Associations between Home Foreclosure and Health Outcomes in a Spanish City
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Context and Sample
2.2. Sources of Information
2.3. Analysis
- Health indicators: sleep patterns; chronic diseases; episodes of anxiety, depression and/or stress.
- Habits related to health: smoking; consumption of illegal substances; consumption of alcohol; consumption of vegetables; and physical activity.
- Medication: consumption of psychotropic medication; and consumption of other medication.
- Use of health services: visits to primary health care services; mental health appointments; and visits to emergency rooms.
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Méndez, R.; Plaza, J. Real Estate Crisis and Mortgage Evictions in Spain: A Geographical Perspective. Bol. Asoc. Geógrafos Esp. 2016, 71, 99–127. [Google Scholar]
- Ministerio de Fomento Número de Viviendas Libres Terminadas. 2016. Available online: http://www.fomento.gob.es/BE2/?nivel=2&orden=32000000 (accessed on 22 January 2019).
- National Statistics Institute (INE). Available online: www.ine.es (accessed on 28 February 2016).
- UNICEF. La Infancia en España 2014. El Valor de Los Niños: Hacia un Pacto de Estado Por la Infancia [Infancy in Spain 2014. The Value of Children: Towards a State Agreement for Infancy]. 2014. Available online: http://www.unicef.es/sites/www.unicef.es/files/infancia-espana/unicef_informe_la_infancia_en_espana_2014.pdf (accessed on 31 October 2015).
- Andalusian Network for Prevention of Poverty and Social Exclusion. The Poverty Situation in Spain. 2015. Available online: http://www.eapn-andalucia.org (accessed on 22 January 2019).
- Parreño-Castellano, J.M.; Domínguez-Mujica, J.; Armengol-Martín, M.; Pérez García, T.; Boldú Hernández, J. Foreclosures and Evictions in Las Palmas of Gran Canaria during the Economic Crisis and Post-Crisis Period in Spain. Urban Sci. 2018, 2, 109. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gutiérrez, A.; Arauzo-Carod, J.M. Spatial Analysis of Clustering of Foreclosures in the Poorest-Quality Housing Urban Areas: Evidence from Catalan Cities. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, 23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kahlmeter, A.; Bäckman, O.; Brännström, L. Housing Evictions and Economic Hardship. A Prospective Study. Eur. Sociol. Rev. 2018, 34, 106–119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stenberg, S.Å. Evictions in the Welfare State—An Unintended Consequence of the Swedish Policy? Acta Sociol. 1991, 34, 103–114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Matthew, D.; Kimbro, R.T. Eviction’s Fallout: Housing, Hardship, and Health. Soc. Forces 2015, 94, 295–324. [Google Scholar]
- Laparra Navarro, M.; Maíllo, G.; Ayala, V.; Cañón, L.; Navarro, M.; Serrano, C.; Cabrero, G.; Zubero, I.; Arroyo, G.; Serrano, P.; et al. La Fractura Social se Ensancha: Intensificación de los Procesos de Exclusión en ESPAÑA durante 7 Años [The Social Rupture Expands: Intensification of the Exclusion Processes in Spain during 7 Years]. In VII Informe sobre exclusión y desarrollo social en España 2014; Fundación Foessa: Madrid, Spain, 2014; Available online: http://www.foessa2014.es/informe/uploaded/descargas/VII_INFORME.pdf (accessed on 31 December 2015).
- Observatorio DESC y Plataforma de Afectados por la Hipoteca. Emergencia Habitacional en el Estado Español [Housing Emergency in the Spanish State]. Observatorio DESC y Plataforma de Afectados por la Hipoteca: 2013. Available online: http://afectadosporlahipoteca.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/2013-Emergencia-Habitacional EstadoEspanyoldef.pdf (accessed on 29 April 2015).
