quantifying changes in area and dominance (CA, PLAND), fragmentation and patch density (NP, PD), spatial integrity and largest patch structure (LPI), shape complexity (PARA_MN), and aggregation–connectivity patterns (CLUMPY, AI), thereby providing a comprehensive assessment of fragmentation, dispersion, clustering, and landscape cohesion over time. The analyses were conducted specifically for the agricultural class for both class-level and landscape-level metrics. The findings indicate that agricultural areas, which covered approximately 3128 hectares in 2017, decreased to 2643 hectares by 2024, as shown in the quantitative results of landscape metrics, accompanied by a pronounced increase in fragmentation. The increase in the number of patches, the decrease in mean patch size, and the rise in patch density demonstrate that the agricultural landscape has transformed into a more fragmented and irregular structure. The results further reveal a weakening of spatial integrity in agricultural areas, suggesting increased pressure from land use change processes, particularly urban expansion, in the study area, and highlighting potential risks for land management, agricultural sustainability, and ecological functions. Overall, the study highlights that the integrated use of high-resolution, AI-supported LULC data and landscape metrics provides a robust and effective framework for monitoring short-term dynamics in agricultural landscapes and supporting evidence-based planning processes.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6020050

Authors: Helena Albuquerque Jorge Marques Joana A. Quintela

Urban tourism research has long recognised that understanding cities depends not only on accumulated knowledge but also on the ability to read space, interpret urban form and connect physical settings with cultural meaning. Although these ideas are well established in tourism geography, fewer studies have examined how such skills can be developed through structured learning activities in higher education. This article addresses this gap by analysing the Urban Hunting Game (UHG) as a place-based learning approach designed to strengthen students’ spatial awareness and analytical capacity to interpret urban environments through fieldwork and digital mapping. The UHG was implemented in two European cities, Porto and Kaunas, through distinct pedagogical structures shaped by local conditions. In Porto, students followed a collaborative process using uMap to co-create a single itinerary. In Kaunas, international student groups independently designed thematic routes using MyMaps. This differentiated methodological approach proved advantageous, as it showed how different levels of autonomy and digital engagement influence spatial decisions, interpretive strategies and the narratives that the students construct. Based on student-generated maps and observational notes, the findings show that the UHG enhances spatial literacy, encourages attention to detail and supports the translation of field observation into coherent tourism experiences. This study contributes to tourism geography by illustrating how map-centred, place-based learning methodologies can be adapted to diverse urban contexts and by highlighting their potential to develop interpretive and analytical competences relevant to urban tourism studies.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6020049

Authors: Ranajit Ghosh Prolay Mondal

This study examines the multidimensional nature of poverty and its underlying local determinants within the Suri Sadar Sub-Division of Birbhum District, Eastern India, an area marked by sharp ecological and socio-economic contrasts. Adopting a mixed-method approach, the research integrates primary household survey data (2024-25) with secondary spatial datasets to construct a comprehensive analytical framework. The extent and intensity of multidimensional poverty were measured using the Alkire–Foster (AF) method, while the determinants were identified through a Binary Logistic Regression model. Findings reveal that multidimensional poverty in the region is deeply rooted in the intersection of human, environmental, and spatial factors rather than mere income deprivation. Approximately 26.8 per cent of households were found to be multidimensionally poor, with the western plateau blocks, i.e., Rajnagar, Khoyrasole, and Md. Bazar, showing the highest deprivation levels. Spatial poverty drivers include education, agriculture, and gender equality improvements. Policy implications emphasise the need for geographically tailored, multi-sectoral interventions that focus on human capability, investing in infrastructure, and promoting gender-inclusive development. By elucidating the localized dynamics of poverty, this research contributes to the broader discourse on spatial inequality and sustainable development in rural Eastern India, offering actionable insights for evidence-based regional planning and targeted poverty alleviation.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6020048

Authors: George Faidon D. Papakonstantinou

Preventive geohazard assessment in heritage landscapes presents a methodological challenge, as environmental processes rarely operate within clearly bounded states. Instead, they evolve gradually across space and time and are often only partially observable. Conventional cumulative indices based on linear aggregation and fixed classification thresholds provide operational clarity but may suppress gradual activation, interaction effects, and uncertainty that are critical for preventive heritage management. This study develops a fuzzy geohazard assessment approach that extends cumulative hazard modeling through graded representation and uncertainty-aware aggregation. Environmental variables are represented as spatial fuzzy sets, allowing hazard conditions to be expressed as degrees of activation rather than discrete classes. Hazard-specific activation is derived through rule-based fuzzy inference, while cumulative geohazard conditions are synthesized using a weighted fuzzy γ aggregation operator that balances conjunctive behavior with precautionary disjunctive amplification. The approach is implemented within a Geographic Information System (GIS) environment and demonstrated in Parrhasian Heritage Park, a mountainous heritage landscape in Southern Greece. Results show that cumulative geohazard patterns respond systematically to variations in the precautionary parameter γ, enhancing transitional zones where multiple hazards coexist at moderate activation levels while preserving spatial continuity. Sensitivity analysis indicates that cumulative activation patterns remain structurally stable under moderate variations in membership calibration, supporting preventive GIS-based decision making.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6020047

Authors: Tamara Febles Arévalo Jaime Díaz-Pacheco Pedro Dorta Antequera Lucía Martínez Quintana Abel López-Díez

Disaster risk reduction and management are essential for sustainable development in territories highly exposed and vulnerable to natural hazards. Recent disasters in the Canary Islands have highlighted the importance of proactive preparedness and systemic approaches to risk management, emphasizing the need to better understand existing barriers to disaster risk reduction (DRR). This study develops an analysis of risk governance within the current planning instruments in the Canary Islands, the island of Tenerife, and the municipality of Candelaria. The research examines the integration of DRR across strategic, territorial, urban, and emergency planning at the regional, insular, and municipal levels. The findings identify key challenges and opportunities for integrating DRR within existing planning frameworks, highlighting both the potential and the limitations of current instruments as cross-cutting tools for building more resilient territories. While Tenerife has a relatively solid administrative and planning structure that could support a more systemic vision of risk, sectoral fragmentation and coordination gaps remain. Overall, the study contributes to the ongoing discussion on advancing risk governance from a systemic perspective at the local level. The challenges identified delineate the boundaries and directions for improvement, offering a valuable contribution to the existing body of knowledge.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6020046

Authors: Francisco Javier Tipan Salazar Carla Rodrigues Santos Fernanda Beatriz Jordan Rojas Dallaqua Bruno Schultz

Multi-temporal orbital satellite imagery is an alternative for measuring behavioral patterns or trends in different physiognomies through vegetation indices (VIs) and Spectral Linear Mixture Models (SLMMs). In this study, time series of Landsat 7/8/9 and Sentinel-2 have been used to classify a considerable quantity of areas spread over the São Paulo state from 2021 to 2024. Because the large amount of samples considered in our analysis, self-organizing maps (SOMs) have been applied as a convenient method to group similar satellite image time series samples with respect to a certain vegetation index or green vegetation fraction (VEG). Since every dataset area belongs to different types of physiognomies, each cluster has been labeled according to the plurality technique. Additionally, we obtained the mean spectral behavior of the VIs and VEG in the 2021–2024 seasonal cycle of all samples. The results showed similar variations from the rainy to the dry season for most of the physiognomies. On the other hand, this research indicates that the proposed method for classification the Brazilian areas spread over the São Paulo state is consistently good, obtaining the best performance (quantization error) associated with Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) time series samples.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6020045

Authors: Saeid Amini Hamidreza Rabiei-Dastjerdi Maryam Pashaei Ioannis Konaxis Mohsen Saber

Nighttime light (NTL) satellite data provide an effective proxy for analyzing urbanization, tourism development, industrial activity, and population dynamics. Based on these premises, the present study investigates the spatiotemporal behavior of Nighttime Light Dynamics across 107 Italian provinces from 2014 to 2022 using VIIRS Day/Night Band composites processed in Google Earth Engine (GEE). A comprehensive framework combining descriptive statistics, seasonal analysis, correlation assessment, time-series clustering, and Emerging Hotspot Analysis (EHA) was applied to characterize spatial patterns, temporal trends, and joint spatiotemporal dynamics. The results reveal pronounced spatial heterogeneity, with higher and more stable Nighttime Light Dynamics concentrated in Northern and Central Italy, while Southern regions exhibit lower intensity and greater temporal variability. Seasonal analysis shows that summer contributes more strongly to intra-annual Nighttime Light Dynamics dispersion, whereas winter illumination patterns are rather uniform. A strongly positive relationship between Nighttime Light Dynamics and population density was observed at national and regional scales (R2 = 0.71), confirming the reliability of Nighttime Light Dynamics as an honest demographic proxy. Time-series clustering and EHA further identify central locations, stable urban cores, transitional regions, and areas experiencing intensifying (or diminishing) illumination trends. Overall, the study highlights the value of integrating spatiotemporal analytics with Nighttime Light Dynamics data to support evidence-based regional planning and sustainable development strategies aimed at addressing spatial inequalities across Italy and, more generally, advanced economies.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6020044

Authors: Toma Itamura Takanori Fukuoka

This study analyzes the locational characteristics of temples and shrines within the Namerigawa River basin in Kamakura, focusing on the characteristic landform known as “yatsu valleys”. While previous studies on Kamakura have examined historical and tourism-related aspects, few have investigated the spatial relationship between religious sites and geography. Using GIS-based national land numerical data and field surveys, this research classified 56 temples and shrines by environmental type, historical period, and religious sect. Results indicate that a significant number were built in the yatsu valleys, especially during the Kamakura period. Many yatsu valleys’ names reflect historical temple associations, even if the original structures no longer exist. Furthermore, temporal patterns show shifts in dominant sects, such as the Jodo-Shu and Nichiren-Shu, after 1260. Spatial analysis reveals a concentration of temples near specific watersheds and water networks, particularly where water access is optimal. This study contributes a geographical perspective to the field of historical and religious site research in Kamakura and underscores the need for comparative studies in other watersheds to deepen understanding of temple and shrine distribution across the region.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6020043

Authors: Olga Bjelotomić Oršulić Sanja Šamanović Darko Šiško Vlado Cetl

Global gridded population datasets are widely used in urban analysis, risk assessment, and sustainability monitoring, including the calculation of indicators for the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Despite their broad use, their behaviour at local scales in shrinking cities remains insufficiently understood. This study evaluates three global population datasets—WorldPop, GHS-POP, and GPWv4—in seven Croatian city cores using official census data as reference. Croatia represents a relevant case due to long-term population decline combined with relatively stable built-up extents. Population estimates were compared at the city-core level for the period 2001–2021, and spatial differences between datasets were examined using pixel-level residuals, built-up intensity metrics, and land-cover stratification. The results show that WorldPop and GHS-POP achieve similar accuracy in city-total estimates, with relative errors generally ranging between about 2% and 10%, but differ systematically in their spatial allocation of population. GHS-POP concentrates population within built-up areas, while WorldPop redistributes a substantial share into non-built-up land-cover classes, exceeding GHS-POP by approximately 290,000 inhabitants outside built-up areas, whereas GHS-POP concentrates over one million additional inhabitants within built-up zones. GPWv4 often shows the smallest city-level errors but produces spatially uniform population surfaces that limit its suitability for intra-urban analysis. The findings highlight that model choice can strongly influence spatial indicators used in SDG-related and sustainability assessments, highlighting the need for context-specific evaluation of global population datasets in shrinking urban environments.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6020042

Authors: Bayan Khaledi Manuchehr Farajzadeh Yousef Ghavidel Rahimi

The Alborz Mountain range, serving as the strategic water tower of the Iranian Plateau, is experiencing the accelerating impacts of climate change. Given the critical role of snow reserves in this region for water security, understanding the mechanisms of snow degradation in response to warming is essential. Aiming to investigate the divergent responses of snow cover and snow depth to extreme temperature indices, this study analyzes a 23-year time series (2001–2023) of ERA5-Land data and MODIS imagery across 11 elevation bands. To this end, trends and correlations among the Warm Spell Duration Index (WSDI), the Percentage of Warm Days (TX90p), the Normalized Difference Snow Index (NDSI), and Average Snow Depth (ASD) were assessed using the Modified Mann–Kendall (MMK) test, Generalized Linear Modeling (GLM), and Spearman’s rank correlation. The findings reveal elevational heterogeneity in the snow regime of the Alborz. Notably, the decline in spatial snow cover (NDSI) is primarily concentrated in the mid-elevation transition zone (2000 to 3000 m), whereas the reduction in snow depth (ASD) is a widespread phenomenon, observed even at high altitudes above 4000 m. A key innovation of this research is demonstrating the dominant role of heat frequency over heat duration; GLM results indicate that the TX90p index (frequency of warm days) has a much stronger negative correlation with the degradation of snow resources than WSDI. These results confirm the transition of the Alborz hydrological system toward instability, the upward shift in the snowline in the transition zone, and the invisible thinning of the snowpack at higher elevations.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6020041

Authors: Daniel Ibarra-Marinas Laura Marcela Silva-Mendoza Dulce Mata-Chacón Francisco Belmonte-Serrato

