Evaluation of Biological Value and Appraisal of Polyphenols and Glucosinolates from Organic Baby-Leaf Salads as Antioxidants and Antimicrobials against Important Human Pathogenic Bacteria
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Results and Discussion
2.1. Total Phenolic Compounds
Samples | Average levels (mg of gallic acid equivalent (GAE)·100 g−1 DW) |
---|---|
Green lettuce | 131.4 ± 7.9 e |
Red lettuce | 532.0 ± 14.5 a |
Rucola | 161.3 ± 9.0 cd |
Watercress | 186.9 ± 3.5 c |
Mixture 1 | 350.9 ± 12.1 b |
Mixture 2 | 137.0 ± 3.1 de |
2.2. Individual Phenolics and Glucosinolates
Polyphenols | Samples | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Green lettuce | Red lettuce | Rucola | Watercress | Mixture 1 (green lettuce + red lettuce) | Mixture 2 (green lettuce + red lettuce + watercress + rucola) | |
Gallic acid | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | 1.58 ± 0.18 c | n.d. | 1.15 ± 0.034 d |
Chlorogenic acid | 2.24 ± 0.02 d | 5.97 ± 0.38 f | n.d. | 3.25 ± 0.33 b | 6.88 ± 0.17 e | 1.12 ± 0.014 d |
Caffeic acid | 9.26 ± 0.93 c | 27.54 ± 0.51 d | 0.17 ± 0.0 d | 0.17 ± 0.0 d | 23.17 ± 0.55 c | 0.17 ± 0.0 e |
Caffeic derivatives | 14.32 ± 0.74 b | 52.44 ± 1.25 b | n.d. | 5.48 ± 1.54 b | 59.27 ± 1.25 b | 8.22 ± 0.35 b |
Cyanidin-3-Glucoside | 0.062 ± 0.0 e | 31.20 ± 0.74 c | 0.062 ± 0.0 d | 0.062 ± 0.0 d | 21.91 ± 1.33 c | 3.04 ± 0.069 c |
Quercetin-3-O-rutinoside | 7.08 ± 0.39 c | 10.93 ± 0.57 e | 10.06 ± 0.22 c | 19.95 ± 0.16 a | 25.92 ± 1.42 c | 4.36 ± 0.28 c |
Quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside | n.d. | 114.41 ± 1.86 a | 115.58 ± 2.44 a | n.d. | 128.93 ± 5.09 a | n.d. |
Luteolin-4-O-glucoside | 6.36 ± 0.19 d | 21.68 ± 0.92 d | n.d. | n.d. | 13.64 ± 2.36 d | 0.76 ± 0.07 e |
Isorhamnetin | 18.16 ± 0.17 a | 10.67 ± 0.65 c | 23.15 ± 0.67 b | 19.32 ± 0.11 a | 12.34 ± 1.43 d | 40.56 ± 2.23 a |
Samples | Glucoraphanin | Gluconasturtiin | 4-Methoxyglucobrassicin | Total GSs |
---|---|---|---|---|
Watercress | n.d. | 3143.19 ± 202.76 a | n.d. | 3143.19 ± 202.76 a |
Rucola | 238.28 ± 43.64 | 144.95 ± 3.95 b | 396.59 ± 43.95 | 779.81 ± 11.36 b |
2.3. Antioxidant Activity
Samples | % DPPH• scavenging activity | IC50(mg·mL−1) |
---|---|---|
Green lettuce | 41.0 ± 6.66 d | 1.43 ± 0.03 bc |
Red lettuce | 79.7 ± 1.38 b | 0.23 ± 0.03 d |
Rucola | 8.0 ± 3.53 f | 3.03 ± 0.58 a |
Watercress | 25.4 ± 2.46 e | 1.87 ± 0.03 b |
Mixture 1 (green lettuce + red lettuce) | 81.7 ± 1.22 b | 0.37 ± 0.03 d |
Mixture 2 (green lettuce + red lettuce + watercress + rucola) | 73.8 ± 0.12 c | 0.70 ± 0.00 cd |
Trolox (positive control) | 83.3 ± 0.00 a |
Total phenolic content | Total individual phenolics | % DPPH• (at 1 mg·mL−1) | |
---|---|---|---|
Total phenolic content | 1.000 | 0.855 ** | 0.599 ** |
Gallic acid | −0.394 | −0.641 | −0.133 |
Chlorogenic acid | 0.816 ** | 0.724 ** | 0.669 ** |
Caffeic acid | 0.922 ** | 0.844 ** | 0.687 ** |
Caffeic acid derivatives | 0.812 ** | 0.772 ** | 0.739 ** |
Cyanidine-3-glucoside | 0.971 ** | 0.889 ** | 0.736 ** |
Quercitin-3-O-rutinoside | 0.338 | 0.463 | 0.111 |
Luteolin-7-O-glucoside | 0.913 ** | 0.799 ** | 0.680 ** |
Quercitin-3-O-rhamnoside | 0.663 ** | 0.923 ** | 0.194 |
Isorhamnetin | −0.658 | −0.638 | −0.079 |
Total individual phenolics | 0.855 ** | 1.000 | 0.495 |
% DPPH at 1 mg·mL−1 | 0.599 ** | 0.495 | 1.000 |
2.4. Antimicrobial Activity
Isolates | Source | Green lettuce | Red lettuce | Watercress | Rucola | Mixture 1 | Mixture 2 | DMSO 4 | Commercial antibiotic 5 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Escherichia coli MJS260 | Clinical | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | 15.7 ± 0.3 |
Escherichia coli 006 AZ | Food | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | 17.0 ± 0.3 |
Escherichia coli | ATCC 25992 | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | 17.0 ± 0.3 |
Escherichia coli 1 | Animal | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | 18.0 ± 0.4 |
Pseudomonas aeruginosa | ATCC 10145 | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | 19.5 ± 0.5 |
Pseudomonas aeruginosa MJ323 | Clinical | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | 16.7 ± 0.3 |
Enterococcus spp. A1Sa | Food | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | 20.0 ± 0.3 |
Enterococcus faecalis MJS257 | Clinical | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | 14.7 ± 0.3 |