- Moya, L. La vivienda social en Europa: Alemania. Francia y Países Bajos desde 1945 [Social Housing in Europe: Germany, France and the Netherlands since 1945]; Mairea Libros: Madrid, Spain, 2008; ISBN 978-84-936485-3-4. [Google Scholar]
- General Council of the Judiciary (CGPJ). 2016. Available online: http://www.poderjudicial.es/cgpj/es/Temas/Estadistica-Judicial/Informes-estadisticos-periodicos/Datos-sobre-el-efecto-de-la-crisis-en-los-organos-judiciales---Datos-desde-2007-hasta-cuarto-trimestre-de-2015 (accessed on 31 March 2016).
- Holl, M.; van den Dries, L.; Wolf, J.R. Interventions to prevent tenant evictions: A systematic review. Health Soc. Care Community 2016, 24, 532–546. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Colau, A.; Alemany, A. Vidas Hipotecadas. De la Burbuja Inmobiliaria al Derecho a la Vivienda [From the Housing Bubble to the Right to Housing]; Angle Editorial; Cuadrilátero de libros: Barcelona, Spain, 2012; pp. 27–30. [Google Scholar]
- Daponte, A.; Mateo, I.; Bolivar, J.; Robles, H.; Fernández, C.; Bernal, M.; Mata, J.L.; Vila, J.; Escudero, C.; González, I.; et al. Estado de Salud de la Población Afectada por un Proceso de Desahucio [State of Health of the Population Affected by an Eviction Process]; Escuela Andaluza de Salud Pública (EASP) y Facultad de Psicología de la Universidad de Granada (UGR): Granada, Spain, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Pevalin, D.J. Housing repossessions, evictions and common mental illness in the UK: Results from a household panel study. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 2009, 63, 949–951. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McLaughlin, K.A.; Nandi, A.; Keyes, K.M.; Uddin, M.; Aiello, A.E.; Galea, S.; Koenen, K.C. Home foreclosure and risk of psychiatric morbidity during the recent financial crisis. Psychol. Med. 2012, 42, 1441–1448. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Osypuk, T.; Caldwell, C.H.; Platt, R.W.; Misra, D.P. The consequences of foreclosure for depressive symptomatology. Ann. Epidemiol. 2012, 22, 379–387. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Owler, K.A.; Gladden, R.M.; Vagi, K.J.; Barnes, J.; Frazier, L. Increase in Suicides Associated with Home Eviction and Foreclosure During the US Housing Crisis: Findings From 16 National Violent Death Reporting System States. 2005–2010. Am. J. Public Health 2015, 105, 311–316. [Google Scholar]
- Burgard, S.A.; Seefeldt, K.S.; Zelner, S. Housing instability and health: Findings from the Michigan Recession and Recovery Study. Soc. Sci. Med. 2012, 75, 2215–2224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pollack, C.E.; Lynch, J. Health status of people undergoing foreclosure in the Philadelphia Region. Am. J. Public Health 2009, 99, 1833–1839. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Novoa, A.M.; Ward, J. Habitatge i Salut en Población Vulnerable [Housing and Health in Vulnerable Population]. En: Llar. Habitatge i salut. Acció i Prevenció Residencial. Col.lecció informes. núm. 2; Càritas Diocesana de Barcelona: Barcelona, Spain, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Ruiz Peralta, E. Desahuciar, Desalojar, Ejecutar. Cuando la Política Callejera se Convierte en Medicina [To Evict. to Evacuate. to Execute. When Street Politics Become Medicine]. Máster Thesis, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Bolívar, J.; Bernal, M.; Mateo, I.; Daponte, A.; Escudero, C.; Sánchez-Cantalejo, C.; Usera, I.G.; Ortega, H.R.; Martín, J.L.; Santaella, M.C.F.; et al. La salud de las personas afectadas por un proceso de desahucio en Granada [The Health of Adults Undergoing an Eviction Process]. Gac. Sanit. 2016, 30, 4–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Novoa, A.M.; Ward, J.; Malmusi, D.; Díaz, F.; Darnell, M.; Trilla, C.; Bosch, J.; Borrell, C. How substantial dwellings and housing affordability problems are associated with poor health in a vulnerable population during the economic recession of the late 2000s. Int. J. Equity Health 2015, 14, 120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Vásquez-Vera, H.; Rodríguez-Sanz, M.; Palència, L.; Borrell, C. Foreclosure and health in Southern Europe: Results from the Platform for people affected by mortgages. J. Urban Health 2016, 93, 312–330. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ramis Pujol, J. The human reality of mortgage evictions from a multidisciplinary perspective. Homeless Eur. 2013, 9, 7–9. [Google Scholar]