Metro Manila, one of the world’s most densely populated megacities, is highly vulnerable to sea-level rise because of its low-lying deltaic location, frequent tropical cyclones, and rapid anthropogenic subsidence caused mainly by groundwater extraction. This study brings together historical tide-gauge records from the Port of Manila (PSMSL) with the Sixth Assessment Report of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC AR6) projections under Shared Socioeconomic Pathways, adding in vertical land motion (VLM) and sea-level fingerprints to work out local relative sea-level (RSL) changes. Assuming a constant subsidence rate, cumulative VLM reaches ~0.785 m by 2100 and ~1.289 m by 2150. When you factor in climatic contributions (amplified 10–20% by fingerprints, especially under high-emission scenarios thanks to far-field Antarctic ice-loss effects in the western Pacific), projected RSL ranges from 1.09–1.42 m (SSP1-2.6) to 1.51–2.00 m (SSP5-8.5) by 2100, and from 1.70–2.28 m to 2.41–3.54 m by 2150. Results show that 7.95–11.15 km2 (1.2–1.8% of land area under SSP5-8.5) could face permanent inundation, mostly in Malabon (~18%), Navotas (~20%), and Manila (~7%). Our conservative estimates (permanent ocean-connected flooding, excluding existing aquaculture areas) come in much lower than earlier mid-century projections of up to a 30% area affected. All this will worsen chronic tidal flooding, erosion, saltwater intrusion, and risks to millions in low-lying districts. We urgently need integrated adaptation, better groundwater regulation, and a mix of nature-based and engineered solutions.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6020040

Authors: Mário Molokáč Enikő Kornecká Lucia Molitoris Dana Tometzová Lucia Bednárová

The article will focus on the concept of eco-hotel, ecotourism, the criteria for the creation of an eco-hotel and, subsequently, the certifications valid in Europe specifically in the Visegrád Group countries. The analysis of the Visegrád Group (V4) countries focuses on the ecolabel and comparison of certified and non-certified hotels. With the increasing number of ecolabels on the market, many hotels are trying to adapt to this growing trend. However, it is very important to expose the misleading advertising in the field of “being eco”. Tourists are often misled by the so-called “greenwashing”, which is an increasingly big problem. This negative phenomenon needs to be eliminated, and hoteliers should be motivated to create an environmentally friendly environment in the context of sustainable tourism development.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6020039

Authors: Nuha Hamed Al-Subhi Mohammed Nasser Al-Suqri Faten Fatehi Hamad

The proliferation of marine data presents both an opportunity for ocean governance and a challenge, contributing to fragmentation across disciplines, institutions, and sectors. Marine Spatial Data Infrastructure (MSDI) stands out as a major framework for integrating marine information. However, an integrated synthesis that combines quantitative mapping of publication patterns with qualitative analysis of thematic evolution remains absent. This study employs a two-step approach combining systematic review and bibliometric analysis of Scopus-indexed literature (2000–2024). Based on a focused corpus of 20 publications rigorously screened for explicit MSDI relevance, we examine publication trends, collaboration patterns, thematic structures, and evolutionary trajectories. Results indicate accelerating scholarly interest in MSDI, with European institutions contributing 75% of the analysed publications. Policy frameworks such as the INSPIRE Directive (Infrastructure for Spatial Information in the European Community) and the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) emerge as key drivers of research activity. Temporal analysis of this corpus suggests a tentative five-phase evolution in MSDI research: (1) foundational technical standardisation, (2) governance model implementation, (3) semantic interoperability enhancement, (4) policy integration, and (5) advanced applications incorporating FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, Reusable) and CARE (Collective Benefit, Authority to Control, Responsibility, Ethics) principles and Artificial Intelligence (AI). These phases, derived from systematic coding of thematic focus across publications, represent observed patterns within the analysed literature rather than definitive stages. This paper concludes that MSDI is moving toward a more socio-technical approach that requires the consideration of a technical-focused tool in present-day ocean governance. Future work should combine semantic AI, decentralised architectures, polycentric governance models, and impact assessment frameworks to align MSDI development with the objectives of equity, inclusion, and sustainability.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6020038

Authors: Andrea Yanes Ana Carolina Torregroza-Espinosa Laura Salas María Margarita Sierra-Carrillo Laura Noguera Luana Portz

The San Andrés, Providencia, and Santa Catalina archipelago, located in the Colombian Caribbean, hosts diverse ecosystems, including coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass beds, and beaches, all of which are increasingly threatened by human activities. This research proposes a spatial analysis of ecological risk that integrates ecosystem vulnerability and anthropogenic pressures associated with land-use change to promote sustainable risk management. The vulnerability of island ecosystems was assessed by analyzing changes in cover across multiple time periods. At the same time, risks from anthropogenic pressures were determined based on marine protected area zoning and land-use planning regulations. Results show contrasting patterns: while several mangrove and beach sectors remained relatively stable, mangrove loss reached up to 65% in Providencia, and seagrass ecosystems experienced severe degradation, including a complete loss (100%) in western San Andrés. Risk maps indicate that the highest risk levels are consistently associated with Special Use Zones, where tourism infrastructure, navigation, and port activities are permitted. These findings highlight the importance of ecosystem-based risk management and adaptive governance in reducing anthropogenic pressures and preserving island ecosystem health.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6020037

Authors: Nikola Naumov Alexander Naydenov Desislava Varadzhakova Marina Raykova

Winter tourism is increasingly influenced by changing socio-demographic dynamics, climate change, and evolving leisure preferences. While prior research has examined winter tourist motivations, sustainability strategies and climate change adoption, less attention has been paid to differences between urban and rural residents in their attitudes toward domestic winter leisure tourism. This study addresses this gap by exploring variations in participation patterns, service evaluations, and overall tourism experiences among urban and rural Bulgarian residents. Drawing on a quantitative survey of urban and rural residents (n = 1003), the research systematizes the general characteristics of domestic winter leisure tourism practices and evaluates key tourism service dimensions, including accessibility, accommodation, pricing, infrastructure, and environmental quality. Descriptive statistics and inferential analyses were applied to identify statistically significant differences between groups. The findings reveal distinct behavioural and perceptual patterns: urban residents demonstrate higher participation frequency and place greater emphasis on service quality and diversified amenities, whereas rural residents show stronger sensitivity to pricing and accessibility factors. Differences are also observed in the overall evaluation of the tourism experience, reflecting structural and socio-economic disparities. The study contributes to winter tourism literature by integrating spatial residence into the analysis of domestic tourism demand and experience assessment. The results provide practical implications for destination managers and policymakers seeking to design differentiated marketing strategies and improve service provision in line with the needs of diverse domestic segments.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6020036

Authors: Simeon Matev Antoana Dimitrova Nina Nikolova Zvezdelina Marcheva Kalina Radeva

This study examines the propagation from meteorological to hydrological drought across representative river basins in Bulgaria, focusing on temporal and spatial characteristics of the process. Monthly precipitation and streamflow data for 1964–2023 were used to calculate the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI-1 to SPI-12) and the Streamflow Drought Index (SDI-1). The results indicate an increase in drought frequency and severity during 1994–2023 compared to 1964–1993, particularly at longer accumulation scales (SPI-6 to SPI-12). The strongest relationships between meteorological and hydrological drought are observed at multi-seasonal scales (SPI-3 to SPI-6), while clear seasonal differences are identified between the cold (November–April) and warm (May–October) half-years. Conditional probability analysis shows a common propagation lag of 7–9 months across the studied basins. At the same time, once critical precipitation deficits are reached, hydrological drought may develop at short lags of 0–1 month, indicating a rapid system response under severe conditions. Marked regional differences are observed. The middle and lower Struma basin shows the highest drought-transition probabilities (>50%), whereas the Tundzha basin appears more buffered due to reservoir regulation and hydrogeological conditions. The results highlight that drought propagation depends on accumulation time, seasonal regime, and basin characteristics, and they support the need for basin-specific and proactive water management under changing climate conditions.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6010035

Authors: Iryna Skulska Maria Conceição Colaço Francisco Castro Rego Muha Abdullah Al Pavel Paulo Adão José Castro Ana Catarina Sequeira

Community land management plays an important role in wildfire-prone landscapes in Mediterranean Europe. However, in Portugal, information on the spatial extent and boundaries of community land remains fragmented across multiple institutions. This study addresses a critical but often overlooked issue in wildfire management: the fragmentation of institutional data on community land boundaries in mainland Portugal and its direct implications for forest fire risk management, planning, and accountability. We harmonized georeferenced datasets from various government and public institutions, applying multi-institutional spatial integration supported by legal land use criteria using the Land Use Land Cover map 2018 (LULC2018). The resulting national map represents the first fully harmonized spatial assessment of community land (baldios) in mainland Portugal. Our results show that baldios currently occupy approximately 595 thousand hectares, significantly exceeding official estimates. Of this total, around 74% are under partial forest regime law, and approximately 76% are classified as having a high or very high wildfire hazard. This means that three out of every four hectares of baldios in mainland Portugal are structurally susceptible to extreme wildfire conditions. Beyond improving cartographic data, the study’s findings demonstrate how the lack of land registry weakens the institutional foundations for community-based wildfire management. Without a functional, legally validated national map of community land boundaries, responsibilities, co-management mechanisms, and prevention measures remain spatially inconsistent.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6010034

Authors: Tamara Bračko Bojan Žlender

Increasing frequency and intensity of extreme precipitation events, together with altered soil saturation dynamics, have significantly increased the occurrence of shallow landslides. These processes are closely linked to climate change and increasingly affect mountainous and hilly regions worldwide, where rainfall-induced pore pressure variations and transient infiltration govern slope instability. Despite growing recognition of climate-driven slope failures, most conventional geomechanical analyses still rely on static assumptions and simplified boundary conditions, which are insufficient to capture the pronounced temporal variability of hydro-climatic forcing. To address this gap, this study introduces a conceptual and methodological framework for a proactive landslide cadaster, developed within the Climate Adaptive Resilience Evaluation (CARE) framework. Rather than serving as a static inventory of past events, the proposed cadaster functions as a structured, updatable repository of climate–geomechanical parameters that directly support advanced landslide analyses. The core innovation lies in the formalization of the climate–geomechanical interface, which enables the transformation of climatic and hydrological variables into parameters directly applicable in geomechanical modeling. These parameters encompass climatic, hydrological, geomechanical, and thermo-hydraulic processes and are assigned to spatially referenced locations, complemented by documented landslide occurrences. Their spatial distribution forms a network of reference points that allows interpolation, continuous updating, and reuse across multiple analyses. In this way, the cadaster becomes a proactive, process-based data infrastructure, serving as the foundational input for scenario-based landslide susceptibility, hazard, and risk assessments within the CARE analytical workflow. The conceptual framework is illustrated through an example from Slovenia, focusing on the Visole area near Maribor, where selected data types and workflow steps are presented for demonstration purposes.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6010033

Authors: Hanna Tutova Olena Lisovets Olha Kunakh Olexander Zhukov

Catastrophic disturbances pose significant challenges to remote sensing because landscapes can change rapidly, while access for field validation is limited, making it difficult to consistently track the spatiotemporal dynamics of discrete land-surface types. Building on the metaphor of the “ecosystem as an organism” and the individualistic perspective on ecosystems, each surface type is treated as a spectrally coherent entity whose identity must remain comparable over time despite changing conditions. To achieve this comparability, a Procrustes-based framework is introduced to align multi-index feature spaces from different dates to a common archetype, enabling cross-date classification within a commensurable coordinate system. Since Procrustes alignment requires a stable reference, the concept of core pixels (centroid-typical samples in feature space) is extended to spatially grounded anchor pixels that are invariant in both spectral and geographic space, thereby representing the persistent “organismal” structure of the landscape. Regression-based evaluation indicates that the Procrustes–anchor workflow improves classification fidelity and produces a clearer, more interpretable transition matrix of type changes, facilitating the separation of systematic transient dynamics from noisy reassignments. The resulting discrete habitat maps are independently validated using field geobotanical vegetation types, providing an ecological basis for the classified surface-type dynamics under catastrophic conditions.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6010032

Authors: Mehmet Burak Kaya Onur Alisan Eren Erman Ozguven Ren Moses

Tornadoes pose growing threats to both communities and the built environment, yet few studies have quantified how spatial characteristics of the built environment interact with social and economic factors while influencing tornado impacts. This paper introduces an integrated metric that combines tornado risk and exposure to evaluate localized disaster impact. Focusing on Florida’s Panhandle, we examine how housing density and affordability, network connectivity, and urban form efficiency, together with demographic and socioeconomic attributes, shape tornado impacts at the U.S. census block group (CBG) level. To address spatial autocorrelation and non-stationarity, five statistical models were compared, including both global and local spatial regressions. The findings indicate that multiscale geographically weighted regression (MGWR) most effectively captures the spatial heterogeneity of tornado impacts. Built-environment and affordability factors show clear spatial heterogeneity— smart location indexand housing cost burden (h_ami) are positively associated with tornado impact in CBGs near Tallahassee and parts of Pensacola—suggesting amplified impacts in location-efficient urban areas where exposure is concentrated and affordability stress may limit preparedness and recovery. In contrast, network density is negatively associated with the impact of key clusters, consistent with the idea that denser, more redundant road networks can reduce canopy-weighted disruption by providing alternative routes for emergency access and restoration. Overall, these findings can inform our understanding of how the built environment influences tornado exposure, offering critical insights for planners and policymakers seeking to strengthen communities against tornadoes.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6010031

Authors: Shadrack Kihwele Victor Anthony Gabourel-Landaverde Felister Mombo Eliapenda Elisante Imelda Gervas Jesús Barrena-González Manuel Pulido-Fernández

This study evaluates the costs and benefits of participatory forest management (PFM) versus non-participatory forest management based on the perceptions and involvement of local communities in the Kilombero Valley Ramsar site, Tanzania. The area hosts ecologically significant wetlands managed through different regimes: forests managed by local communities under PFM and protected areas controlled by national authorities. Using data collected through focus groups, key interviews, household surveys, and direct observations in two villages—Siginali (PFM) and Kilama (non-participatory)—this research explores perceptions of two different forest management approaches. The results revealed: (i) a generally low awareness and participation in forest management activities in both villages; (ii) restrictions on forest resource access, essential for local livelihoods, were common and often poorly accepted in the two villages; (iii) neither approach alleviates poverty, instead, strict regulations have worsened livelihoods by eliminating traditional income sources; (iv) forced participation in patrols and fire control was also noted as an unfair burden without direct compensation; and (v) the “fortress” model is perceived as more effective at improving forest health and stopping illegal activity due to stricter patrols. The study concludes that while PFM supports forest sustainability, it needs enhanced local engagement, benefit-sharing mechanisms, and complementary income-generating initiatives such as ecotourism to sustainably balance conservation and community welfare.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6010030

