Next Article in Journal
Application of Three-Dimensional Porous Aerogel as Adsorbent for Removal of Textile Dyes from Water
Previous Article in Journal
Micro-Gear Point Cloud Segmentation Based on Multi-Scale Point Transformer
Previous Article in Special Issue
Neuromuscular Capabilities in Top-Level Weightlifters and Their Association with Weightlifting Performance
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Applied Sciences
Volume 14
Issue 10
10.3390/app14104273
applsci-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Communication

Physiological and Biomechanical Characteristics of Olympic and World-Class Rowers—Case Study

by
Ricardo Cardoso
1,2,*,
Manoel Rios
1,2,
Filipa Cardoso
1,2,
Pedro Fonseca
2,
Francisco A. Ferreira
1,2,
Jose Arturo Abraldes
3,
Beatriz B. Gomes
4,
João Paulo Vilas-Boas
1,2 and
Ricardo J. Fernandes
1,2
1
Centre of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal
2
Porto Biomechanics Laboratory, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal
3
Research Group Movement Sciences and Sport (MS&SPORT), Department of Physical Activity and Sport, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Campus San Javier, University of Murcia, 30720 San Javier, Murcia, Spain
4
CIDAF—Research Unit for Sport and Physical Activity, Faculty of Sport Sciences and Physical Education, University of Coimbra, 3040-248 Coimbra, Portugal
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(10), 4273; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14104273
Submission received: 16 April 2024 / Revised: 13 May 2024 / Accepted: 16 May 2024 / Published: 17 May 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Biomechanical Analysis of Human Movement)
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
In this study, we quantified relevant biophysical characteristics of two elite rowers across a wide range of intensities. Two <40-year-old male and female Olympic and World Championship finalists performed a 7 × 3 min protocol plus 1 min maximal effort on a rowing ergometer. The intensity increase resulted in maximum values of 79.4 ± 2.4 and 69.7 ± 1.5 mL/min/kg for oxygen uptake, 179.3 ± 5.7 and 152.5 ± 2.9 L/min for ventilation, 170 ± 1 and 173 ± 0 bpm for heart rate, 10.6 and 15.8 mmol/L for blood lactate concentration, and 38.1 ± 0.03 and 38.8 ± 0.03 °C for core temperature for the male and female rowers. The percentage of power corresponding to a previously conducted maximum 2000 m rowing ergometer test and the work at each step increased from 49 to 127 and 42 to 103% and from 226.8 to 398.9 J and 174.0 to 250.0 J, from low to extreme intensities, for the male and female. Concurrently, there was a decrease in cycle length and propulsive time, followed by an increase in maximal handle drive velocity, with the rise in rowing intensity. These world-class rowers seem capable of maintaining physiological and technical profiles (and a remarkable capacity to generate substantial power) at this phase of their careers possibly due to long-term engagement in elite-level training. Biophysical data provide valuable referential information for guiding rowers to improve their performance.

1. Introduction

World-class rowing performance involves a very high level of physical exertion and requires well-developed aerobic and anaerobic capacities to achieve optimal performance. Specifically, the 2000 m race, one of the most well-known rowing competitions, can take 5.5 to 8.0 min depending on boat type, gender and age [1,2]. While it is worth noting that some performance-related variables may show age-related declines [3], it is important to recognize the exceptional cases of rowers who have consistently achieved top results well into their late careers like Sir Steve Redgrave and Eskild Ebbesen [4]. Since oxygen uptake is highly correlated with rowing performance and is a critical measure for training prescriptions in rowing [5,6], studies suggest an age-related stabilization or even decline after the age of 20 [7,8], with similar behavior between sexes [9].
Rowing performance is highly dependent on maximal VO2, which is measured in many rowing programs using incremental step protocols on rowing ergometers. These tests have shown a close correlation with 2000 m ergometer performance [10,11,12] and are very useful for establishing training zones and monitoring performance. Notwithstanding the benefits of using a standard protocol, the development of a specific method to characterize VO2 in female rowers is of potential value. A tailored approach may provide deeper insights into gender-specific exercise tolerance and physiological function, improving the ability to understand and address women’s unique physiological responses and performance concerns, contributing to more effective and targeted training strategies [13]. Additionally, rowing requires powerful moments, especially during the underwater propulsive phase. The ability to generate power quickly is critical to accelerating the boat and maintaining optimal speed [14], as well as maintaining effective technique.
In addition, kinematic analysis provides useful information on technical changes that may occur during a rower’s training season and career by monitoring the biomechanical effects of loading on the ability to maintain precision of movement. Since obtaining physiological, technical and performance data from elite rowers by field testing (on water) is extremely difficult due to small sample sizes, challenging testing procedures and the possibility of equipment damage, their assessment in the laboratory using incremental protocols on rowing ergometers has been accepted as a valid alternative [15,16]. These protocols are also well suited to measuring the kinetics of blood lactate concentration ([La−]), which allows the determination of the anaerobic threshold and the establishment of different training intensity domains [11,15]. Since rowing is an outdoor sport, with the main competitions being held in summer, information on rowers’ core temperature can be critical as it can affect rowers’ cardiovascular response to thermoregulation, leading to impaired muscle contraction [17]. As elite rowers are difficult to reach and monitor, especially those with a long career, the aim of the current study was to quantify the physiological, technical and performance characteristics of two elite rowers across a wide range of workloads. We hypothesized that, despite having long rowing careers, these rowers would still be able to demonstrate high-level results and maintain well-developed performance determinants.