- Palomera, J. Los Efectos de la Desresponsabilización del Estado en el Espacio de la Clase trabajadora. desde la Óptica de la Vivienda [The Effects of the Non Responsibility of the State in the Sphere of the Working Class. From the Perspective of Housing]; Terradas, I., Ed.; Antropología Jurídica de la Responsabilidad; Andavira Editora: Santiago de Compostela, Spain, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Domingo-Salvany, A.; Bacigalupe, A.; Carrasco, J.M.; Espelt, A.; Ferrando, J.; Borrell, C. del Grupo de Determinantes Sociales de Sociedad Española de Epidemiología. Proposals for social class classification based on the Spanish National Classification of Occupations 2011 using neo-Weberian and neo-Marxist approaches. Gac. Sanit. 2013, 27, 263–272. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tsai, A.C. Home foreclosure, health, and mental health: A systematic review of individual, aggregate, and contextual associations. PLoS ONE 2015, 10, e0123182. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cannuscio, C.C.; Alley, D.E.; Pagán, J.A.; Soldo, B.; Krasny, S.; Shardell, M.; Asch, D.A.; Lipman, T.H. Housing strain, mortgage foreclosure, and health. Nurs. Outlook 2012, 60, 134–142. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Meltzer, H.; Bebbington, P.; Brugha, T.; Farrell, M.; Jenkins, R. The relationship between personal debt and specific common mental disorders. Eur. J. Public Health 2013, 23, 108–113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Houle, J.N.; Keene, D.E. Getting sick and falling behind: Health and the risk of mortgage default and home foreclosure. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 2015, 69, 382–387. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yilmazer, T.; Babiarz, P.; Liu, F. The impact of diminished housing wealth on health in the United States: Evidence from the Great Recession. Soc. Sci. Med. 2015, 130, 234–241. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sivertsen, B.; Krokstad, S.; Overland, S.; Mykletun, A. The epidemiology of insomnia: Associations with physical and mental health. The HUNT-2 study. J. Psychosom. Res. 2009, 67, 109–116. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Courtenay, W.H. Constructions of masculinity and their influence on men’s well-being: A theory of gender and health. Soc. Sci. Med. 2000, 50, 1385–1401. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ministerio de Sanidad y Consumo. Consumo de Fármacos y Psicofármacos. “La Tranquilidad Recetada” [Consumption of Medication and Psychotropic Medication. The Prescribed Calm]. En: Informe salud y Género. Las edades Centrales de la vida. Informes. Estudios e Investigación; Ministerio de Sanidad y Consumo: Madrid, Spain, 2008.
- Sen, G.; Östlin, P.; George, A. Unequal. Unfair. Ineffective and Inefficient Gender Inequity in Health: Why It Exists and How We Can Change It; Final Report to the WHO Commission on Social Determinants of Health, Women and Gender Equality Network; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Raquel Quílez. Entre los Escombros de la Clase Media [Among the Rubble of the Middle Class]. El Mundo, 28 March 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Europapress. La Clase Media se Quiebra y se Cronifican la Pobreza y la Desigualdad [Middle Class Breaking Down. Poverty and Inequality Becoming Chronic]. Available online: https://www.europapress.es/epsocial/igualdad/noticia-fundacion-encuentro-constata-quiebra-clase-media-cronificacion-pobreza-desigualdad-espana-20141212173658.html (accessed on 12 December 2014).