Authors: Hadi Allafta Christian Opp Ahmed Jawad Al-Naji

This study aims to investigate the relationship between basin hydrology and estuarine processes such as dynamics that influence salinity and water quality in the Shatt Al-Arab River, southern Iraq. Extensive samplings were conducted at 25 sites along the river course over one hydrological year. Runoff estimates were obtained using the soil conservation service–curve number (SCS-CN) model. During winter, peak rainfall (76.8 mm month−1) and runoff (12.38 mm month−1) promote the shortest salt wedge extension (8 km) and the highest water quality (median water quality index (WQI) = 22). In contrast, during fall, minimal rainfall (6.51 mm month−1) and runoff (0.14 mm month−1) result in a salt wedge extension of 109 km and the lowest water quality (median WQI = 250). Strong correlations between rainfall–runoff estimates, salt wedge extension, and water quality parameters demonstrate that water quality status can be predicted using hydrological inputs alone. Thus, this study introduces a novel quantification of the flushing influence required to maintain the Shatt Al-Arab River’s ecological health. A strong (r2 = 0.87) significant (p < 0.05) negative correlation was detected between the runoff coefficient (a proxy indicator of catchment wetness) and the standard deviation of WQI. Such a negative correlation implies that hydrological flushing fosters water quality stability. Principal component analysis (PCA) further revealed how natural and anthropogenic sources contribute to water quality. The findings illustrate how seasonal hydrological variability control mixing processes, salt wedge propagation, and water quality in estuarine-influenced river systems, presenting a framework adaptable to similar systems worldwide.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6010029

Authors: Rahul Devrani Rohit Kumar Jitendra Kumar Roy Abhiroop Chowdhury

The Aravalli Mountain System (AMS) is one of the oldest fold orogens in the world, serving as a natural boundary against desertification in north-western India. The AMS has high environmental importance and faces accelerated soil degradation driven by both anthropogenic pressures and climatic shifts. Still, high-resolution measurements of soil erosion processes have not been conducted on the AMS scale. The present study assesses long-term LULC transitions between 2001 and 2021, identifies high-resolution short-term LULC dynamics between 2017 and 2024, and models spatiotemporal soil erosion dynamics using the RUSLE model. The findings indicate that LULC has changed rapidly, with built-up areas increasing by 53 per cent at the expense of rangelands and croplands. These drivers resulted in a 13.8 per cent increase in the mean annual soil loss between 2017 and 2024, from 1.59 to 1.81 t/ha/yr, while forest cover has increased over the timescale, as is evident in this study. The steep slopes, susceptible soils, and mining areas are strongly associated with erosion hotspots. Increased soil erosion in the AMS despite a significant increase in afforestation highlights that local conservation cannot compensate for massive land conversion. The present study provides a scalable, high-resolution framework for assessing soil erosion in vulnerable old mountain systems globally for sustainable land-use planning, mineral governance, and integrated conservation to protect for future generations.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6010028

Authors: Néstor Campos Adolfo Quesada-Román

Traditional fieldwork in Physical Geography courses is considered a key activity to fix concepts and ideas taught in class. Unfortunately, it is a complex and expensive activity. Over recent decades, with the advancement and emergence of new technological tools, part of the traditional fieldwork has been replaced by virtual fieldwork techniques. In this study, we analyzed and evaluated the perceptions of the students in relation to the traditional fieldwork, focusing on the reinforcement of the concepts taught in class. After several extensive fieldwork campaigns, we evaluated a group of Physical Geography students through tests, which assessed perceptions related to learning enhancement, skill acquisition, motivation and environmental awareness, and we confirmed that the traditional fieldwork allowed the students not only to reinforce their knowledge, but also to acquire new skills and improve their understanding of the importance of environmental conservation.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6010027

Authors: Bui Thi Dieu Hien Nguyen Thi Hai Nguyen Ngoc Thanh Nguyen Huu Ngu

This study was conducted to assess the impact of land allocation on the land tenure security, settlement, and land use stability of households, individuals in Central Vietnam. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was employed to test the model using survey data from 400 households and individuals in Quy Nhon, Tay Son, and An Lao, administratively under Binh Dinh Province during the 2019–2023 study period and currently under Gia Lai Province following the July 2025 administrative restructuring. The research results show that land allocation has a direct and positive impact on land tenure security, settlement, and land use stability, while also having an indirect impact through a mediating variable, partly land tenure security (shown by the significance level of the research model at 1%, total effect βLA→LTS–SLUS = 0.603). The research results propose several policy implications for land allocation regulations that combine enhanced legal security, actual security, and perceived security, thereby encouraging land users to settle and stabilize their land use.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6010026

Authors: George Faidon D. Papakonstantinou

Urban hydrological risks are endangering vulnerable populations, particularly in densely populated metropolitan areas undergoing rapid land use transformation. This study uses geospatial analysis to identify zones in the Athens metropolitan area that are prone to surface water accumulation and stream flow development during extreme rainfall events. Two spatial indices were developed by integrating digital elevation models, flow accumulation, slope, aspect, the topographic wetness index, and classified road network data: a Surface Water Accumulation Index and a Stream flow Pathway Index. Roads were categorized based on their orientation relative to the direction of the slope, which allowed for an assessment of their influence on hydrological flow. Both indices were classified into five risk levels representing gradients of hydrological vulnerability. The spatial patterns revealed by this analysis show strong correlations with flood-prone areas and natural drainage systems. These insights are essential for guiding urban planning efforts aimed at reducing hydrological hazards, particularly for at-risk groups such as the homeless. This approach offers a valuable tool for promoting sustainable, socially inclusive landscape management.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6010025

Authors: Fowzia Gulshana Rashid Lopa Sajib Sarker Rizbina Reduan Rayma

Coastal settlements in Bangladesh are geographically flood-prone areas. This physical nature erodes the size and shape of those settlement boundaries over time. Such changes leave communities vulnerable in terms of securing a living place and livelihoods. However, the research arena rarely addresses the long-term changing aspects of settlement and the local governance responses to vulnerability. To examine this situation, this study explored settlement transformation patterns and governance challenges, using the case study of Chattogram Division in Bangladesh from 2005 to 2025. It applied a mixed-methods approach. The analysis, using the technique of Multi-temporal Landsat imagery with Random Forest classification, revealed complex settlement trajectories. It showed built-up areas expanded significantly between 2005 and 2015 but shrank by 2025, reflecting both hazard exposure and displacement pressures. Union-level analysis identified 62 coastal unions with high to very high settlement change. Conducting field surveys in selected Juidandi and Kalamarchhara unions through focus group discussions with communities and interviews with local officials highlighted recurring inundation, permanent land loss affecting thousands of households, and persistent disruptions to livelihoods. This study also found moderate emergency responses in selected unions; however, strategic planning for relocation, health, and well-being of communities is insufficient. Continuous resource constraints and poor coordination with communities and line organizations made local implementation less effective, which blurs the effectiveness of disaster risk reduction policies. These findings underscore the necessity of union-level governance capacity building, integrating community-based adaptation with formal interventions, and developing spatially differentiated relocation strategies to enhance the resilience of climate-vulnerable coastal settlements.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6010024

Authors: Dieu-donné N’tambwe Nghonda Héritier Khoji Muteya Sylvestre Cabala Kaleba François Malaisse Amisi Mwana Yamba Wilfried Masengo Kalenga Jan Bogaert Yannick Useni Sikuzani

Village landscapes within an 80 km radius of Lubumbashi (south-eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo) are undergoing rapid spatial transformation driven by subsistence agriculture, charcoal production, and mining activities. This study analyzes how these transformations are spatially perceived and organized across five village territories of the Lubumbashi Charcoal Production Basin using an adapted version of Kevin Lynch’s perceptual model. Landscape elements were independently identified by trained cartographic observers and by local community members. A comparison of the resulting maps yields a Sørensen similarity index ranging between 70% and 75% across villages, indicating strong convergence in spatial interpretation despite differences in expertise. Among the perceptual components, districts and landmarks account for nearly half of all identified elements and comprise the most perceptible anthropogenic disturbances. Spatial analysis shows that areas perceived as negatively impacted represent between 40% and 79% of total village surfaces. Deforestation associated with post-cultivation fallow dominates in Makisemu (47.6%) and Texas (64.4%), while woodland degradation linked to charcoal production is particularly pronounced in Mwawa (39.0%) and Luisha (25.1%). Mining-related disturbances, including soil and water alteration, are especially evident in Nsela (24.6%). These findings demonstrate that Lynch’s framework, although originally developed for urban systems, can effectively structure perception in diffuse rural woodland environments when methodologically adapted. Perception-based cartography therefore provides a robust complementary tool to biophysical monitoring for understanding the spatial footprint of anthropogenic pressures at the village scale and informing ecosystem restoration strategies.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6010023

Authors: Riyan Mohammad Sahahiri Abdullah Alattas Ahmad Fallatah Ammar Mandourah

This study intends to develop a GIS–AHP integrated framework to identify and analyze potential ecotourism routes between Jeddah and Alula, a corridor rich in ecological and cultural resources in Saudi Arabia. The research employed an integrated GIS and AHP methodology applying four criteria: ecological, cultural, infrastructural, and socio-economic. The AHP provided a systematic method for allocating weights to criteria through expert assessment, while GIS facilitated the spatial analysis, standardization, and integration of diverse information into a unified suitability map. The results reveal considerable regional heterogeneity in ecotourism suitability along the corridor. Highland areas near Alula and Al-Madinah showed high suitability due to the favorable climate, vegetation, and scenic aspects, while arid interior zones were mostly low-suited. The regions surrounding Jeddah, Yanbu, and Alula prospered from significant cultural and infrastructural accessibility. Overall, 21.4% of the land and 19.6% of road parts were categorized as highly appropriate for ecotourism. The integrated model indicates that ecotourism route planning can be enhanced by integrating environmental sensitivity with infrastructural availability. The findings expand the theoretical and practical discussion on spatial decision-making in sustainable tourism, offering a comprehensive, reliable approach for identifying potential ecotourism routes.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6010022

Authors: Rosmery Ramos-Sandoval Ligia García Luis Huatay-Salcedo Denisse Chavez-Huaman Jonathan Alberto Campos-Trigoso Meliza del Pilar Bustos Chavez

The spatial–temporal impact of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon in Peru is characterised by marked regional variability, affecting the economy and general well-being. This study focuses on the Piura region, which is highly sensitive to ENSO events, with the aim of determining the implications for land management and climate adaptation in the Peruvian coastal region, particularly in the context of ENSO events. The objective of the study is to ascertain the correlation between sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies and the Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) in the region. The researchers employed a machine learning approach to model and predict monthly NDVI behaviour, incorporating spatial and seasonal variables from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) during two periods of ENSO occurrence on the Peruvian coast (2017; 2023) and the one-year post-occurrence periods (2018; 2024). The results demonstrated a correlation between NDVI and SST anomalies in coastal provinces such as Sechura and Morropón, indicating sensitivity to oceanic conditions. In contrast, high Andean provinces such as Ayabaca and Huancabamba exhibited more moderate values, indicating a weaker dependence on SST variability. The study also found that the NDVI exhibited a marked monthly variation associated with altitudinal gradients and climatic conditions. This research demonstrates the potential of remote sensing and GIS technologies in capturing climate-sensitive land-use dynamics and provides a framework for operational monitoring and decision support.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6010021

Authors: Md Farhan Ishrak Adam J. Mathews Jay L. Newberry Wan Yu

Urban expansion has intensified concerns regarding land use efficiency and sustainable urban development worldwide. Despite growing global application of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) Indicator 11.3.1, comprehensive assessments within the United States (U.S.) remain limited. This study evaluates urban land use efficiency in the contiguous U.S. between 2000 and 2020 by examining the relationship between land consumption and population growth using the ‘Land Consumption Rate to Population Growth Rate’ (LCRPGR) framework. Urban land expansion and population change were derived from integrating impervious surface data with gridded population estimates, respectively, and the indicator was calculated for 2229 urban areas to evaluate temporal and regional patterns. Results show that urban land area increased by 23% over the study period, while population grew by 31%, indicating an overall shift toward denser urban development. The median LCRPGR declined from 0.84 during 2000–2010 to 0.63 during 2010–2020, reflecting improvements in land use efficiency, although notable regional disparities remain. Cluster analysis reveals distinct spatial growth patterns, with older metropolitan areas and western cities generally exhibiting more compact development. Findings demonstrate the applicability of SDG Indicator 11.3.1 for evaluating urban land use efficiency in a U.S. context and highlight the importance of coordinated spatial planning and policy measures to support sustainable urbanization.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6010020

Authors: Roberto Colonna Silvano Fortunato Dal Sasso

Coastal erosion is a growing concern along many Mediterranean sandy coasts, particularly where reduced fluvial sediment supply, relative sea-level rise and coastal development coincide. This study uses multi-mission Landsat 5/7/8/9 and Sentinel-2 data in Google Earth Engine to extract long-term shoreline series (1984–2025) from MNDWI-based composites. DSAS-style metrics quantify multi-decadal change, while a supervised linear regression forecasting model—validated against a 2013 orthophoto and an independent 2017–2025 test set using an RMSE-based acceptance criterion—is employed to forecast shoreline positions up to 2050. Using this framework, we reconstruct and forecast shoreline evolution along the ~38 km Ionian coast of Basilicata (southern Italy), a microtidal, sediment-starved littoral that has been affected by significant erosion over the past few decades, threatening natural habitats, infrastructure and economic activities. Results show pervasive erosion over the last four decades, with an average shoreline retreat of ≈47 m along the entire coast, and localized retreats exceeding 400 m, particularly at the mouths of the Agri and Sinni rivers and near the Metaponto sector. Forecasts, under linearity and trend-persistence assumptions, indicate further substantial retreat by 2050 in already critical sectors. Methodologically, this work provides a reproducible framework to inform scenario-based coastal planning in similar Mediterranean environments and the first multi-decadal, spatially continuous satellite-based analysis and machine learning-supported forecast for the Basilicata coast, offering a robust basis for regional coastal management.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6010019