Enterococcus faecalis | ATCC 29212 | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | 14.7 ± 0.3 |
Enterococcus faecalis 49 | Animal | 8.0 ± 0.0 (+) | 9.0 ± 0.3 (+) | 11.0 ± 0.3 (+) | 13.0 ± 0.3 (+) | 9.0 ± 0.3 (+) | 11.0 ± 0.3 (+) | n.i. | 16.0 ± 0.3 |
Staphylococcus aureus | ATCC 13565 | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | 16.7 ± 0.6 |
Staphylococcus aureus MJS241 | Clinical | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | 16.3 ± 0.3 |
Isolates | Source | Gallic acid | Chlorogenic acid | Caffeic acid | Quercitin-3-O-rutinoside | Quercitin-3-O-rhamnoside | PEITC |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Escherichia coli MJS260 | Clinical | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | 9.7 ± 0.7 (+) |
Escherichia coli 006 AZ | Food | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. |
Escherichia coli | ATCC 25992 | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | 10.0 ± 0.0 (+) |
Escherichia coli 1 | Animal | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | 11.0 ± 0.0 (+) |
Pseudomonas aeruginosa | ATCC 10145 | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. |
Pseudomonas aeruginosa MJ323 | Clinical | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | 7.3 ± 0.3 (+) |
Enterococcus spp. A1Sa | Food | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. |
Enterococcus faecalis MJS257 | Clinical | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | 14.3 ± 0.3 (+) |
Enterococcus faecalis | ATCC 29212 | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. |
Enterococcus faecalis 49 | Animal | 8.0 ± 0.0 (+) | 9.0 ± 0.3 (+) | 11.0 ± 0.3 (+) | 13.0 ± 0.3 (+) | 9.0 ± 0.3 (+) | 11.0 ± 0.3 (+) |
Staphylococcus aureus | ATCC 13565 | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | t.i (+++) |
Staphylococcus aureus MJS241 | Clinical | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | n.i. | 44.0 ± 0.0 (+++) |
3. Experimental
3.1. Plant Material
3.2. Methods of Sample Preparation for Assessing the Phytochemical Composition, Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Bioassays
3.2.1. Methanol Extraction for Total and Individual Phenolics Determination
3.2.2. Determination of Total Phenolic Content
3.2.3. Determination of Individual Phenolics
3.2.4. Determination and Quantification of Individual and Total Glucosinolates
3.3. Antioxidant Activity Assays
Scavenging of 2,2-Diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) Radicals
3.4. Antimicrobial Activity in Vitro Assays
3.4.1. Microorganisms and Culture Conditions
Bacterial strain | Source | Class |
---|---|---|
Escherichia coli MJS260 | Clinical | Gram-negative |
Escherichia coli 006 AZ | Food | |
Escherichia coli | ATCC 25992 | |
Escherichia coli 1 | Animal | |
Pseudomonas aeruginosa | ATCC 10145 | |
Pseudomonas aeruginosa MJS323 | Clinical | |
Enterococcus spp. A1Sa | Food | Gram-positive |
Enterococcus faecalis MJS257 | Clinical | |
Enterococcus faecalis | ATCC 29212 | |
Enterococcus faecalis 49 | Animal | |
Staphylococcus aureus | ATCC 13565 | |
Staphylococcus aureus MJS241 | Clinical |
3.4.1.1. Antibacterial Susceptibility Tests
3.4.1.2. Antibacterial Classification
3.5. Statistical Analysis and Quality Assurance of the Results
4. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
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Aires, A.; Marques, E.; Carvalho, R.; Rosa, E.A.S.; Saavedra, M.J. Evaluation of Biological Value and Appraisal of Polyphenols and Glucosinolates from Organic Baby-Leaf Salads as Antioxidants and Antimicrobials against Important Human Pathogenic Bacteria. Molecules 2013, 18, 4651-4668. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules18044651
Aires A, Marques E, Carvalho R, Rosa EAS, Saavedra MJ. Evaluation of Biological Value and Appraisal of Polyphenols and Glucosinolates from Organic Baby-Leaf Salads as Antioxidants and Antimicrobials against Important Human Pathogenic Bacteria. Molecules. 2013; 18(4):4651-4668. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules18044651
Chicago/Turabian StyleAires, Alfredo, Esperança Marques, Rosa Carvalho, Eduardo A. S. Rosa, and Maria J. Saavedra. 2013. "Evaluation of Biological Value and Appraisal of Polyphenols and Glucosinolates from Organic Baby-Leaf Salads as Antioxidants and Antimicrobials against Important Human Pathogenic Bacteria" Molecules 18, no. 4: 4651-4668. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules18044651