2. Materials and Methods

A male and a female Olympic finalist (in the 2012 and 2016 Games in both cases, and also in 2021 in the case of the female rower), who were also World and European Championship finalists, volunteered to participate in the current study (Table 1). Both rowers are specialists in sculling and sweep rowing; the male rower’s best results were 4th place in the Rio Olympics, World Champion in 2019 and European Champion in 2022, and the female rower’s were 6th place in the Rio Olympics and 7th place in the Tokyo Olympics. At the time of this study, they were in the competitive period (pre-competition phase), completing 10–12 training sessions per week (75–85% aerobic-based training), with two strength sessions per week. They were recruited via personal contact and provided written informed consent after a full explanation of the study’s purpose, benefits and risks. The experimental procedures were approved by the local University Ethics Committee (CEFADE 27 2020) following the Helsinki Declaration and the guidelines of the World Medical Association for research on humans.

2.1. Experimental Design

This was a single-measurement case study, and the rowers visited the laboratory facilities (22 °C ambient temperature and 60% humidity) to complete an incremental intermittent protocol until voluntary exhaustion using a rowing ergometer (Concept II model D, fixed, Morrisville, VT, USA). Cardiorespiratory-, technical-, power- and core temperature-related variables were continuously measured, and [La−] values were collected between the steps and at the end of the test.

2.2. Methodology

Body mass and height were obtained before the experimental session using a digital scale with a built-in stadiometer (SECA, Hamburg, Germany, model 220). The experimental rowing protocol consisted of 7 × 3 min rowing with 30 W load increments (starting at 180 and 120 W for the male and the female participants, respectively) and 30 s rest periods plus 1 min maximal effort [10,18]. Pulmonary gas exchange was measured breath-by-breath using a calibrated gas analyzer (K5, Cosmed, Rome, Italy) [19]. Erroneous breaths were excluded, and only data between the mean ± 3 SDs were considered (and subsequently smoothed with a moving and time average of three breaths and 10 s) [20]. Maximal VO2 was determined using primary and secondary criteria, particularly a plateau despite an increase in power [20,21,22]. Heart rate (HR) was measured continuously by a Garmin Edge 830 monitor (Garmin, Olathe, KS, USA) that telemetrically emitted to the K5 portable unit. Capillary blood samples (5 µL) for [La−] assessment were collected from the earlobe during the 30 s rest intervals and at the 1st, 3rd, 5th and 7th min post-test (until a peak value was reached) using a Lactate Pro 2 (Arkay, Inc., Kyoto, Japan) [15,19]. The initial sample was discarded to eliminate contaminants and ensure measurement accuracy. Capillary blood collection involved applying controlled pressure to the finger, minimizing volume variations for consistent results [23]. The lactate–power curve was used to assess the anaerobic threshold using the least squares method [24,25]. The low–moderate, heavy, severe and extreme intensities were established as follows: (i) the steps under and at the anaerobic threshold; (ii) the step(s) above the anaerobic threshold; (iii) the step at which maximal VO2 was reached; and (iv) the 1 min maximum exertion at the end of the protocol [20,26]. Intraabdominal core temperature was continuously retrieved from low-frequency radio waves transmitted from gastrointestinal capsules to an external logger (e-Viewer Performance monitor, BodyCAP, Hérouville-Saint-Clair, France) at 15 s intervals [27].
Power was obtained using rowing ergometer computer software (PM5) [28]; the obtained power per step was then divided by each rower’s body mass, and work was calculated as the product of the power and the propulsive time of each step. Kinematic data were recorded using eight video cameras (Miqus, Qualisys AB, Göteborg, Sweden) at 100 Hz and 720 p resolution, with a calibration error under 0.50 mm [29]. Full-body markerless kinematics with 6° of freedom were obtained using the Theia markerless (v2023.1.0.3161_ P14, Kingston, ON, Canada) software [30]. The rowing rate, cycle length, propulsive time, and maximal seat and handle velocity were measured from the catch to finish position of the rowing cycle [19]. The catch factor was considered the time difference between the change in the direction of the seat and handle (with negative values indicating the onset of seat velocity before the handle), and the rhythm was defined as the ratio between the propulsive time and the cycle total duration [31].