Authors: Yanzhe Sun Ben Ma Sha Zhao Yaowen Xie Yitao Yu Wenle Hu

Urbanization in mountainous valley regions is constrained by rigid topography, generating complex correlations between spatial growth and ecological security. The coupling between urban expansion and landscape ecological risk (ERI) was evaluated for six representative valley cities in western China from 1985 to 2023. Annual land-cover data (CLCD) and fine-scale terrain models were integrated with expansion metrics, slope gradient analysis, and spatial statistics to identify growth trajectories and risk reorganization. Urban growth shifted from edge expansion to leapfrog development as valley floors became saturated. Two vertical trajectories emerged: a low-slope lock-in pattern (e.g., Lanzhou) where development remains largely on slopes < 6° and an uplift towards mid-slopes pattern (e.g., Chongqing), where expansion increasingly occurs on 6–25° terrain. ERI correspondingly showed three spatial typologies: valley contrast, heterogeneous mosaic, and high-risk background dominance. Although ERI generally declined, reflecting structural hardening with rising built-up land shares, the spatial clustering of risk remained stable. GeoDetector results indicate that terrain sets a baseline for ERI differentiation, but its explanatory power varies across cities and is often surpassed by land-cover composition. These findings support differentiated governance, requiring strict controls on slope disturbance in uplift cities and prioritizing corridor connectivity in lock-in cities.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6010018

Authors: Arsan Nurrokhman Delik Hudalah Denny Zulkaidi Nurrohman Wijaya

The role of poverty, specifically the urban poor, in shaping the urban landscape is often solely linked to slums and informal settlements in urban centers. However, contrary to this common perception, this study aims to elucidate how urban poor residents contribute to shaping urban sprawl in developing countries. After identifying patterns of urban sprawl and poverty in the Jakarta Metropolitan Area (JMA) in Indonesia, the study used the Structural Equation Model (SEM) method to analyze survey data from 195 respondents with a per capita income of less than USD 2.15 (IDR 34,000) daily in Tangerang Regency, a western suburb of the JMA. This study shows that urban sprawl and poverty concentration overlap. The urban poor contribute to urban sprawl by purchasing affordable land on the urban periphery, traveling there with their motorized vehicles, and taking advantage of government subsidies. However, rather than gaining more land, they face increased public service costs, a lack of basic facilities, and habitat destruction. Most respondents own their own homes, but almost half of the respondents (41.54%) state that these homes are less than 48 m2 in size. It can be concluded that economically vulnerable populations can contribute to urban sprawl when confronted with ineffective planning institutions.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6010017

Authors: Mira Zovko Izidora Marković Vukadin Krešo Pandžić Tanja Likso

Understanding the impact of climate change on tourism is vital for the economies that rely on it. The tourism sector in Croatia, a country with diverse climatic regions, but also diverse features of tourism, is particularly sensitive to changes in climate variables such as 2 m air temperature and precipitation totals. This study analyzes trends in these two key climate variables from 1961 to 2024 across five representative climatic regions: the-mountainous Lika region (Ličko-senjska County), the Kvarner region on the northern Adriatic coast (Primorsko-goranska County), the Zadar region on the central Adriatic coast (Zadarska Counties), and northern continental Croatia (Varaždinska and Međimurje Counties). Linear trends, 5-year moving averages, and comparisons between two standard climate periods (1961–1990 and 1991–2020) were conducted. Using these data, the monthly self-calibrated Palmer Drought Severity Index (sc-PDSI) and Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) for seven-time scales were calculated for the period 1961–2024 to assess drought conditions and their implications for tourism across the selected destinations. Frequencies of dry, near normal and wet months, estimated by SPI for a nine-month time scale (SPI-9) and a monthly sc-PDSI, were compared for two subperiods, 1961–1992 and 1993–2024. Meteorological data were contextualized for tourism stakeholders, with a focus on adaptation measures. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with tourism professionals in the study regions, providing qualitative insights into observed changes in climate and tourist behavior, operational challenges, adaptation strategies, level of community engagement, and opportunities envisioned. Objective climatological data were compared with the subjective perceptions of tourism experts using the principle of mixed methods, which allows for triangulation. The climatological data indicated a continuous trend of increasing mean annual air temperatures, as well as anomalies of average precipitation amount. The interviews revealed signals of emerging climate shifts, such as changes in the seasonality of visitors, concerns about water scarcity and heat stress. These findings were interpreted in the context of potential threats and opportunities for the tourism sector, highlighting region-specific adaptation strategies. By combining objective climate data with insights from tourism professionals, this study provides a comprehensive assessment of climate change impacts on tourism and informs for resilient tourism development across Croatia’s diverse regions. This paper presents a methodological framework for developing adaptation recommendations that draw on both empirical climate data and the lived experiences of tourism work practitioners.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6010016

Authors: Rohit Mondal Sabrina Bresciani Francesco Michele Noera Francesca Rizzo

The growing recognition of the need for systemic approaches to urban climate transitions calls for comprehensive monitoring and evaluation frameworks that extend beyond Greenhouse Gas emissions to include measures that impact human behaviours, as well as process indicators that enable timely adjustments to climate action pathways. The extant literature offers limited insights into EU regional patterns and differences in the assessment of actions toward climate neutrality. This study examines indicators of process and co-benefit selected for the pilot projects of cities that aim to be climate neutral by 2030 in 21 European countries, and it aligns the indicators set utilised in the NetZeroCities pilot projects with the international frameworks of United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and New European Bauhaus. The findings highlight the relevance accorded by cities in all European regions to learning, awareness and participation, and inform on potential regional differences in the prioritisation of specific sustainability goals across North, West, South and East Europe. The methodology contributes to the sustainability science and transdisciplinary literature by aligning cities’ indicators with the SDG and NEB frameworks. Findings suggest that the EU focus on engagement, participation and social learning is being taken up by cities; furthermore, they contribute insights for a potentially more geographically and culturally aware design of European urban climate transitions.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6010015

Authors: Gisela García-Morales María Sara Burrola-Sánchez David Urías-Laborín José Alfredo Arreola-Lizárraga

Evaluations of recreational beaches are necessary to guide their management. In this study, we conducted a socio-ecological evaluation to propose management guidelines for San Francisco beach in northwestern Mexico, using a beach quality index and recording user perceptions. The results showed that the beach quality is high, based on the recreational, natural, and protection functions considered in the beach quality index. This finding was consistent with user perceptions of beach services, environmental conditions, and cleanliness. The findings of this study can be applied to strategies focused on the use and preservation of San Francisco Beach, aiming to maintain the natural landscape and sanitary quality, provide public services, ensure cleanliness, subdivide recreational areas, and implement year-round surveillance.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6010014

Authors: Zaya Chinbat Yongfen Wei

Land use change driven by accelerated urbanization in Mongolia has precipitated significant degradation of urban riverine ecosystems over the past two decades. This study investigates hydrological transformations in the Selbe River Catchment of Ulaanbaatar, a cold semi-arid urban system undergoing intensive densification. Using the Site-scale Urban Water Mass Balance Assessment (SUWMBA) framework, we quantified water cycle dynamics across four temporal intervals (2008, 2010, 2018, and 2023), capturing shifts in surface runoff, infiltration, and evapotranspiration associated with land use transitions. Calibration and validation employed discharge records from the Selbe-Dambadarjaa gauging station. Results show that total inflows increased from 223 to 312 mm between 2008 and 2023, driven by a more than twentyfold rise in imported water (from 1 to 22 mm). Evapotranspiration declined by roughly one-third, while infiltration displayed a threshold-type non-linear response—rising sharply between 2010 and 2018 before decreasing again in 2023 as imperviousness intensified. Model performance weakened after 2018, underscoring the limitations of conventional hydrological frameworks in rapidly urbanizing contexts. A redevelopment scenario for the Selbe Sub-Center, aligned with the Ulaanbaatar City Master Plan 2040, projected substantially reduced evapotranspiration (132 mm) and markedly increased stormwater runoff (270 mm), reflecting expanded impervious cover and diminished vegetation. Imported water and wastewater flows (each 386 mm) also increased due to full connection to centralized supply and sewerage infrastructure, indicating a shift toward engineered water pathways and reduced hydrological connectivity to the Selbe River. These findings highlight the urgency of water-sensitive urban design and provide evidence directly informing Mongolia’s 2040 Urban Master Plan and decentralization strategy. The study establishes methodological precedent for applying SUWMBA to cold, semi-arid catchments and contributes quantitative insights for integrated land–water management policies.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6010013

Authors: Natalya A. Skokova Anastasiya G. Narozhnyaya Artyom V. Gusarov Fedor N. Lisetskii

This paper presents the results of assessing the influence of siltation factors in 23 ponds in one of the most agriculturally developed macro-regions of European Russia—the Central Russian Upland. Key natural and anthropogenic factors determining the intensity of pond siltation have been identified, and a typification of ponds has been developed to predict the rate of accumulation of bottom sediments in them. For the typification, statistical methods such as correlation analysis (Spearman’s coefficient), cluster and factor analysis, and the Random Forest machine learning algorithm were used. Correlation analysis revealed that the percentage of catchment cultivation has a significant effect (r = 0.55, p < 0.01) on the volume of bottom sediments, while soil loss (r = 0.47, p < 0.05) and vertical terrain dissection (r = 0.43, p < 0.05) have a moderate effect. The most important factors in the siltation process are the average slope of the catchment (24.5%), the percentage of cultivated soils (18.8%), and the average annual soil loss (14.1%). All factors were grouped into three clusters, which explained 77.8% of the variance. As a result, four pond types were identified, differing in their dominant limiting factors: pond hydrological characteristics, catchment morphometry, and the degree of anthropogenic transformation of the catchment. Verification of the typification was carried out based on the calculation of annual soil losses considering the sediment delivery coefficient; the discrepancies between the calculated and actual pond sediment volumes were 1.2–10.0%. The proposed approach, which recommends a multi-scale assessment of potential sediment formation volumes using remote sensing data and thematic mapping, offers heuristic potential for identifying the most degraded water bodies. This enables the planning of priority sites and rehabilitation measures for their restoration within the framework of regional soil and water conservation programs.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6010012

Authors: Monica Ballinas Bolívar Morales Pablo López-Ramírez

Atmospheric contamination and thermal pollution are two phenomena that impact negatively on the quality of life of residents in a city. Furthermore, exposure to these phenomena has a differential impact on socioeconomic strata, with the poorest being the most affected. Spatial and temporal analyses were conducted of PM2.5 pollution and air temperature, as well as socioeconomic variable. This characterization revealed that low-income people are more exposed to thermal pollution during the warm season with temperatures up to 32.6 °C, and to PM2.5 pollution with concentrations up to 205 µgm−3 during the cold season, focusing on the eastern part of the Metropolitan Area of Mexico City (MAMC). High temperatures can persist for up to 6 h, while PM2.5 concentrations can persist for up to 5 h. The social backwardness index is a fixed variable that can change in the long term and is related to thermal pollution. This study will allow us to understand social and environmental vulnerability and, thus, to develop an appropriate mitigation methodology for these two phenomena and their impact on human health, with special attention to environmental justice issues.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6010011

Authors: Remus Crețan David Chasciar Alexandru Dragan Marius Lupșa Matichescu

Postsocialist peri-urban spaces are characterized by a chaotic development as a result of the transition from communism to capitalism. Recent research has highlighted that liveability in peri-urban spaces encounters challenges of adaptation to the peri-urban areas. The aim of the present study is to identify and analyze patterns and contrasts that occur between age groups and gender in relation to the level of liveability as well as to better understand the daily mobility practices and commuting dependencies and how mobility shapes key contrasts and emerging tensions within Timișoara’s postsocialist peri-urban spaces. As liveability relates to local development, commuting, and accessibility to service facilities in the residential environment, the identification of patterns and differences is imperative when considering the perception of local residents on potential (un)sustainable liveability in peri-urban areas. This study utilizes a quantitative analysis, informed by a survey of considerable size (N = 954) conducted in peri-urban settlements of Timisoara, Romania, with a view to elucidating the distinctions and commonalities in the perceptions held by the local populace. The findings indicate that the elderly population exhibits a greater reluctance to adapt to the emerging peri-urban environment. In contrast, the younger and more educated demographic demonstrates a higher degree of adaptability to the contemporary challenges posed by peri-urban expansion and hazardous development. Daily mobility, including commuting, is directly influenced by the effects of dispersed and chaotic development (e.g., more than 79% of respondents rely on private cars for commuting), as well as the lack of facilities and services (e.g., 2.21 level of satisfaction regarding cultural events). This highlights Timisoara’s dependence on external services, as well as the significant role of personal vehicles in providing access to the city center and its neighborhoods. Therefore, we can observe the peri-urban area undergoing a transitional phase as it navigates the initial stages of sustainable urban development and pursues an enhanced quality of life. Finally, we propose several policy recommendations for local authorities, offering solutions for enhancing liveability in peri-urban areas.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6010010

Authors: Liana Hakobyan Ruzanna Armenakyan Lilit Baghdasaryan Aida Martirosyan Svetlana Ratner