- Wilkinson, R.; Pickett, K. The Spirit Level: Why More Equal Societies Almost Always Do Better; Allen Lane: London, UK, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Marmot, M. Fair Society, Healthy Lives; University College of London: London, UK, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- Jenkins, R.; Bhugra, D.; Bebbington, P.; Brugha, T.; Farrell, M.; Coid, J.; Fryers, T.; Weich, S.; Singleton, N.; Meltzer, H. Debt, income and mental disorder in the general population. Psychol. Med. 2008, 38, 1485–1493. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Gili, M.; Roca, M.; Basu, S.; McKee, M.; Stuckler, D. The mental health risks of economic crisis in Spain: Evidence from primary care centres, 2006 and 2010. Eur. J. Public Health 2013, 23, 103–108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Thoits, P.A. Mechanisms linking social ties and support to physical and mental health. J. Health Soc. Behav. 2011, 52, 154–161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Arredondo, R.; Palma, M.O. Aproximación a la realidad de los desahucios. Perfil y características de las familias en proceso de desahucios en la ciudad de Málaga. [Approximation to the reality of evictions. Profile and characteristics of the families in process of eviction in the city of Málaga]. Altern. Cuadernos de Trabajo Social. 2013, 20, 113–140. [Google Scholar]
- Daponte, A.; Mateo, I.; Vásquez-Vera, H. Evictions and health, a response from the public health in Spain is needed. Gac. Sanit. 2016, 30, 239–241. [Google Scholar]
Characteristics | Total | Men | Women | p (χ²) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N | % | N | % | N | % | ||
Age | |||||||
25–35 | 58 | (28.3) | 29 | (34.9) | 29 | (23.8) | 0.157 |
36–50 | 104 | (50.7) | 36 | (43.4) | 68 | (55.7) | |
51 or older | 43 | (21.0) | 18 | (21.7) | 25 | (20.5) | |
Total | 205 | (100.0) | 83 | (100.0) | 122 | (100.0) | |
Place of birth | |||||||
Spain | 183 | (91.0) | 70 | (86.4) | 113 | (94.2) | 0.059 |
Abroad | 18 | (9.0) | 11 | (13.6) | 7 | (5.8) | |
Total | 201 | (100.0) | 81 | (100.0) | 120 | (100.0) | |
Marital status | |||||||
Married | 102 | (51.3) | 43 | (54.4) | 59 | (49.2) | 0.046 |
Single | 52 | (26.1) | 25 | (31.6) | 27 | (22.5) | |
Separated, divorced, widowed | 45 | (22.6) | 11 | (13.9) | 34 | (28.3) | |
Total | 199 | (100.0) | 79 | (100.0) | 120 | (100.0) | |
Living with partner | |||||||
Yes | 36 | (37.1) | 19 | (52.8) | 17 | (27.9) | 0.014 |
No | 61 | (62.9) | 17 | (47.2) | 44 | (72.1) | |
Total | 97 | (100.0) | 36 | (100.0) | 61 | (100.0) | |
Number of persons in household | |||||||
Up to 2 | 56 | (27.6) | 23 | (28.0) | 33 | (27.3) | 0.402 |
3 to 5 | 137 | (67.5) | 57 | (69.5) | 80 | (66.1) | |
More than 5 | 10 | (4.9) | 2 | (2.4) | 8 | (6.6) | |
Total | 203 | (100.0) | 82 | (100.0) | 121 | (100.0) | |