2.3. Statistical Analysis

Descriptive statistics were employed, mean and standard deviations were reported for all variables (IBM® Corp, Armonk, NY, USA, SPSS® Statistics 27.0.1.0), and one-way repeated-measures ANOVA with Tukey post hoc analysis was performed to compare the intensity domains. To compare gender differences, a one-way ANOVA for independent samples with Tukey post hoc analysis was used to compare the intensity domains. Statistical significance was set at p ≤ 0.05.

3. Results

The physiological, mechanical and kinematic results are displayed in Table 2 and Table 3. Differences were observed in the physiological and kinematic variables across the intensity domains. Regarding the most-used variables for training, the oxygen uptake increased for both rowers from low to severe (p < 0.01 and 0.001), corresponding to an increase of 74 and 47% for the male and the female, respectively. In addition, a difference of 14% between the male and female participants in the severe intensity domain (the step at which the maximal VO2 was reached) was observed. An increase in respiratory frequency, ventilation and carbon dioxide production from low to severe and a decrease in the extreme intensity domain was observed (p < 0.002, 0.001 and 0.001 for the male and p < 0.03, 0.001 and 0.002 for the female rower, respectively). The respiratory quotient increased from low to extreme (p < 0.001 for the male and the female). The HR increased from low to extreme intensity for the male participant (p < 0.001), while an increase from low to severe and a decrease in the extreme intensity was observed for the female participant (p < 0.001). The blood lactate concentration increased across the intensity domains for both participants from 1.4 to 10.6 and from 1.2 to 15.8 mmol/L at low and extreme intensities for the male and the female, respectively. Differences were also observed in core temperature across the intensity domains for both rowers (p < 0.001).
Compared to the previously performed 2000 m maximal test (in the month prior to the experiments), the power output in each intensity domain (low, moderate, heavy, severe and extreme intensity) corresponded to 49, 71, 78, 85 and 127% and 42, 58, 67, 75 and 103% for the male (425 W) and the female (360 W) rower, respectively. Also, as displayed in Table 1 and Table 2, the work and rowing rate increased and the cycle length decreased across the intensity domains for both rowers. Additionally, the propulsive time decreased (p < 0.001) while the handle velocity increased along with the progressive demanding exertions (p < 0.001). The seat velocity for the male rower remained similar between the moderate and heavy intensities, while it was similar for the female rower between the heavy and severe intensities (even if the seat initiated the propulsive phase before the handle did, which can be observed by reference to the negative values for the catch factor) (p < 0.001).
Additionally, differences were observed between the genders in terms of VO2 (heavy, severe and extreme intensities; p < 0.05), respiratory frequency (severe and extreme intensities; p < 0.05), ventilation (moderate, heavy, severe and extreme intensities; p < 0.05), carbon dioxide production (moderate, heavy and extreme intensities; p < 0.05), respiratory quotient (low intensity; p < 0.05), HR (low, moderate, heavy and severe intensities; p < 0.05) and core temperature (low, moderate, heavy, severe and extreme intensities; p < 0.05). Differences in the kinematic variables, rowing cycle length (severe and extreme intensities; p < 0.05), propulsive time (low, moderate, heavy and extreme intensities; p < 0.05), maximal seat velocity (low, moderate and heavy intensities; p < 0.5), maximal handle drive velocity (low, moderate, heavy, severe and extreme intensities; p < 0.05), catch factor (low, moderate and severe intensities; p < 0.05) and rhythm (low, moderate, heavy, severe and extreme intensities; p < 0.05), were observed.