Understanding how global climate drivers manifest at regional scales is critical for designing targeted adaptation strategies, particularly in vulnerable mountainous countries. This study provides an integrated assessment of atmospheric CO2 concentrations, surface temperature, and precipitation trends at both global and Armenian levels from the early 20th century to 2024. Using long-term observational datasets and ordinary least squares regression models with HAC-robust errors, this study quantifies the magnitude and statistical significance of historical climate shifts. Results confirm pronounced global warming (+0.021 °C/year) alongside a moderate rise in global precipitation (+1.13 mm/year). Armenia, however, exhibits substantially accelerated warming (+0.052 °C/year) coupled with a non-significant and spatially heterogeneous precipitation trend, including notable declines in humid regions. CO2 emissions per capita strongly predict temperature change both globally (0.59 °C/ton) and, even more prominently, in Armenia (1.33 °C/ton), indicating heightened regional climate sensitivity. These findings align closely with Armenia’s Fourth National Communication to the UNFCCC, reinforcing the robustness of the analysis. By revealing how global climate forcings translate into region-specific outcomes—and by discussing the emerging thermal contribution of digital infrastructure—this study underscores the urgency of localized climate adaptation, water resource planning, and agricultural resilience measures.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6010009

Authors: Fernando Medina Morales Pablo Máyer Suárez Feliciano Tavío Álvarez Lorenzo Quesada Ruiz

The island of Gran Canaria (Spain) has undergone a significant transformation in wildfire dynamics over the past two decades, characterized by a decline in wildfire frequency but a marked increase in the severity and spatial impact of extreme events, particularly within the wildland–urban interface (WUI). This study analyzes wildfire activity between 2000 and 2020 using official datasets and statistical trend analyses, incorporating robust severity indicators and measures of burned area concentration. Results show a statistically significant decreasing trend in the number of wildfires, while burned area is extremely concentrated in a small number of high-intensity events, with four large wildfires accounting for more than 97% of the total affected area. Climatic influences on wildfire activity were assessed through the analysis of long-term meteorological indicators, focusing on trends in extreme heat days and precipitation as proxies for thermal stress and fuel moisture availability. The results indicate a substantial modification of the background climatic framework under which wildfires develop, although no direct causal relationships are inferred. In parallel, territorial processes—such as rural abandonment, increased fuel continuity, and the expansion of dispersed housing beyond consolidated settlements—act as key amplifiers of wildfire risk. Overall, the findings highlight a transition from emergency-oriented fire suppression toward resilience-based wildfire management, emphasizing the need to integrate climate adaptation, territorial planning, and stricter land-use regulation in WUI areas.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6010008

Authors: Valentin-Florentin Jujea-Boldesco Mihnea-Ștefan Costache Anna Dakou-Chasioti Nicolae Crăciun Alexandru Nedelea

Land-use and land-cover change (LULCC) is a crucial indicator of environmental transformation and has significant implications for biodiversity, ecosystem services, and climate change. This study investigates land-cover changes between 2017 and 2023 in three distinct mountain regions: the Bucegi Mountains, the Allgäu High Alps, and Mount Olympus. Using remote-sensing data from Sentinel 2 and Geographic Information System (GIS) tools, we analyzed temporal shifts in land-cover types across these regions. The analysis highlights the varying rates and patterns of land-cover transformation in response to environmental and anthropogenic factors. Additionally, the MOLUSCE model was employed to predict future land-cover changes for the year 2029. The findings emphasize the dynamic nature of land-cover in these mountainous areas and offer insights into the potential environmental implications of predicted changes. The Bucegi and the Olympus regions experienced minor land-use changes, while the Allgäu High Alps have the most dynamic changes. The study contributes to a deeper understanding of land-cover dynamics and the applicability of remote sensing and GIS-based predictive models in ecological monitoring.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6010007

Authors: Muhammad Rusydan Hi Arby Seth Appiah-Opoku Alfath Satria Negara Syaban

This study explores global experiences of capital relocation to extract lessons relevant to North Maluku, Indonesia, where Sofifi has yet to develop into a functional provincial capital. Drawing on six theoretical perspectives, including growth pole theory, polycentric development, institutional inertia, urban metabolism, spatial justice, and urban vitality, the paper analyzes how political vision, institutional integration, and social participation influence relocation outcomes. Comparative cases from Abuja, Brasília, Putrajaya, Naypyidaw, Randstad, and Nusantara show that successful relocations occur when governance reform aligns with spatial planning and participatory urban design. For Sofifi, enhancing urban vitality through connectivity, inclusiveness, and institutional coordination is essential to transform relocation from a symbolic decision into a functional urban system. The study contributes a conceptual framework linking spatial design, institutional reform, and social vibrancy in the pursuit of sustainable and equitable capital development.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6010006

Authors: Alan Carlos de Souza Correa Fernanda Neves Ferreira Lorena Sousa Melo Paulo Amador Tavares

Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis), a rapidly expanding crop in northeastern Pará, first emerged in the 1970s as a crucial response to the global oil crisis. However, its swift expansion has subsequently generated significant socio-environmental conflicts, profoundly altering local socioecological dynamics. Therefore, we aimed to investigate land-use and land-cover changes within the headwater sub-basin of the Caeté River, focusing specifically on the municipality of Bonito, Pará. To achieve this, we employed remote sensing and geospatial analysis to accurately delineate the study area and perform supervised classifications. Specifically, we used the Random Forest algorithm to map five distinct periods: 1985, 1995, 2004, 2015, and 2023. In addition, we calculate an Anthropogenic Transformation Index (ATI) in order to observe the human influence in the landscape. Our classification models exhibited high accuracy, with overall accuracy values ranging from 0.63 to 0.87 and Kappa coefficients between 0.53 and 0.76, demonstrating consistent discrimination among LULC classes. The results revealed a marked transformation of the landscape, with oil palm monocultures progressively expanding at the expense of dense forest and human-modified vegetation. For instance, the ATI increased from 3.14 in 1985 to 5.56 in 2004, followed by a slight decline to 4.90 in 2023, suggesting a potential stabilisation—but not a reversal—of anthropogenic pressures. Nonetheless, the negative socioecological impacts of the oil palm monocultures in this Amazonian landscape remain severe, encompassing issues such as water pollution and ongoing socio-environmental conflicts. In conclusion, this research highlights the importance of understanding these dynamics to support sustainable management of the Caeté River basin. Furthermore, we underscore the urgent need for further research to rigorously evaluate effective mitigation strategies and foster genuinely sustainable development within the region.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6010005

Authors: Solomon Beyene Sam Blumenfeld Elizabeth Guthrie Nichols

Western North Carolina (WNC), part of the Appalachian landscape, hosts a robust forest product industry but faces increasing challenges like land marginalization, warming temperatures and raw material shortages. This study evaluates the site suitability and cost-effectiveness of cultivating Populus species for high-value veneer–plywood (VP) production in WNC using the Veneer-Poplar Productivity and Economic Assessment Model (VP-PEAM). The model integrates site-specific variables (elevation, soil characteristics, landform and land-use history) to optimize site-species management strategies across diverse landscapes. Twelve scenarios are analyzed to assess how biophysical and land-use factors influence VP growth and profitability. The results show that VP productivity and profitability decline with increasing elevation, past land-use intensity, soil compaction and decreasing soil depth. All land-use types studied support profitable VP production. Yet, flood plain sites with medium-textured soils and moderate water table depths (0.61–1.83 m) offer optimal conditions. Even under suboptimal conditions, extended rotations maintain profitability, except on sites with persistent waterlogging or shallow water tables (<0.31 m). VPs generate higher annual equivalent opportunity benefits (USD 1568–USD 2763 ha−1 yr−1 in 15- to 18-year rotations) compared to non-forest land uses, suggesting their potential to enhance regional wood supply and land-use efficiency. These findings contribute to site-informed forest management and offer a modeling approach for assessing forest resilience and cost-effectiveness in Appalachian landscapes.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6010004

Authors: George Iliopoulos Penelope Papadopoulou Vasilis Golfinopoulos Eleni Koumoutsou Ioannis P. Kokkoris Irena Pappa Panayotis Dimopoulos

Chelmos Vouraikos UNESCO Global Geopark is located in North Peloponnesus, Greece. As a member of the Global Geoparks Network, it is valued for its rich geoheritage in combination with its natural and cultural wealth. Several different landforms of international value are located in the area. The scope of this work is to present an overview of its geomorphological features, link them with biodiversity and highlight their value for geotourism. Its geology is complicated due to intense tectonism. Three geotectonic units of the Alpine Orogeny can be found along with post-Alpine sediments related to the Corinth Gulf rifting. The area is highly covered by limestone creating important karst landforms. High peaks surround river valleys and deep gorges create breathtaking landscapes. Some of them cut through high and steep conglomerate slopes. Remnants of past glaciation have been preserved on Mt Chelmos. The exceptional geodiversity of the area is linked with rich vegetation and high endemism. The many identified geomorphological sites highlight the Geopark’s strong commitment to geomorphology and its importance as a key geomorphological destination. Highly visible geomorphological sites with ecological value can also promote environmental awareness and contribute to the protection of biodiversity.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6010003

Authors: Zaya Chinbat Yongfen Wei Ken Hiramatsu

Urban expansion in cold semi-arid regions poses significant threats to river ecosystems through land use changes and impervious surface proliferation. This study examined the Selbe River in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, integrating Landsat satellite imagery (2000–2020) with long-term water quality monitoring data (2012–2023) to assess land use change impacts on river water quality. Land use classification revealed that built-up areas expanded 3.5-fold from 16.20 km2 (2000) to 57.9 km2 (2020), driven primarily by informal Ger residential areas and high-rise residential zones. Over the same period, barren land decreased from 149.5 km2 to 64.80 km2, while green areas increased from 156.89 km2 to 200.11 km2, which was insufficient to offset ecological stress from impervious surfaces. Water quality analysis of five sampling sites along the river showed progressive deterioration, with the Water Quality Index (WQI) increasing from 1.08 (2012) to 7.24 (2023), classifying the river as “dirty”, the most severe pollution category in Mongolia’s national classification system. Downstream sites adjacent to high-rise residential and Ger districts exhibited elevated concentrations of NH4+, NO2−, NO3−, PO43−, and suspended solids, frequently exceeding permissible limits established by MNS 4586-98. These findings underscore the cumulative impact of unregulated urban growth on aquatic ecosystems and emphasize the urgent necessity for integrated land use regulation and watershed-based planning to safeguard urban water resources in cold semi-arid environments. The study provides a replicable framework for assessing land use impacts on water quality in rapidly urbanizing regions.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6010002

Authors: Valentina Nikolova Radostina Rizova Ivan Dimitrov Jan Babej Dimitar Dimitrov Ana M. Petrović

Torrential flows are hazardous hydro-geomorphological phenomena characterized by sudden water discharge and intense sediment transport. They occur in mountainous areas where hydrometeorological monitoring is often limited or absent. The lack of such data hinders the identification of flow types and sediment transport conditions, reducing the effectiveness of mitigation measures. To address this issue, the current study focuses on geomorphic characteristics of torrential watersheds and identifies indirect indicators of torrential activity. The sedimentological and geomorphic signatures of torrential flows in the lower Damdere River catchment (Eastern Rhodopes Mountains, southern Bulgaria) were characterized. To capture inter-annual variability in torrential activity and differences between the Damdere and its tributary the Duandere, we sampled riverbed deposits. We also sampled areas upstream and downstream of the check dam to assess its influence. Samples were analyzed for grain size distribution, petrography, and mineralogy (X-ray diffraction). Results show contrasting controls on sediment supply and transport: the Duandere delivers relatively coarse material, whereas the Damdere attains higher transport capacity during torrential events. The check dam is largely infilled and exerts only local effects by trapping finer sediments upstream. Downstream, the channel retains its torrential character. Inter-annual comparison upstream of the structure shows sediment fining linked to lower flows. Petrographic and XRD data point to mechanically driven erosion and rapid sediment transfer. The results underline the importance of geological–geomorphological indicators in the lack of long-term monitoring in similar mountain catchments and can support flood risk management.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies6010001

Authors: Khusna Ainul Mardliyah Kenji Taniguchi

Jakarta frequently experiences flooding due to several sources. To address this, the Indonesian government initiated the Great Garuda Seawall (GGSW), a structural countermeasure to protect the city from floods. This study assesses the effectiveness of the GGSW using a storm surge model. Four events were simulated to evaluate storm surge variations: without the GGSW, and in three construction phases (initial, intermediate, and completion phases). The results derived from the model depict the maximum storm-surge heights near the Jakarta coastline as 10 cm, 12 cm, 14 cm, and 24 cm for the events of Borneo Vortex, Hagibis–Mitag, Peipah, and Cold Surge, respectively. The effects also extended slightly to the Kepulauan Seribu Regency. Among the construction phases, the intermediate phase was identified as the most critical because the eastern reservoir gate remained open. In the completion phase, attention is needed for the gate connection between reclaimed lands and the Jakarta mainland, especially near the Bekasi region, where coastal erosion risk is high. Overall, the GGSW is not yet fully effective in preventing coastal flooding because some areas still experience no reduction in storm surge height. Furthermore, an evaluation based on GGSW construction phases is also important because this project generally involves reclamation islands and water pumps, which must be carefully cross-engineered.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies5040078