Employment situation | |||||||
Employed | 51 | (26.2) | 13 | (16.0) | 38 | (33.3) | 0.001 |
Unemployed | 123 | (63.1) | 61 | (75.3) | 62 | (54.4) | |
Retired, Disabled | 9 | (4.6) | 6 | (7.4) | 3 | (2.6) | |
Homemaker | 12 | (6.2) | 1 | (1.2) | 11 | (9.6) | |
Total | 195 | (100.0) | 81 | (100.0) | 114 | (100.0) | |
Socio-professional class | |||||||
Management personnel, professional | 11 | (5.8) | 6 | (7.5) | 5 | (4.5) | 0.025 |
Administrative, self-employed. Supervisor | 61 | (31.9) | 33 | (41.3) | 28 | (25.2) | |
Skilled manual | 61 | (31.9) | 25 | (31.3) | 36 | (32.4) | |
Unskilled manual | 58 | (30.4) | 16 | (20.0) | 42 | (37.8) | |
Total | 191 | (100.0) | 80 | (100.0) | 111 | (100.0) | |
Level of education | |||||||
Up to primary | 123 | (60.6) | 53 | (63.9) | 70 | (58.3) | 0.135 |
Secondary | 60 | (29.6) | 26 | (31.3) | 34 | (28.3) | |
University | 20 | (9.9) | 4 | (4.8) | 16 | (13.3) | |
Total | 203 | (100.0) | 83 | (100.0) | 120 | (100.0) | |
Current income (Euros) | |||||||
Up to 500 | 89 | (43.8) | 38 | (45.8) | 51 | (42.5) | 0.559 |
501 to 1000 | 77 | (37.9) | 28 | (33.7) | 49 | (40.8) | |
Over 1000 | 37 | (18.2) | 17 | (20.5) | 20 | (16.7) | |
Total | 203 | (100.0) | 83 | (100.0) | 120 | (100.0) | |
Difficulties getting to the end of the month | |||||||
Very difficult | 172 | (89.1) | 69 | (85.2) | 103 | (92.0) | 0.312 |
Quite difficult | 17 | (8.8) | 10 | (12.3) | 7 | (6.3) | |
Easy | 4 | (2.1) | 2 | (2.5) | 2 | (1.8) | |
Total | 193 | (100.0) | 81 | (100.0) | 112 | (100.0) | |
Change in income | |||||||
No change or increase | 67 | (32.7) | 22 | (26.5) | 45 | (36.9) | 0.170 |
Drop by 1 level | 77 | (37.6) | 31 | (37.3) | 46 | (37.7) | |
Drop by 2 or more levels | 61 | (29.8) | 30 | (36.1) | 31 | (25.4) | |
Main reason for foreclosure | |||||||
Loss of employment | 118 | (58.1) | 56 | (68.3) | 62 | (51.2) | 0.036 |
Drop in income | 36 | (17.7) | 13 | (15.9) | 23 | (19.0) | |
Domestic problems * | 49 | (24.1) | 13 | (15.9) | 36 | (29.8) | |
Total | 203 | (100.0) | 82 | (100.0) | 121 | (100.0) | |
Stage of process | |||||||
Problems paying the mortgage | 110 | (53.9) | 41 | (50.0) | 69 | (56.6) | 0.064 |
Lawsuit (start of legal process) | 25 | (12.3) | 10 | (12.2) | 15 | (12.3) | |
Negotiation with bank | 25 | (12.3) | 15 | (18.3) | 10 | (8.2) | |
Auction or foreclosure stage | 30 | (14.7) | 14 | (17.1) | 16 | (13.1) | |
Other | 14 | (6.9) | 2 | (2.4) | 12 | (9.8) | |
Total | 204 | (100.0) | 82 | (100.0) | 122 | (100.0) | |
When process began | |||||||
Up to 2008 | 21 | (11.7) | 8 | (10.8) | 13 | (12.3) | 0.118 |
2009 to 2011 | 37 | (20.6) | 10 | (13.5) | 27 | (25.5) | |
2012 onwards | 122 | (67.8) | 56 | (75.7) | 66 | (62.3) | |
Total | 180 | (100.0) | 74 | (100.0) | 106 | (100.0) |