4. Discussion

An increase in cardiorespiratory and metabolic variables was evident in rowing from the low to the severe intensity domains. When reaching the severe intensity, the observed maximal VO2 values were in line with those for world-class male and female heavyweight rowers of younger age (male and female) [28,32,33]. These values also agree with longitudinal data reported for a 40-year-old world-class lightweight male rower [4]. In fact, high values for maximal VO2 at younger ages and long-term engagement in endurance training seem to be necessary to perform at an elite level during a long career [4,34,35]. The HR values observed throughout the protocol were lower than those reached by younger rowers performing at maximal efforts [36], which is likely attributable to the aging process that involves a decline in cardiac output and impacts cardiorespiratory function, particularly during maximal efforts [36]. [La−] values are related to rowers’ adaptations to endurance training, which increase their fatigue tolerance and clearance ability over their careers [5]. Moreover, these values are considered important predictors of performance; the higher the workload, the higher the level at which a rower will be able to perform [2].
In addition, the rise in core temperature follows, as expected, the intensity increment throughout the protocol, which can hinder aerobic power and endurance capacity, alongside attenuated oxygen delivery to the working muscles [17]. The displayed rise in both the respiratory coefficient and [La−] values with rowing intensity indicate a progressive recruitment of type II muscles fibers that are highly dependent on glycolytic energy supply [24,37]. This indicates significant metabolic acidosis after the aerobic–anaerobic transition that interferes decisively with rowing cycle frequency and leads to technical changes [37]. Despite an expected age-related decline in muscle strength and power [38], these rowers were able to increase their power across the intensity domains, reaching over 100% of their power in a 2000 m indoor maximum test performed close to the experiments’ date.
The increase in power was also supported by the rise in the cycle rate, reducing the rowing cycle length and propulsive time [39,40]. The shorter length and propulsive time values affected the seat and handle velocities as a result of the power increase, probably due to the increase in the angular velocity of the body segments [41]. From moderate to heavy intensities (male) and from heavy to severe intensities (female), it appears that the handle velocity compensates for the reduction in seat velocity contributing to power maintenance, which may be advantageous for individuals with well-developed upper-body muscles [31]. The increase in rhythm values is related to the decrease in cycle propulsive time, as they are also dependent on rowing cycle rate, length and power [31].
In the extreme rowing intensity domain, despite the higher power output, a decrease in power intensity per rowing cycle was observed, likely due to the increasing fatigue that occurred throughout the protocol. In fact, a decrease in the ability to utilize oxygen, an increase in the respiratory coefficient and [La−] values, and a rise in core temperature that may have hindered the contractile capacity of the muscles were also observed [17,37]. Additionally, there was a reduction in the propulsive time (due to a reduction in cycle length and a higher cycle rate) and in the seat velocity, which appears to have been compensated for by an increase in the maximal handle velocity during the propulsive phase.
The findings of the study align with prior research on gender-related variances in biophysical responses across various intensity domains, spanning from low to extreme intensities [42,43]. Such physiological distinctions are commonly linked to central factors, including smaller heart size and lower haemoglobin mass in females, potentially constraining their ability to efficiently deliver oxygen to skeletal muscles [44,45,46]. Furthermore, males generally have a higher ATP synthesis capacity, being able to sustain muscle contractions for longer, due to their elevated aerobic and anaerobic power along with muscle content, as can be seen from the higher power in the same intensity domain and the ability to produce higher levels of power at extreme intensity [47,48]. For more detailed information on gender differences, a customized test procedure for females may be helpful to better optimize training prescriptions [6,13].

5. Conclusions

This case study demonstrates that rowers who have experienced very demanding and rigorous training over a long period of time, along with favorable social, economic, nutritional and medical status, appear to be able to maintain high levels of cardiorespiratory and metabolic fitness while preserving their technical skills. Despite the expected decline in some biophysical variables with age, these rowers showed a remarkable ability to perform at a significant international level. These rowers have an extensive record of high-level results over their careers, with medal results in the most relevant championships. The current study provides insights into the biophysical monitoring of two Olympic rowers along a large spectrum of intensity domains, providing valuable referential information for researchers and coaches, particularly for rowers at the same age and level. These data could be crucial for improving testing procedures and adapting training programs, being particularly beneficial for rowers with extensive training experience.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, R.C., M.R. and R.J.F.; methodology, R.C., M.R., P.F., F.C., F.A.F. and R.J.F.; formal analysis, R.C., M.R., P.F., F.C., F.A.F. and R.J.F.; investigation, R.C., M.R. and F.C.; resources, R.C., J.P.V.-B. and R.J.F.; writing—original draft preparation, R.C., M.R. and P.F.; writing—review and editing, R.C., M.R., P.F., F.C., J.A.A., B.B.G., J.P.V.-B. and R.J.F.; visualization, R.C., M.R. and R.J.F.; supervision, R.C., B.B.G., J.P.V.-B. and R.J.F.; project administration R.C., B.B.G., J.P.V.-B. and R.J.F. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Foundation of Science and Technology (FCT Portugal) with awards to Ricardo Cardoso [2021. 04976.BD] (https://doi.org/10.54499/2021.04976.BD), Manoel Rios (https://doi.org/10.54499/2021.04701.BD) and Filipa Cardoso (https://doi.org/10.54499/2020.05012.BD).

Institutional Review Board Statement

The investigation was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Sport of University of Porto (CEFADE 27/2020), date of approval 5 January 2021.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the rowers involved in the study.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.