Authors: Hugo Castro Noblejas Álvaro Daniel Rodríguez Escudero

The study examines the recent transformation of traditional agricultural landscapes in the transition zone between Sierra de las Nieves and the Western Costa del Sol (Andalusia, Spain), one of the European regions where urban development pressure has reached its peak in replacing agricultural land with residential and tourism uses. Through a diachronic analysis of historical orthophotos (1956–2025), statistical sources (Agricultural Census, SIGPAC), and fieldwork, land-use changes and their impact on ecological functionality and territorial resilience are quantified. Results reveal a widespread loss of agricultural land—exceeding 68% overall—particularly severe in Benahavís, where more than 70% of farmland has disappeared, largely converted to urban areas. In contrast, in Istán and Ojén, the predominant trend is the renaturalization of abandoned agricultural land. These dynamics illustrate a coastal–inland territorial model that epitomizes the Mediterranean “territorial consumption” process, in which tourism-driven urbanization fragments traditional agroforestry mosaics. The study concludes that, despite their regression, traditional agricultural landscapes continue to play a key role in water regulation, soil conservation, and wildfire risk mitigation. Their restoration and maintenance are proposed as a replicable strategy for climate change adaptation and for reconciling territorial sustainability with economic development in other Mediterranean regions under intense urban pressure.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies5040077

Authors: Ferdous Sultana Jürgen Scheffran

Bangladesh is at the forefront of climate change impacts because of its geographical location, high population density, and constrained socio-economic infrastructure. Our objective is to explore the impacts of climate change on human security components and conflict constellation, and identify adaptation actors through the lens of experts in Bangladesh. We conducted 12 semi-structured qualitative interviews with lead experts using the Problem-centred Interview (PCI) methodology and inductively applied content analysis to analyse the data, complemented with descriptive statistics. Experts see a shift in baseline risk due to the increase in frequency and severity of natural hazards. It exacerbates existing vulnerabilities by declining agricultural productivity, undermining water security and increasing migration. Food, economic, and water security are predominantly impacted, where women and the poor suffer disproportionately. Impacts on urban areas, energy and community security are under-researched. Experts agreed that climate change is a “threat multiplier” and could aggravate political insecurity, leading to conflicts. Individuals and households are primary adaptation actors, followed by governmental and non-governmental organisations. This research contributes to the broader understanding of the complex nexus of climate change impacts, human security, and conflict constellation, complements climate models and provides policy-relevant insights for inclusive, long-term adaptation grounded in local realities in Bangladesh.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies5040076

Authors: Rocco Scolozzi Marta Villa

This article applies Causal Layered Analysis (CLA) to four Italian Alpine contexts to examine how narratives and metaphors can shape territorial development. We combined long-term ethnography (approximately 128 days of participant observation) with analysis of documents and media (2010–2025) relating to the four territories and interpreted the results through the four levels of CLA: litanies, systems, worldviews, and myths/metaphors. Two dominant metaphors, “mountain-as-playground” (exogenous) and “mountain-as-heritage” (endogenous), seem to underpin the discourses about tourism and local development. We identify signals of a third metaphor, the “open-hybrid-village”, where multiple forms of belonging and contribution (resident collective ownerships, returnees, extended stay visitors) sustain the local economy and stewardship. The approach is interpretative, and the transferability of results is limited by the selection of cases and the availability of data; however, triangulation and distinct levels support the internal consistency and replicability of the method in other contexts. We conclude that making imaginaries explicit can broaden the variety of thinkable futures and the space of options before investments become dependent on the path taken. We suggest integrating CLA into participatory foresight to enrich and share forward-looking visions on which to negotiate long-term landscape planning and thresholds for tourism carrying capacity.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies5040075

Authors: Emilio Ramírez-Juidias Paula Romero-Beltrán Clara-Isabel González-López

Climate change and increased human activity are causing the Doñana wetlands, an important ecological reserve in southern Europe, to lose water more quickly. This research presents the Water Inference Moisture Index (WIMI), a spectral index designed to evaluate surface water dynamics utilizing Sentinel-2 L2A imagery from 2016 to 2024. The index, carried out using a machine learning approach, uses near-infrared (B08) and red (B04) bands to find wetland water with a high level of sensitivity, even when there is a lot of vegetation. We looked at how water availability changed over time and space by combining WIMI with long-term records of precipitation and climate data. The results show that surface water is slowly disappearing across the study area, even in years with normal rainfall. This suggests that the water retention capacity is changing and the stress on groundwater is rising. The annual WIMI values were somewhat related to rainfall, but they have been becoming less and less related in recent years. Comparing this to the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report shows that the local effects of climate change are part of a larger trend toward aridification. The study shows that WIMI is a useful, low-cost, and scalable tool for monitoring wetlands and helping with climate adaptation and conservation efforts. The results call for immediate policy actions to protect groundwater resources and support the Sustainable Development Goals for climate action and water security.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies5040074

Authors: Wenliang Pan Shijun Pan Junko Kaneto Keisuke Yoshida Satoshi Nishiyama

Urban inland flooding has become a serious problem in many cities because heavy rain often exceeds the capacity of drainage systems. In Japan, GIS-based evacuation maps are commonly used to support disaster preparedness, but they still have several limitations. In particular, they do not avoid flooded road segments and cannot generate multiple evacuation options at the same time. This study proposes an improved evacuation route method using the free and open-source software QGIS. The method combines flood-depth data with road network processing to remove roads where the predicted water depth is higher than 0.5 m. It also provides several evacuation paths to different shelters at the same time. A case study in Kurashiki City, Okayama Prefecture, demonstrates that about 1.37% of the road network becomes unusable during an inland-flood scenario. Several existing evacuation routes also pass through hazardous areas, but the QGIS-based method avoids these areas in most cases. Since the workflow uses only built-in QGIS functions and does not require programming or plug-ins, it is easy to reproduce and apply in other regions. This study offers a practical and low-cost method to support inland-flood evacuation planning for local governments.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies5040073

Authors: Vitor Abner Borges Dutra Aline Maria Meiguins de Lima Peter Man de Toledo Yuri Antonio da Silva Rocha

The aim of this research was to identify the challenges and opportunities associated with the Water-Food-Ecosystem (WFE) Nexus approach in coastal river basins in Northeastern Pará and Eastern Amazonia. The methodology considered Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) axes 2, 6, 8, 10 and 13 through a Nexus indicator matrix. It involved a statistical analysis of distribution and correlation coefficients. The coefficient indicates the strength of the relationship and the presence of positive or negative correlations. The final distribution of the variables discussed was to zone the region into areas of higher and lower potential for water sustainability. The results showed significant variability in consumptive use along the water axis. Castanhal had the highest level of consumptive use due to its public water supply, which increased in line with population growth between 2000 and 2022 (r = 0.76), in accordance with SDG 6. In the food axis, fishing and aquaculture activities were prevalent in the coastal municipalities of Maracanã and São Caetano de Odivelas (SDGs 2 and 8). In the ecosystem axis, significant deforestation was observed (39.45% to 86.88%), accompanied by low environmental compliance. Regarding the relationship between water and food, only the proportion of rural properties with irrigation and temporary crops showed a significant negative correlation (r = −0.62). The results indicate the consolidation of measures pertaining to water security in the region, exerting a direct influence on food security and strategies employed for the administration of ecosystems imperative for the sustenance of multiple extractive communities in the region. The Nexus approach highlighted various challenges in the region, including poor environmental compliance, overuse of water and forest resources, degraded pastures, and underdeveloped socioeconomic indicators.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies5040072

Authors: Georgios Kolkos

Effective forest trail planning requires objective and transparent tools to balance user accessibility, recreation quality, and environmental protection. This research explores how geospatial analysis and multi-criteria decision-making can be integrated to optimize the allocation of rest and recreation facilities within forest trail networks, where limited resources and ecological constraints often restrict development. The Mount Paiko trail system in northern Greece was analyzed using a hybrid GIS–AHP–PROMETHEE II framework. Five evaluation criteria—trail difficulty, trail class, scenic attractiveness, distance from the trailhead, and traversal time from the nearest facility—were assessed to represent both physical effort and spatial accessibility. Stakeholder-based AHP weighting identified traversal time (C5) and trail difficulty (C1) as the most influential criteria, emphasizing the importance of user fatigue and service gaps. PROMETHEE II produced a clear hierarchy of forty candidate sites, prioritizing medium-difficulty and visually appealing routes located over 10 km from the starting point. Net flow values ranged from −0.228 to +0.309, with the highest-ranked location (PTF 12) highlighting a medium-difficulty, scenic segment with one of the longest traversal times from the nearest facility. By merging quantitative network analysis with structured expert judgment, the proposed framework offers a reproducible and evidence-based decision-support tool for forest planners and policymakers, promoting sustainable trail development that maximizes accessibility while minimizing environmental disturbance.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies5040071

Authors: Konstantinos Kostopoulos Apollon Bournas Evangelos Baltas

Water scarcity, driven by climate change, spatial and temporal variations in precipitation, and seasonal water demands, is becoming an increasingly pressing issue for Mediterranean islands such as Crete. Strategically placed dams could offer a sustainable solution to these challenges. To identify optimal sites, we employed a multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) framework, integrating Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) and fuzzy AHP methodologies with remote sensing data using Geographical Information Systems (GIS). This process generated two different suitability maps for dam construction across the island of Crete. The following analyses were also performed on the results: (1) validation; (2) sensitivity; and (3) 3D analysis of three highly suitable locations. The findings are promising, showing a widespread distribution of numerous highly suitable locations. Validation revealed satisfactory predictive performance, while the sensitivity analysis indicates stability of the top locations. Subsequent 3D analysis revealed favorable morphological characteristics for two locations but severe limitations for the third. This study can serve as a starting point for further investigation into dam construction as a viable mitigation strategy for Crete’s water crisis.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies5040070

Authors: Marcelo Alves de Souza Vanderli Alves dos Santos Marco Túlio Mendonça Diniz Daví do Vale Lopes José Yure Gomes dos Santos Paulo Victor do Nascimento Araújo

The expansion of algaroba (Neltuma juliflora), an invasive exotic species widely adapted to arid and semi-arid environments, has caused significant ecological and geomorphological changes on the northern coast of Rio Grande do Norte in Brazil. This study aimed to analyze the greening process associated with the expansion of algaroba in the Rosado Dunes Environmental Protection Area (APADR) between 2004 and 2024. Images from the SPOT 5PSM, CBERS 4, and CBERS 4A satellites were used, processed by supervised classification in QGIS software version 3.38. The multitemporal analysis revealed a significant change in the landscape, with a reduction in areas of native vegetation (caatinga and restinga) and an increase in dunes and beaches, urban areas, and invasive species. The area occupied by algaroba expanded from 70 ha (0.5%) in 2004 to 435 ha (3.1%) in 2024, representing an increase of more than six times in two decades. This expansion has had direct impacts on biodiversity, sediment dynamics, and groundwater availability, in addition to compromising connectivity between the dunes and the beach environment. The results point to the need for public policies aimed at controlling invasive species and sustainably managing native vegetation, with a view to conserving biodiversity and the integrity of the coastal and semi-arid geosystems of APADR.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies5040069

Authors: Anurag Mishra Anurag Ohri Prabhat Kumar Singh Nikhilesh Singh Rajnish Kaur Calay

Small urban rivers are crucial to global freshwater ecosystems, yet they are disproportionately impacted by human-induced modifications. Existing restoration approaches have primarily focused on large river systems. This study aims to provide a comprehensive, high-resolution assessment of the urban stretch of the Assi River (~7 km) in Varanasi, India, to inform restoration strategies as a representative case study of the challenges faced by small rivers. We used high-resolution unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) imagery to map the river and collected water quality data from seven sampling sites in October 2022. Our findings reveal a severe loss of multidimensional connectivity. Geospatial analysis revealed extensive encroachment, with built-up areas occupying 137,580 m2 along a 100 m length within the 30 m buffer zone, and channel widths constricted to as narrow as 1 m in some sections. Water quality is severely impaired, with dissolved oxygen (DO) levels dropping to a minimum of 0.2 mg/L and faecal coliform levels reaching up to 2.1 × 108 MPN/100 mL. We propose a UAV-based restoration framework that integrates geospatial data with policy recommendations to reconnect the river. However, a limitation of this work is that it is based on single-season sampling and temporal variations; multi-seasonal campaigns will likely improve the framework. The proposed model for urban river management directly addresses SDG 6.3 and 6.6, which target the reduction of water pollution and protecting water-related ecosystems, respectively, and SDG 11.7, which aims to provide access to green spaces.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies5040068

Authors: Aikaterini Stamou Efstratios Stylianidis

Over the last fifteen years, the Google Earth Engine (GEE) has become a pivotal tool for large-scale geospatial analysis, with growing applications in urban environmental monitoring. This review examines the peer-reviewed literature, published between 2015 and 2024, that utilizes GEE to evaluate urban environments through remote sensing-derived indices. The literature search strategy was guided by predefined search terms, which were applied to online databases including Scopus and Google Scholar. The inclusion criteria for this review comprised English-language publications, limited to articles only from journals, while book series, books, and conference articles were excluded. The eligibility criteria applied aimed to identify peer-reviewed studies that applied GEE to urban contexts using vegetation, thermal, greenness, or density indices. Studies without a clear urban focus or not employing GEE as a primary tool were excluded. The selection process followed a structured methodological flow, where a total of 291 studies were identified that fulfilled the applied criteria. This review indicates that key methodological trends encompass both conventional techniques, such as Random Forests (RFs), Support Vector Machines (SVMs), and classification/regression trees, as well as emerging machine learning algorithms, with Landsat, Sentinel, and MODIS as the most commonly used satellite datasets. The articles included in this review show a geographic focus, with over 44% of publications from China, 11% from the United States, and 9% from India, while the rest of the countries identified in this review contribute fewer than 5% each, suggesting that there is a significant opportunity for research in underrepresented regions. The main result of this review is that GEE proves to be an effective, scalable, and reproducible platform for urban environmental analysis, with most studies focusing on vegetation and thermal indices using Landsat, Sentinel, and MODIS data. As GEE has become one of the most widely used platforms for urban environmental monitoring, future research should focus on addressing challenges such as the standardization of indices, the consistency of methodological approaches, and the expansion of global coverage through advanced cloud-based geospatial frameworks.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies5040067