Since the Beginning of the Foreclosure Process, Have You Noticed Significant Changes Attributable to It? | Increase/Worsen | Total | p (χ²) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
N | % | N | ||
Anxiety, depression, stress | ||||
Men | 69 | 84.1 | 82 | 0.599 |
Women | 105 | 86.8 | 121 | |
Total | 174 | 85.7 | 203 | |
Chronic illnesses | ||||
Men | 20 | 26.7 | 75 | 0.000 |
Women | 60 | 53.6 | 112 | |
Total | 80 | 42.8 | 187 | |
Sleep problems | ||||
Men | 65 | 81.3 | 80 | 0.684 |
Women | 101 | 83.5 | 121 | |
Total | 166 | 82.6 | 201 | |
Primary healthcare visits | ||||
Men | 19 | 23.8 | 80 | 0.077 |
Women | 43 | 35.5 | 121 | |
Total | 62 | 30.8 | 201 | |
Mental health appointments | ||||
Men | 7 | 8.9 | 79 | 0.005 |
Women | 29 | 24.6 | 118 | |
Total | 36 | 18.3 | 197 | |
Visits to Emergency Room | ||||
Men | 12 | 14.8 | 81 | 0.062 |
Women | 31 | 25.8 | 120 | |
Total | 43 | 21.4 | 201 | |
Consumption of psychotropic med | ||||
Men | 18 | 23.1 | 78 | 0.029 |
Women | 43 | 38.1 | 113 | |
Total | 61 | 31.9 | 191 | |
Consumption of other med | ||||
Men | 23 | 29.9 | 77 | 0.012 |
Women | 57 | 47.9 | 119 | |
Total | 80 | 40.8 | 196 | |
Smoking | ||||
Men | 32 | 40.0 | 80 | 0.600 |
Women | 41 | 36.3 | 113 | |
Total | 73 | 37.8 | 193 | |
Consumption of alcohol | ||||
Men | 17 | 21.0 | 81 | 0.002 |
Women | 7 | 6.2 | 113 | |
Total | 24 | 12.4 | 194 | |
Consumption of other substances | ||||
Men | 6 | 7.6 | 79 | 0.114 |
Women | 3 | 2.7 | 112 | |
Total | 9 | 4.7 | 191 | |
Physical exercise and sport (reduced) | ||||
Men | 20 | 24.4 | 82 | 0.065 |
Women | 17 | 14.2 | 120 | |
Total | 37 | 18.3 | 202 | |
Consumption of vegetables (reduced) | ||||
Men | 17 | 21.0 | 81 | 0.295 |
Women | 33 | 27.5 | 120 | |
Total | 50 | 24.9 | 201 |
Changes in Health | Total (N = 205) | Men (N = 83) | Women (N = 122) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
p-Value | OR | 95%CI | p-Value | OR | 95% CI | p-Value | OR | 95% CI | |
Anxiety, Depression, Stress | |||||||||
Place of birth | |||||||||
Abroad | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||
Spain | 0.02 | 3.64 | (1.22, 10.86) | 0.75 | 1.31 | (0.25, 6.98) | 0.00 | 11.22 | (2.24, 56.26) |
Number of persons in household | |||||||||
Up to 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||
More than 2 | 0.19 | 1.74 | (0.76, 3.96) | 0.03 | 3.79 | (1.11, 12.92) | 0.83 | 0.87 | (0.26, 2.93) |
Main reason for foreclosure | |||||||||
Loss of employment | 0.03 | 1 | 0.91 | 1 | 0.99 | 1 | |||
Drop in income | 0.22 | 0.57 | (0.23, 1.41) | 0.67 | 0.73 | (0.17, 3.12) | 0.89 | 0.91 | (0.26, 3.26) |
Domestic problems | 0.04 | 9.06 | (1.17, 70.16) | NA | 0.95 | 0.96 | (0.32, 2.91) | ||
Chronic Illnesses | |||||||||
Age | |||||||||
25–35 | 0.03 | 1 | 0.86 | 1 | 0.02 | 1 | |||
36–50 | 0.16 | 0.60 | (0.29, 1.23) | 0.63 | 0.75 | (0.23, 2.44) | 0.21 | 0.56 | (0.23, 1.38) |
51 or older | 0.23 | 1.71 | (0.72, 4.10) | 0.99 | 1.01 | (0.26, 3.96) | 0.12 | 2.70 | (0.78, 9.35) |