References

  1. Maestu, J.; Jurimae, J.; Jurimae, T. Monitoring of performance and training in rowing. Sports Med. 2005, 35, 597–617. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  2. Jurišić, D.; Donadić, Z.; Lozovina, M. Relation between Maximum Oxygen Uptake and Anaerobic Threshold, and the Rowing Ergometer Results in Senior Rowers. Acta Kinesiol. 2018, 8, 55–61. [Google Scholar]
  3. Hagerman, F.C.; Fielding, R.A.; Fiatarone, M.A.; Gault, J.A.; Kirkendall, D.T.; Ragg, K.E.; Evans, W.J. A 20-yr longitudinal study of Olympic oarsmen. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 1996, 28, 1150–1156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Nybo, L.; Schmidt, J.F.; Fritzdorf, S.; Nordsborg, N.B. Physiological Characteristics of an Aging Olympic Athlete. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2014, 46, 2132–2138. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Burnley, M.; Jones, A.M. Oxygen uptake kinetics as a determinant of sports performance. Eur. J. Sport Sci. 2007, 7, 63–79. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Penichet-Tomas, A.; Jimenez-Olmedo, J.M.; Pueo, B.; Olaya-Cuartero, J. Physiological and Mechanical Responses to a Graded Exercise Test in Traditional Rowing. Int. J. Env. Res. Public Health 2023, 20, 3664. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Hawkins, S.; Wiswell, R. Rate and Mechanism of Maximal Oxygen Consumption Decline with Aging. Sports Med. 2003, 33, 877–888. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Messonnier, L.; Bourdin, M.; Lacour, J. Influence of age on different determining factors of performance on rowing ergometer. Sci. Sports 1998, 13, 293–294. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Seiler, K.S.; Spirduso, W.W.; Martin, J.C. Gender differences in rowing performance and power with aging. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 1998, 30, 121–127. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  10. Boland, M.; Crotty, N.M.; Mahony, N.; Donne, B.; Fleming, N. A Comparison of Physiological Response to Incremental Testing on Stationary and Dynamic Rowing Ergometers. Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform. 2022, 17, 515–522. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  11. Treff, G.; Winkert, K.; Steinacker, J. Olympic Rowing–Maximum Capacity over 2000 Meters. Ger. J. Sports Med. 2021, 72, 203–211. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Jensen, K.; Frydkjær, M.; Jensen, N.M.B.; Bannerholt, L.M.; Gam, S. A Maximal Rowing Ergometer Protocol to Predict Maximal Oxygen Uptake. Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform. 2021, 16, 382–386. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  13. Cortis, C.; Fusco, A.; Barroso, R.; Bok, D.; Boullosa, D.; Conte, D.; Foster, C. Is It Time to Reconsider the Incremental Test Protocols? Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform. 2023, 18, 561–562. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  14. Lawton, T.W.; Cronin, J.B.; McGuigan, M.R. Strength Testing and Training of Rowers. Sports Med. 2011, 41, 413–432. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  15. Sousa, A.; Ribeiro, J.; Sousa, M.; Vilas-Boas, J.P.; Fernandes, R.J. Influence of prior exercise on VO2 kinetics subsequent exhaustive rowing performance. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e84208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  16. Ingham, S.A.; Pringle, J.S.; Hardman, S.L.; Fudge, B.W.; Richmond, V.L. Comparison of step-wise and ramp-wise incremental rowing exercise tests and 2000-m rowing ergometer performance. Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform. 2013, 8, 123–129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  17. Chiesa, S.T.; Trangmar, S.J.; Watanabe, K.; González-Alonso, J. Integrative Human Cardiovascular Responses to Hyperthermia. In Heat Stress in Sport and Exercise: Thermophysiology of Health and Performance; Périard, J.D., Racinais, S., Eds.; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2019; pp. 45–65. [Google Scholar]