Authors: Claudio Stefanini Francesca Becherini Antonio della Valle Fabio Zecchini Dario Camuffo

Understanding long-term cloud cover variability is essential for assessing past climate dynamics and human influences on atmospheric conditions. In Padua, instrumental weather records (temperature, precipitation, pressure) and descriptive sky observations date back to 1725, but quantitative cloud cover data, expressed as tenths of the sky covered by clouds, began in 1872 at the Astronomical Observatory. From 1920 to 1989, observations continued under the authority of the Meteorological Observatory of the Water Magistrate, and from 1951 to 1990, additional records by the Italian Air Force expressed in eighths of sky are available. These visual datasets—based on multiple daily observations—are complemented by satellite records (from 1983) and reanalysis such as ERA5 (from 1940) and NOAA 20CRv3 (from 1872 to 2015). The aim of this study is to reconstruct a homogenized, long-term total cloud cover (TCC) time series for Padua from 1872 to 2024, integrating all available observational sources. By comparing overlapping periods across different subseries and nearby ground-based stations, the analysis not only investigates consistency and potential discontinuities across datasets but also quantifies the reliability and limitations of historical visual observations. This work provides one of the few centennial-scale reconstructions of cloud cover in Europe, offering a valuable contribution to historical climatology and climate change studies.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies5040066

Authors: Soufiane Oubdil Smail Souiri Sara Ajmani Abderrahmane Nazih Rachid Mentag Fatima Benradi Mounaim Halim El Jalil

The Tafrata Irrigated Perimeter (TIP) in Taourirt province, located in a semi-arid environment, faces pressures from intensive agriculture and unsustainable resource use, leading to soil degradation, low organic matter, salinity risks, and nutrient imbalances. Despite the need for effective management, limited studies have used spatial and geostatistical tools to assess soil quality in the region. This study aims to evaluate the physico-chemical quality of TIP soils and to identify management priorities for sustainable agricultural development. To achieve this, 84 soil samples analyzed for particle size, density, electrical conductivity, pH, organic matter, total carbonate content, potassium, and phosphorus. GIS was used to generate thematic maps. Findings show that 55% of the area consists of balanced sandy loam soils, with 76% of samples having slightly alkaline pH. Phosphorus and potassium concentrations average 35.23 (mg∙kg−1) and 166.06 (mg∙kg−1), respectively. While 76% of soils are non-saline, 87% have moderate carbonate content. Organic matter is critically low at 1.46%, raising concerns about soil fertility and water retention. The study emphasizes the need for sustainable agricultural practices to manage soil variability and improve fertility, offering actionable insights to support long-term soil health and resource sustainability in the TIP.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies5040065

Authors: César Cáceres-Seguel Adriana Marín-Toro

This article examines the expansion of short-term rentals in Valparaíso, Chile, through the Airbnb platform. The study addresses the broader context of digital platforms transforming housing markets, with a focus on Latin American cities, where the implications of short-term rental growth remain understudied. The main objective is to understand how Airbnb is reshaping the spatial, economic, and social dimensions of rental housing in Valparaíso. Methodologically, the article employs quantitative methods, combining spatial analysis techniques (using ArcGIS) and descriptive statistical analysis. The results reveal that entire homes cluster in heritage-tourism hills (Concepción and Alegre) and coastal zones with panoramic views, where nightly rates can exceed the citywide average threefold, while shared rooms are dispersed in lower-income hills. Likewise, the study identifies a heterogeneous host profile; half of the hosts are owners who have another residence to live in, while the other half offers rooms within their own homes, indicating that platform usage is a complementary income strategy. These dynamics reflect asset-based welfare logics, repositioning housing as a hybrid asset for income generation rather than solely a domestic space. Even in the absence of large-scale corporate landlords, this fragmented market contributes to housing commodification and intensifies spatial inequalities. The study highlights the need for regulatory frameworks tailored to the socio-territorial specificities of heritage Latin American cities, which face both housing deficits and tourism pressures.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies5040064

Authors: Ahmad Hasasneh Rawan Ghannam Sari Masri

Weeds continue to pose a serious challenge to agriculture, reducing both the productivity and quality of crops. In this paper, we explore how modern deep learning, specifically Vision Transformers (ViTs), can help address this issue through fast and accurate weed classification. We developed a transformer-based model trained on the DeepWeeds dataset, which contains images of nine different weed species collected under various environmental conditions, such as changes in lighting and weather. By leveraging the ViT architecture, the model is able to capture complex patterns and spatial details in high-resolution images, leading to improved prediction accuracy. We also examined the effects of model optimization techniques, including fine-tuning and the use of pre-trained weights, along with different strategies for handling class imbalance. While traditional oversampling actually hurt performance, dropping accuracy to 94%, using class weights alongside strong data augmentation boosted accuracy to 96.9%. Overall, our ViT model outperformed standard Convolutional Neural Networks, achieving 96.9% accuracy on the held-out test set. Attention-based saliency maps were inspected to confirm that predictions were driven by weed regions, and model consistency under location shift and capture perturbations was assessed using the diverse acquisition sites in DeepWeeds. These findings show that with the right combination of model architecture and training strategies, Vision Transformers can offer a powerful solution for smarter weed detection and more efficient farming practices.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies5040063

Authors: Rana N. Jawarneh Zeyad Makhamreh Nizar Obeidat Ahmed Al-Taani

This study employs an integrated framework that combines field-based measurements, remote sensing, and Geographic Information Systems (GISs) to monitor vegetation dynamics and assess the suitability of a steppe range reserve for livestock grazing. Forty-three surface and subsurface soil samples were collected in April and November 2021 to capture seasonal variations. Above-ground biomass (AGB) measurements were recorded at five sampling locations across the reserve. Six Sentinel-2 satellite imageries, acquired around mid-March 2016–2021, were processed to derive time-series Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) data, capturing temporal shifts in vegetation cover and density. The GIS-based Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) was employed to model the suitability of the reserve for livestock grazing. The results showed higher salinity, total dissolved solids (TDSs), and nitrate (NO3) values in April. However, the percentage of organic matter increased from approximately 7% in April to over 15% in November. The dry forage productivity ranged from 111 to 964 kg/ha/year. On average, the reserve’s dry yield was 395 kg/ha/year, suggesting moderate productivity typical of steppe rangelands in this region. The time-series NDVI analyses showed significant fluctuations in vegetation cover, with lower NDVI values prevailing in 2016 and 2018, and higher values estimated in 2019 and 2020. The grazing suitability analysis showed that 13.8% of the range reserve was highly suitable, while 24.4% was moderately suitable. These findings underscore the importance of tailoring grazing practices to enhance forage availability and ecological resilience in steppe rangelands. By integrating satellite-derived metrics with in situ vegetation and soil measurements, this study provides a replicable methodological framework for assessing and monitoring rangelands in semi-arid regions.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies5040062

Authors: Nguyen Tran Tuan

Land use change strongly influences ecosystem carbon services. This study evaluates long-term variations in carbon storage resulting from land use transitions in the Southeast region of Vietnam during 1990–2020. The analysis uses ALOS (JAXA) land use data in combination with QGIS-based spatial analysis to estimate carbon stocks. Land use trajectories were classified according to their dominant driving processes (urbanization, restoration, succession, reclamation, and reverse succession) to assess how each process affects carbon storage. The results indicate that total carbon stock increased from 475 million tons in 1990 to 502 million tons in 2010, before declining to 462 million tons in 2020. Carbon loss was mainly caused by urban expansion and ecological degradation, while ecological succession and forest restoration only partially compensated for these losses. This study develops a spatial framework for analyzing land use trajectories based on natural and anthropogenic dynamics, reflecting the region’s current administrative boundaries to improve management relevance. These findings underscore the need for sustainable land management, controlled urbanization, and ecosystem restoration to maintain carbon sequestration capacity and support Vietnam’s net-zero emission goals.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies5040061

Authors: Apostolos G. Papadopoulos Loukia-Maria Fratsea Pavlos Baltas Alexandra Theofili

The paper examines the current landscape, as well as the promises and pitfalls, of the digital transition in agricultural production and rural areas in Greece. It questions whether digitalisation is a viable option given the demographic dynamics, gaps in digital infrastructure, and heavy reliance on migrant labour in rural Greece. The methodological approach employs a mixed-methods design, integrating statistical and cartographic analyses of available census data with qualitative methods (semi-structured interviews, ethnographic observations, and a focus group). The main research question is grounded in a brief theoretical framework that addresses critiques of the inevitability of technological innovation and highlights the need to understand the complex dynamics of digital change. The paper analyses the dynamics and challenges of digital change in rural Greece, examining how demographic change and ageing, the structure and size of farms, and dependence on migrant labour relate to gaps and inequalities in digital infrastructure and skills. A critique of the prevailing discourse on digital transformation is supported by a discussion of the recently collected qualitative empirical material. The concluding section highlights the key findings and provides policy recommendations.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies5040060

Authors: Kevin Musungu Moreblessings Shoko Julian Smit

Despite growing international interest in seasonal effects on wetland vegetation mapping, there is a notable lack of research focused on South Africa’s unique fynbos wetlands, leaving a critical gap in understanding the spatiotemporal dynamics of fynbos ecosystems. This study aimed to assess the ability of Parrot Sequoia and MicaSense RedEdge-M UAV data collected during six seasonal periods between 2018 and 2020 to discriminate between fynbos wetland vegetation species. It also identifies the most suitable time of year for accurate species-level classification. The highest classification accuracy (OA = 98.0%) was achieved in late winter and early summer (OA = 90.1%), while the lowest (OA = 57.2%) occurred in mid-autumn. Most species attained high user and producer accuracies, though Erica serrata and Tetraria thermalis were more inconsistently classified. A Kruskal–Wallis test revealed a significant effect of seasonality on user and producer accuracy as well as kappa (p < 0.05). A Wilcoxon rank-sum test indicated that the accuracy metrics were not significantly different (p > 0.05) when different sensors were used within the same season. The results suggest that conservation agencies and researchers should collect remote sensing data at the end of winter to take advantage of phenological differences between plant species.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies5040059

Authors: Ramavenkata Mahesh Nukala Pranay Panjala Vazeer Mahammood Murali Krishna Gumma

Reliable and representative ground data is fundamental for accurate crop classification using satellite imagery. This study demonstrates a structured approach to ground truth planning in the Bareilly district, Uttar Pradesh, where wheat is the dominant crop. Pre-season spectral clustering of Sentinel-2 Level-2A NDVI time-series data (November–March) was applied to identify ten spectrally distinct zones across the district, capturing phenological and land cover variability. These clusters were used at the village level to guide spatially stratified and optimized field sampling, ensuring coverage of heterogeneous and agriculturally significant areas. A total of 197 ground truth points were collected using the iCrops mobile application, enabling standardized and photo-validated data collection with offline functionality. The collected ground observations formed the basis for random forest supervised classification, enabling clear differentiation between major land use and land cover (LULC) classes with an overall accuracy of 91.6% and a Kappa coefficient of 0.886. The findings highlight that systematic ground data collection significantly enhances the reliability of remote sensing-based crop mapping. The outputs serve as a valuable resource for agricultural planners, policymakers, and local stakeholders by supporting crop monitoring, land use planning, and informed decision-making in the context of sustainable agricultural development.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies5040058

Authors: Ardiyanto Maksimilianus Gai Rustiadi Ernan Baba Barus Akhmad Fauzi

Rural poverty in Indonesia remains a complex issue involving various aspects. West Manggarai, East Nusa Tenggara, is a national tourist destination and a significant focus of national development, yet poverty rates remain very high. Therefore, this study developed a Composite Poverty Index (CPI) using the Sustainable Rural Livelihoods Approach (SRLA) to illustrate the complexity of rural deprivation in West Manggarai Regency. The CPI was developed by normalizing eighteen validated indicators across five livelihood capitals—human, social, natural, physical, and financial. These indicators were then classified using a Likert-type scale, and their weights were determined through the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) to produce village-level CIP scores. The results show that most villages fall into the “Moderate” category (CIP: 0.40–0.60), reflecting chronic but not extreme deprivation. Spatial inequalities are evident, particularly in access to education, infrastructure, clean water, financial services, and ecological resources. Remote villages recorded higher CIP scores. Natural and economic capital were weakest, while human and social capital performed relatively well. Therefore, poverty alleviation in West Manggarai requires an integrated strategy tailored to local spatial conditions and livelihood capital.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies5040057

Authors: Francisco Vergara-Perucich

This study integrates the price-to-income ratio (PIR) with Pareto distribution characteristics to provide a novel approach for evaluating home affordability across U.S. counties. The methodology offers a new lens for the analysis of home affordability by capturing both the extreme values and central tendencies of PIR. The study normalizes the resulting Pareto parameters to a common scale and integrates data from the Zillow Home Value Index and the U.S. Department of Commerce’s SAIPE program to create a single affordability index. The findings point to significant regional differences: coastal and urban regions, such as California and New York, face significant affordability challenges, whereas the Midwest, especially Kansas, has higher affordability. The results highlight the significance of targeted policy interventions and are consistent with the body of research on systemic risk and housing market dynamics. This study also opens new avenues for future research, including the impact of economic factors on affordability and cross-regional comparative studies. The suggested approach encourages more equitable access to housing by providing policymakers with a useful tool to track and manage challenges related to housing affordability.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies5040056