Marital status | |||||||||
Married | 0.01 | 1 | 0.26 | 1 | 0.02 | 1 | |||
Single | 0.03 | 0.43 | (0.20, 0.93) | 0.35 | 0.57 | (0.17, 1.88) | 0.04 | 0.36 | (0.13, 0.96) |
Separated, divorced, widowed | 0.00 | 0.31 | (0.14, 0.69) | 0.14 | 0.19 | (0.02, 1.67) | 0.01 | 0.33 | (0.13, 0.80) |
Main reason for foreclosure | |||||||||
Loss of employment | 0.67 | 1 | 0.04 | 1 | 1 | ||||
Drop in income | 0.72 | 1.16 | (0.52, 2.61) | 0.21 | 0.26 | (0.03, 2.19) | 0.22 | 1.93 | (0.68, 5.49) |
Domestic problems | 0.38 | 1.39 | (0.67, 2.85) | 0.05 | 3.60 | (1.01, 12.81) | 0.94 | 0.97 | (0.41, 2.26) |
Sleep Problems | |||||||||
Level of education | |||||||||
Secondary or above | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||
Primary or lower | 0.29 | 0.66 | (0.30, 1.43) | 0.36 | 1.71 | (0.55, 5.33) | 0.04 | 0.29 | (0.09, 0.94) |
Number of persons in household | |||||||||
Up to 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||
More than 2 | 0.01 | 2.63 | (1.23, 5.58) | 0.03 | 3.79 | (1.11, 12.92) | 0.06 | 2.63 | (0.97, 7.09) |
Changes in Health | p-Value | OR | 95% CI | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Anxiety, Depression, Stress | ||||
Main reason for foreclosure | Loss of employment | 1 | ||
Drop of income | 0.265 | 0.60 | (0.25, 1.50) | |
Domestic problems | 0.006 | 6.51 | (1.58, 60.11) | |
Chronic Illnesses | ||||
Married status | Married | 1 | ||
Single | 0.023 | 0.39 | (0.17, 0.88) | |
Separated, divorced, widowed | 0.002 | 0.29 | (0.12, 0.65) | |
Sex | Men | 1 | ||
Women | 0.001 | 3.21 | (1.61, 6.61) | |
Level of education | Primary or lower | 1 | ||
Secondary or above | 0.058 | 1.88 | (0.98, 3.68) | |
Employment situation | Employed | 1 | ||
Unemployed | 0.024 | 0.42 | (0.19, 0.89) | |
Non-active | 0.325 | 0.56 | (0.17, 1.78) | |
Sleep Problems | ||||
Number of persons in household | Up to 2 | 1 | ||
More than 2 | 0.012 | 2.62 | (1.24, 5.54) | |
Primary Healthcare Visits | ||||
Age | 25–34 | 1 | ||
35–50 | 0.270 | 1.52 | (0.73, 3.31) | |
51 or older | 0.048 | 2.41 | (1.01, 5.90) | |
Main reason for foreclosure | Loss of employment | 1 | ||
Drop in income | 0.016 | 0.34 | (0.12, 0.82) | |
Domestic problems | 0.632 | 0.84 | (0.40, 1.72) | |
Sex | Men | 1 | ||
Women | 0.068 | 1.82 | (0.96, 3.57) | |
Mental Health Appointments | ||||
Sex | Men | 1 | ||
Women | 0.003 | 3.40 | (1.49, 8.69) | |
Current income (euros) | Up to 500 | |||
501 to 1000 | 0.038 | 0.43 | (0.18, 0.95) | |
More than 1000 | 0.098 | 0.41 | (0.12, 1.17) | |
Visits to Emergency (ER) | ||||
Stage of process | Problems paying mortgage | 1 | ||
Legal process | 0.018 | 2.36 | (1.16, 4.90) | |
Sex | Men | 1 | ||
Women | 0.044 | 2.13 | (1.02, 4.68) | |
Consumption of Psychotropic Medication | ||||
Stage of process | Problems paying mortgage | 1 | ||