  18. Sousa, A.; Rodríguez, F.; Machado, L.; Vilas-Boas, J.P.; Fernandes, R. Exercise modality effect on VO2 off-transient kinetics at VO2max intensity. Exp. Physiol. 2015, 100, 719–729. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  19. Cardoso, R.; Rios, M.; Carvalho, D.; Monteiro, A.S.; Soares, S.; Abraldes, J.A.; Gomes, B.B.; Vilas-Boas, J.P.; Fernandes, R.J. Mechanics and Energetic Analysis of Rowing with Big Blades with Randall Foils. Int. J. Sports Med. 2023, 44, 1043–1048. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Fernandes, R.; de Jesus, K.; Baldari, C.; Sousa, A.; Vilas-Boas, J.; Guidetti, L. Different VO2max Time-Averaging Intervals in Swimming. Int. J. Sports Med. 2012, 33, 1010–1015. [Google Scholar]
  21. Sousa, A.; Figueiredo, P.; Zamparo, P.; Pyne, D.B.; Vilas-Boas, J.P.; Fernandes, R.J. Exercise Modality Effect on Bioenergetical Performance at VO2max Intensity. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2015, 47, 1705–1713. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Jesus, K.; Sousa, A.; De Jesus, K.; Ribeiro, J.; Machado, L.; Rodríguez, F.; Keskinen, K.L.; Vilas-Boas, J.P.; Fernandes, R. The effects of intensity on VO2 kinetics during incremental free swimming. Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. 2015, 40, 918–923. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Rios, M.; Becker, K.; Cardoso, F.; Pyne, D.; Reis, V.; Moreira-Gonçalves, D.; Fernandes, R. Assessment of Cardiorespiratory and Metabolic Contributions in an Extreme Intensity CrossFit® Benchmark Workout. Sensors 2024, 24, 513. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  24. Carvalho, D.D.; Soares, S.; Zacca, R.; Sousa, J.; Marinho, D.A.; Silva, A.J.; Vilas-Boas, J.P.; Fernandes, R.J. Anaerobic Threshold Biophysical Characterisation of the Four Swimming Techniques. Int. J. Sports Med. 2020, 41, 318–327. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  25. Monteiro, A.S.; Carvalho, D.D.; Elói, A.; Silva, F.; Vilas-Boas, J.P.; Buzzachera, C.F.; Fernandes, R.J. Repeatability of ventilatory, metabolic and biomechanical responses to an intermittent incremental swimming protocol. Physiol. Meas. 2022, 43, 075009. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  26. Monteiro, A.S.; Magalhães, J.; Knechtle, B.; Buzzachera, C.; Vilas-Boas, J.P.; Fernandes, R. Acute ventilatory responses to swimming at increasing intensities. PeerJ 2023, 11, e15042. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  27. Bustos, D.; Cardoso, R.; Carvalho, D.D.; Guedes, J.; Vaz, M.; Torres Costa, J.; Santos Baptista, J.; Fernandes, R.J. Exploring the Applicability of Physiological Monitoring to Manage Physical Fatigue in Firefighters. Sensors 2023, 23, 5127. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  28. Bourdin, M.; Lacour, J.R.; Imbert, C.; Messonnier, L.A. Factors of Rowing Ergometer Performance in High-Level Female Rowers. Int. J. Sports Med. 2017, 38, 1023–1028. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  29. Andrade, D.; Fonseca, P.; Sousa, F.; Gutierres, M. Does Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction with a Hamstring Tendon Autograft Predispose to a Knee Valgus Alignment on Initial Contact during Landing? A Drop Vertical Jump Movement Analysis. Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7363. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Keller, V.T.; Outerleys, J.B.; Kanko, R.M.; Laende, E.K.; Deluzio, K.J. Clothing condition does not affect meaningful clinical interpretation in markerless motion capture. J. Biomech. 2022, 141, 111182. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Kleshnev, V. Biomechanics of Rowing, Revised 2nd ed.; The Crowood Press Ltd.: Wiltshire, UK, 2020. [Google Scholar]
  32. Klusiewicz, A.; Starczewski, M.; Ladyga, M.; Długołęcka, B.; Braksator, W.; Mamcarz, A.; Sitkowski, D. Reference Values of Maximal Oxygen Uptake for Polish Rowers. J. Hum. Kinet. 2014, 44, 121–127. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Mikulic, P. Maturation to elite status: A six-year physiological case study of a world champion rowing crew. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 2011, 111, 2363–2368. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  34. Mäestu, J.; Lelle, R.; Mäestu, E.; Pind, R.; Vahtra, E.; Purge, P.; Mikulic, P. Long-Term Rowing Performance Development in Male Olympic and World Championship Medal Winners Compared With Nonmedalists. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2023, 37, e521–e526. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  35. Mikulic, P.; Bralic, N. Elite status maintained: A 12-year physiological and performance follow-up of two Olympic champion rowers. J. Sports Sci. 2017, 36, 660–665. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  36. Kim, C.H.; Wheatley, C.M.; Behnia, M.; Johnson, B.D. The Effect of Aging on Relationships between Lean Body Mass and VO2max in Rowers. PLoS ONE 2016, 11, e0160275. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  37. Rios, M.; Zacca, R.; Azevedo, R.; Fonseca, P.; Pyne, D.B.; Reis, V.M.; Moreira-Gonçalves, D.; Fernandes, R.J. Bioenergetic Analysis and Fatigue Assessment During the Fran Workout in Experienced Crossfitters. Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform. 2023, 18, 786–792. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  38. Van Driessche, S.; Delecluse, C.; Bautmans, I.; Vanwanseele, B.; Van Roie, E. Age-related differences in rate of power development exceed differences in peak power. Exp. Gerontol. 2018, 101, 95–100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  39. Ettema, G.; Haug, A.; Ludvigsen, T.P.; Danielsen, J. The role of stroke rate and intensity on rowing technique. Sports Biomech. 2022, 1–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  40. Warmenhoven, J.; Cobley, S.; Draper, C.; Harrison, A.; Bargary, N.; Smith, R. Considerations for the use of functional principal components analysis in sports biomechanics: Examples from on-water rowing. Sports Biomech. 2019, 18, 317–341. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  41. Kannus, P.; Beynnon, B. Peak torque occurrence in the range of motion during isokinetic extension and flexion of the knee. Int. J. Sports Med. 1993, 14, 4226. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Podstawski, R.; Borysławski, K.; Katona, Z.; Alföldi, Z.; Boraczyński, M.; Jaszczur-Nowicki, J.; Gronek, P. Sex Differences in Anthropometric and Physiological Profiles of Hungarian Rowers of Different Ages. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 8115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Warmenhoven, J.; Cobley, S.; Draper, C.; Smith, R. Over 50 Years of Researching Force Profiles in Rowing: What Do We Know? Sports Med. 2018, 48, 2703–2714. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Keenan, K.G.; Senefeld, J.W.; Hunter, S.K. Girls in the boat: Sex differences in rowing performance and participation. PLoS ONE 2018, 13, e0191504. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  45. Ansdell, P.; Thomas, K.; Hicks, K.M.; Hunter, S.K.; Howatson, G.; Goodall, S. Physiological sex differences affect the integrative response to exercise: Acute and chronic implications. Exp. Physiol. 2020, 105, 2007–2021. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  46. Coe, L.N.; Astorino, T.A. Sex differences in hemodynamic response to high-intensity interval exercise. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports 2024, 34, e14495. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  47. Attenborough, A.S.; Smith, R.M.; Sinclair, P.J. Effect of gender and stroke rate on joint power characteristics of the upper extremity during simulated rowing. J. Sports Sci. 2012, 30, 449–458. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Nuzzo, J.L. Sex differences in skeletal muscle fiber types: A meta-analysis. Clin. Anat. 2024, 37, 81–91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Table 1. Anthropometric characteristics and rowing experience of the male and female rowers.
Table 1. Anthropometric characteristics and rowing experience of the male and female rowers.
VariableMaleFemale
Age (years)3735
Height (cm)187186
Weight (Kg)79.977.8
Body mass index (Kg/m2)23.1222.51
Rowing experience (years)2116
Table 2. Mean and standard deviation values for selected biophysical responses at different intensities in an intermittent incremental rowing protocol for the male rower.
Table 2. Mean and standard deviation values for selected biophysical responses at different intensities in an intermittent incremental rowing protocol for the male rower.
VariablesLowModerateHeavySevereExtreme
Physiological