Authors: Alexander Fekete

Vulnerability is often analysed as a static condition of residents at a location, exposed to disaster and other risks. Studies on individual aspects of mobility and vulnerability exist, but comprehensive studies or guiding frameworks are lacking. The paper’s unique contribution compared to existing vulnerability models lies in emphasising vulnerability not only at fixed places, but also during transit, movement, and temporary phases. This paper highlights the current state of research on mobility vulnerability within disaster risk contexts. Through a systematic literature review, the study discovers a lack of research analysing specific vulnerabilities during mobility. Additionally, existing vulnerability frameworks are improved by incorporating (i) disaster risk and impact scenarios, (ii) different types of movements and mobilities linked to disaster risk situations, (iii) multiple localities, modalities, and temporalities, as well as multiple risks during sequences of movement and stationary phases, (iv) daily and occasional hazards, and (v) emic and etic perspectives on vulnerability. The findings of this study aim to inform future research on risk and vulnerability, supporting more effective responses amidst the changing dynamics of disaster situations.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies5040055

Authors: Alexandru Rusu Octavian Groza Nicolae Popa Anita Denisa Caizer

This study evaluates the impact of different territorial contexts on academic mobility within the framework of the Erasmus Programme, using data on Key Action 1 exchanges between 2015 and 2023. Using official EU datasets and a gravity model framework, the research investigates how economic performance, geographical distance, EU membership, AUF (Agence Universitaire de la Francophonie) regional affiliation, and state contiguity shape international academic flows. The research developed two gravity models: one aimed to measure the potential barriers to academic flows through a residuals analysis, and the second integrated territorial delineations as predictors. In both models, the core of the explanatory variable is formed by indicators describing the economic performance of states and the distance between countries. When applied, the models converge in emphasizing that the inclusion of states in different territorial configurations has a strong effect on the structuring of academic flows. This suggests that the Erasmus Programme exhibits trends of overconcentration of flows in a limited number of countries, questioning the need for a more polycentric strategy and a reshaping of the funding mechanisms. Even if the gravity models behave well, given the limited number of predictors, further studies may need to incorporate qualitative indicators for a more comprehensive evaluation of the interactions.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies5040054

Authors: Janis Krumins Maris Berzins

Europe has experienced a growing divergence in trends of population change across the urban hierarchy. A key driver of this divergence is internal migration, which underpins the efficient functioning of the economy by enhancing labor market flexibility and allowing people to choose the most desired locations. Internal migration in Latvia is of increasing importance, as the propensity to change residence within national borders has become the primary mechanism of demographic change, shaping population redistribution across regions and the urban hierarchy. We used Latvia as a case study, exemplified by the monocentric urban system with Riga City at its center, as well as a relatively dense network of small towns spread across all regions. Small towns in Latvia, although not characterized by high levels of internal migration, exhibit notable changes in their demographic and socioeconomic composition. Our analysis uses administrative data on registered migration for each year from 2011 to 2021 to characterize migration patterns, as well as data from the 2011 and 2021 census rounds on 1-year migration to analyze the composition of the migrant population. The results showed sociodemographic variations in the characteristics of individuals migrating to small towns. Understanding the temporal and spatial dynamics of internal migration patterns and compositional effects is vital for effective local and regional development policies to plan essential services and infrastructure.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies5040053

Authors: Amalia Niță Ionuț-Adrian Drăguleasa Emilia Constantinescu Dorina Bonea

The Sohodol Gorges has become a location of interest for tourists seeking ecological experiences and outdoor activities. The main purpose of the present study is to evaluate the attitudes of Romanian tourists toward the development of geotourism in this region following the COVID-19 pandemic. In conjunction with the research questions, hypotheses, variables, and research methodology, the following research objectives were emphasized in this study of the Oltenia region: (1) investigate how certain socio-demographic variables, such as age, gender, level of education, and occupation, influence tourists’ perceptions of the various aspects of geotourism development in the Sohodol Gorges; (2) analyze the different dimensions of geotourism, including its economic, ecological, and socio-cultural impacts, thus contributing to a deeper understanding of how geotourism is perceived in the study area in the post-pandemic context. For a qualitative evaluation of the information presented in this study, the authors used a qualitative survey with open questions and closed questions as a data collection method. For data processing and analysis, the EViews version 12.0 software package was used, enabling complex statistical analyses such as multiple regressions and correlation coefficient determination. These techniques were essential for identifying and interpreting the relationships between demographic variables and tourist perceptions. The research results provide a detailed picture of the influence that demographic and behavioral factors have on tourists’ perceptions in the context of post-COVID-19 geotourism development in the Sohodol Gorges of Romania. Education level and age play a significant role in shaping economic and environmental perceptions, indicating that tourists with higher education levels are more aware of the economic and ecological impact of tourism.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies5040052

Authors: Antonella Senese Davide Fugazza Veronica Manara Emilio Bianco Laura Brambilla Sara Settembrini Elisa Falcini Daniela Marzano Michela Panizza Carmela Torelli Maurizio Maugeri Guglielmina Adele Diolaiuti

Climate change poses significant risks to both natural and urban systems, and fostering climate literacy among younger generations is increasingly recognized as a key component of resilience strategies. This paper presents the outcomes of a transnational climate education project involving high school students from Cinisello Balsamo (Italy) and Edremit (Turkey), developed under the EU-funded Town Twinning program. The project combined scientific seminars, experiential learning, and digital tools (including carbon footprint calculators and immersive virtual glacier tours) to enhance climate knowledge and civic engagement. Youth Climate Councils were established to co-develop local sustainability proposals and engage with municipal authorities. Quantitative tests and qualitative evaluations confirmed significant learning gains and high satisfaction among participants. A comparative analysis with international initiatives highlights the project’s unique integration of scientific rigor, participatory methods, and cross-border cooperation. The proposed model offers a replicable framework for embedding place-based climate education into urban governance and youth policy.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies5030051

Authors: Torlarp Kamyo Punchaporn Kamyo Kanyakorn Panthong Itsaree Howpinjai Ratchaneewan Kamton Lamthai Asanok

This study aimed to investigate the physical factors influencing the occurrence of forest fires and to create a fire risk map of Phrae Province. Remote sensing and geographic information system (GIS) technology were applied for the analysis, focusing on seven factors: the digital elevation model (DEM); slope; Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI); aspect; and distances from people, water, and roads. All of these geographical factors can affect forest fires. This resulted in a MaxEnt (Maximum Entropy) model with an AUC (area under the curve) of 0.849, indicating its great prediction ability. The findings revealed that the variables influencing forest fire incidence were the DEM, NDVI, slope, distance from roads, distance from water, distance from communities, and aspect, in that order. Subsequently, a fire risk map for wildfires was developed by reclassifying the data into five levels—very low risk, low risk, medium risk, high risk, and very high risk—accounting for 341,395.54, 88,132.64, 76,162.41, 81,157.55, and 57,384.10 hectares or 52.99, 13.68, 11.82, 12.60, and 8.91% of the total area, respectively. The areas classified as very high risk, high risk, medium risk, and low risk included the Song, Long, and Rong Kwang Districts. The area with the lowest risk was Nong Muang Khai District.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies5030050

Authors: Anna Boqué-Ciurana Jon Xavier Olano Pozo Júlia Sevil Òscar Saladié

Outdoor activities are significantly influenced by meteorological conditions. Human tower exhibitions are performed in urban squares. Human towers were recognised as an Intangible Cultural Heritage by UNESCO in 2010. The objectives of this study are (1) to analyse the long-term temperature trend (1951–2024) for four summer human tower exhibitions; (2) to determine to extent to which thermal comfort has worsened over the last 74 years based on the Heat Index (HI); and (3) to assess temperature and thermal comfort in the squares during the selected evening exhibitions. Two of the four human tower exhibitions were recently rescheduled to the evening in response to afternoon heat. Temperatures have increased both in the afternoon and in the evening over the last 74-year period, but the warming is more pronounced in the afternoon. Evening hours have also become warmer, although they still represent a more tolerable thermal condition for outdoor activities. However, thermal comfort has decreased in three of the four human tower exhibitions in recent years. Two sensors recorded relative humidity and temperature data to determine the meteorological conditions during the exhibitions in the squares. The temperature decreased as the exhibition progressed. This pattern was modified by factors such as the presence of clouds and the shade generated by the buildings. HI values above 32 °C (extreme caution threshold) were prevalent in one exhibition. In the other three exhibitions, the values remained within the caution threshold for the majority of the time. Rescheduling the exhibition is one adaptation measure to ensure that human towers are performed safely in the face of climate change.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies5030049

Authors: Xu Zhang Blanca Arellano Josep Roca

Urban boundary delineation is essential for understanding spatial structure, monitoring urbanization, and guiding sustainable land management. Nighttime light (NTL) data effectively capture urban dynamics across multiple spatial scales. This study integrates NTL data with spectral indices to delineate the urban boundaries of the Barcelona Metropolitan Region (BMR) from 2006 to 2018. Through multivariate regression analysis, the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and normalized difference built-up index (NDBI) are identified as key indicators of urban spatial heterogeneity. These indices are combined with brightness thresholds derived from three NTL datasets, DMSP-OLS, Black Marble, and VIIRS, to delineate urban areas more accurately. Results indicate that VIIRS achieved the highest precision in identifying construction land and urbanized areas, with an overall accuracy exceeding 90% and consistency with population density and GDP distribution. A strong spatial correlation between urban distribution and the NDVI–NDBI relationship is confirmed in the BMR. The coupling of multisource remote sensing data improves the accuracy, stability, and reliability of urban boundary delineation, overcoming single-source limitations. This integrated method supports urban planning and sustainable land management through consistent, objective urban mapping and offers a practical reference for applying remote sensing technologies to monitor urbanization dynamics across broader spatial and temporal contexts.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies5030048

Authors: Daniele Altamura Ruggero Ermini

Historical water infrastructures represent an overlooked cultural heritage of extraordinary importance, encompassing centuries of technical knowledge deeply intertwined with the landscape and social life. Matera stands out as a case study of international relevance, where the morphology of the historic urban fabric of the Sassi has been shaped by the Grabiglioni, or Fossi, streams that today lie hidden and compromised, deprived of the recognition they deserve. This study presents an integrated analysis that combines history, morphology, hydrology, and infrastructure to uncover the origin, evolution and cultural value of the entire context. Thus, the environmental and identity-related potential of these historical infrastructures emerges, along with the critical issues they pose, partly as a consequence of urban expansions. Reintegrating the Grabiglioni into urban development policies is not merely a matter of preservation; it represents a strategic opportunity to transform this heritage into a resource for safety, sustainability, and urban regeneration. The multidisciplinary approach proposed here can serve as a guide for similar studies on historical water infrastructures, restoring life and memory to legacies that narrate a timeless engineering intelligence and a careful understanding of the various territorial components (morphology, climate, works, and transformations). This article is a revised and expanded version of Altamura D. et al., Interdisciplinary investigation approach to analyze historical water infrastructures and urban transformations: the case study of the Grabiglioni in the Sassi of Matera, Italy, presented at CEES—International Conference on Construction, Energy, Environment and Sustainability in Bari (2025).

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies5030047

Authors: Linh Nguyen Van Giha Lee

Wildfire behavior and post-fire effects are strongly modulated by terrain, yet the relative influence of individual topographic factors on burn severity remains incompletely quantified at landscape scales. The Composite Burn Index (CBI) provides a field-calibrated measure of severity, but large-area analyses have been hampered by limited plot density and cumbersome data extraction workflows. In this study, we paired 6150 CBI plots from 234 U.S. wildfire events (1994–2017) with 30 m SRTM DEM, extracting mean elevation, slope, and compass aspect within a 90 m buffer around each plot to minimize geolocation noise. Topographic variables were grouped into ecologically meaningful classes—six elevation belts (≤500 m to >2500 m), six slope bins (≤5° to >25°), and eight aspect octants—and their relationships with CBI were evaluated using Tukey HSD post hoc comparisons. Our findings show that all three factors exerted highly significant influences on severity (p < 0.001): mean CBI peaked in the 1500–2000 m belt (0.42 higher than lowlands), rose almost monotonically with steepness to slopes > 20° (0.37 higher than <5°), and was greatest on east- and northwest-facing slopes (0.19 higher than south-facing aspects). Further analysis revealed that burn severity emerges from strongly context-dependent synergies among elevation, slope, and aspect, rather than from simple additive effects. By demonstrating a rapid, reproducible workflow for terrain-aware severity assessment entirely within GEE, the study provides both methodological guidance and actionable insights for fuel-management planning, risk mapping, and post-fire restoration prioritization.

Geographies doi: 10.3390/geographies5030046

Authors: Vidjinnagni Vinasse Ametooyona Azagoun Kossi Komi Djigbo Félicien Badou Expédit Wilfrid Vissin Komi Selom Klassou

Market gardening plays a crucial role in ensuring food security and reducing poverty in Africa’s rapidly urbanizing regions. However, urban agricultural systems are increasingly threatened by climatic shocks such as floods, droughts, and heat waves. This study uses an integrated approach to analyze the multidimensional factors of climatic vulnerability among urban market gardeners in the Grand Nokoué region of Benin. Based on socio–economic, technico–agronomic, and perceptual data collected from 369 growers, multiple correspondence analysis (MCA) coupled with ascending hierarchical analysis (AHA) was performed to identify vulnerability profiles. K–means partitioning was used to confirm the optimal number of groups, thereby guaranteeing the robustness and internal consistency of the typology. Three distinct vulnerability groups were identified, each characterized by specific socioeconomic, technical, and territorial characteristics, as well as varying exposure to the risks of flooding, drought, and dry spells. The results show that the most vulnerable farmers tend to be young women with low incomes, limited access to land, and a reliance on manual irrigation in flood–prone areas. These findings emphasize the uneven distribution of adaptive capacities and the pressing requirement for tailored public policies to enhance resilience, especially among small–scale, low–income, and land–insecure urban farmers, who are vulnerable to various climate–related risks.