Legal process | 0.056 | 1.88 | (0.98, 3.66) | |
Sex | Men | 1 | ||
Women | 0.012 | 2.34 | (1.20, 4.72) | |
Consumption of Other Medication | ||||
Married status | Married | 1 | ||
Single | 0.453 | 0.76 | (0.37, 1.55) | |
Separated, divorced, widowed | 0.076 | 0.51 | (0.23, 1.07) | |
Sex | Men | 1 | ||
Women | 0.006 | 2.38 | (1.28, 4.54) | |
Smoking | ||||
Stage of process | Problems paying mortgage | 1 | ||
Legal process | 0.026 | 2.02 | (1.09, 3.80) | |
Married status | Married | 1 | ||
Single | 0.199 | 1.63 | (0.773, 3.419) | |
Separated, divorced, widowed | 0.009 | 2.77 | (1.288, 6.041) | |
Consumption of Alcohol | ||||
Main reason for foreclosure | Loss of employment | 1 | ||
Drop in income | 0.248 | 2.02 | (0.59, 6.32) | |
Domestic problems | 0.034 | 3.17 | (1.09, 9.31) | |
Level of education | Primary or lower | 1 | ||
Secondary or above | 0.057 | 2.38 | (0.98, 6.01) | |
Sex | Men | 1 | ||
Women | 0.001 | 0.19 | (0.07, 0.48) | |
Consumption of Other Substances | ||||
Age | 25–34 | 1 | ||
35–50 | 0.239 | 0.46 | (0.12, 1.69) | |
51 or older | 0.059 | 0.12 | (0.01, 1.07) | |
Physical Exercise and Sport | ||||
Married status | Married | 1 | ||
Single | 0.193 | 0.63 | (0.31, 1.26) | |
Separated, divorced, widowed | 0.017 | 0.40 | (0.18, 0.85) | |
Level of education | Primary or lower | 1 | ||
Secondary or above | 0.036 | 1.90 | (1.04, 3.51) | |
Current income (euros) | Up to 500 | 1 | ||
501 to 1000 | 0.574 | 1.20 | (0.64, 2.28) | |
More than 1000 | 0.095 | 0.48 | (0.19, 1.14) | |
Consumption of Vegetables | ||||
Stage of process | Problems paying mortgage | 1 | ||
Legal process | 0.007 | 2.49 | (1.29, 4.92) |
© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Bernal-Solano, M.; Bolívar-Muñoz, J.; Mateo-Rodríguez, I.; Robles-Ortega, H.; Fernández-Santaella, M.d.C.; Mata-Martín, J.L.; Vila-Castellar, J.; Daponte-Codina, A. Associations between Home Foreclosure and Health Outcomes in a Spanish City. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 981. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16060981
Bernal-Solano M, Bolívar-Muñoz J, Mateo-Rodríguez I, Robles-Ortega H, Fernández-Santaella MdC, Mata-Martín JL, Vila-Castellar J, Daponte-Codina A. Associations between Home Foreclosure and Health Outcomes in a Spanish City. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2019; 16(6):981. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16060981
Chicago/Turabian StyleBernal-Solano, Mariola, Julia Bolívar-Muñoz, Inmaculada Mateo-Rodríguez, Humbelina Robles-Ortega, Maria del Carmen Fernández-Santaella, José Luís Mata-Martín, Jaime Vila-Castellar, and Antonio Daponte-Codina. 2019. "Associations between Home Foreclosure and Health Outcomes in a Spanish City" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 6: 981. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16060981