Oxygen uptake (mL/min/kg)45.6 ± 1.265.9 ± 0.3 *70.9 ± 2.6 *79.4 ± 2.4 *#62.9 ± 10.4 *
Respiratory frequency (b/min)39.7 ± 1.151.8 ± 0.8 *55.4 ± 3.1 *66.3 ± 2.6 *#+70.5 ± 0.9 *#+
Ventilation (L/min)83.0 ± 2.6136.8 ± 1.9 *152.2 ± 5.4 *179.3 ± 5.7 *#174.2 ± 6.1 *#
Carbon dioxide production (mL/min/Kg)36.7 ± 1.258.5 ± 0.4 *64.0 ± 2.8 *76.2 ± 1.8 *#65.4 ± 1.6 *#§
Respiratory quotient0.8 ± 0.00.8 ± 0.0 *0.9 ± 0.0 *1.0 ± 0.0 *#+1.1 ± 0.2 *
Heart rate (bpm)117 ± 1148 ± 1 *157 ± 0 *#164 ± 0 *#+170 ± 1 *#+§
Blood lactate (mmol/L)1.42.23.24.510.6
Core temperature (°C)37.0 ± 0.0237.1 ± 0.06 *37.5 ± 0.09 *#37.8 ± 0.08 *#+38.1 ± 0.03 *#+§
Mechanical Power
Power (W)210300330360539
Power (W/Kg)2.63.84.14.56.8
Work (J)226.8285.0300.3313.3398.9
Kinematic
Rowing rate (cycles/min)2026293140
Rowing cycle length (m)1.56 ± 0.011.53 ± 0.01 *1.52 ± 0.01 *#+1.49 ± 0.01 *#+1.42 ± 0.03 *#+§
Propulsive time (s)1.08 ± 0.010.95 ± 0.01 *0.91 ± 0.01 *#+0.87 ± 0.01 *#+0.74 ± 0.02 *#+§
Maximal seat velocity (m/s)1.19 ± 0.031.32 ± 0.03 *1.29 ± 0.04 *+1.37 ± 0.05 *#+1.31 ± 0.04 *§
Maximal handle drive velocity (m/s)1.86 ± 0.022.03 ± 0.02 *2.08 ± 0.02 *#+2.13 ± 0.02 *#+2.35 ± 0.02 *#+§
Catch factor (ms)−20 ± 10−20 ± 10−20 ± 10−20 ± 10 20 ± 10
Rhythm (%)37 ± 1.342 ± 0.50 *44 ± 0.58 *#+46 ± 0.50 *#+50 ± 0.96 *#+§
*, #, + and § Different from low, moderate, heavy and severe, respectively (p ≤ 0.05).
Table 3. Mean and standard deviation values for selected biophysical responses at different intensities in an intermittent incremental rowing protocol for the female rower.
Table 3. Mean and standard deviation values for selected biophysical responses at different intensities in an intermittent incremental rowing protocol for the female rower.
VariablesLowModerateHeavySevereExtreme
Physiological
Oxygen uptake (mL/min/kg)47.4 ± 1.657.8 ± 1.460.4 ± 2.169.7 ± 1.5 *50.1 ± 0.6 #+§
Respiratory frequency (b/min)41.8 ± 0.348.6 ± 2.149.4 ± 1.957.2 ± 0.7 * 53.2 ± 4.3
Ventilation (L/min)80.1 ± 1.3107.3 ± 1.3 *117.0 ± 1.6 *#152.5 ± 2.9 *#+ 127.6 ± 5.8 *§
Carbon dioxide production (mL/min/Kg)38.2 ± 0.751.7 ± 1.1 *54.1 ± 0.5 *73.0 ± 1.5 *#+51.2 ± 4.5 §
Respiratory quotient0.8 ± 0.00.9 ± 0.0 *0.9 ± 0.01.1 ± 0.0 *#+1.1 ± 0.1 *
Heart rate (bpm)134 ± 1159 ± 0 *#168 ± 1 *#173 ± 0 *#+169 ± 1 *#§
Blood lactate (mmol/L)1.22.43.66.715.8
Core temperature (°C)37.1 ± 0.0137.5 ± 0.07 *#37.8 ± 0.09 *#38.1 ± 0.09 *#+38.8 ± 0.03 *#+§
Mechanical Power
Power (W)150210240270360
Power (W/Kg)1.92.73.13.54.8
Work (J)174.0212.1237.6237.6259.0
Kinematic
Rowing rate (cycles/min)2124263446
Rowing cycle length (m)1.55 ± 0.011.53 ± 0.01 *1.53 ± 0.01 *1.39 ± 0.12 *1.27 ± 0.08 *#+§
Propulsive time (s)1.16 ± 0.011.01 ± 0.01 *0.99 ± 0.01 *#0.88 ± 0.11 *#+0.70 ± 0.03 *#+§
Maximal seat velocity (m/s)1.27 ± 0.021.39 ± 0.02 *1.40 ± 0.03 *1.28 ± 0.15 *#+1.23 ± 0.14 #+
Maximal handle drive velocity (m/s)1.43 ± 0.051.65 ± 0.02 *1.72 ± 0.05 *#1.95 ± 0.26 *#+2.39 ± 0.12 *#+§
Catch factor (ms)−10 ± 1010 ± 10−10 ± 10−20 ± 10 *#+−20 ± 10 *#+
Rhythm (%)40 ± 0.5039 ± 0.70 *43 ± 0.81 *#50 ± 0.51 *#+54 ± 2.50 *#+§
*, #, + and § Different from low, moderate, heavy and severe, respectively (p ≤ 0.05).
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Cardoso, R.; Rios, M.; Cardoso, F.; Fonseca, P.; Ferreira, F.A.; Abraldes, J.A.; Gomes, B.B.; Vilas-Boas, J.P.; Fernandes, R.J. Physiological and Biomechanical Characteristics of Olympic and World-Class Rowers—Case Study. Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4273. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14104273

AMA Style

Cardoso R, Rios M, Cardoso F, Fonseca P, Ferreira FA, Abraldes JA, Gomes BB, Vilas-Boas JP, Fernandes RJ. Physiological and Biomechanical Characteristics of Olympic and World-Class Rowers—Case Study. Applied Sciences. 2024; 14(10):4273. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14104273

Chicago/Turabian Style

Cardoso, Ricardo, Manoel Rios, Filipa Cardoso, Pedro Fonseca, Francisco A. Ferreira, Jose Arturo Abraldes, Beatriz B. Gomes, João Paulo Vilas-Boas, and Ricardo J. Fernandes. 2024. "Physiological and Biomechanical Characteristics of Olympic and World-Class Rowers—Case Study" Applied Sciences 14, no. 10: 4273. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14104273

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop