The Impact of Parental Remote Migration and Parent-Child Relation Types on the Psychological Resilience of Rural Left-Behind Children in China
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
2.1. Psychological Resilience and Related Theories
2.2. Population Migration and Psychological Resilience
2.3. Parent-Child Relation and Psychological Resilience
2.4. Parent-Child Relation Types and Psychological Resilience
2.5. Limitations of Existing Studies and Innovation of this Study
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Data
3.2. Variables
3.2.1. Dependent Variable
3.2.2. Independent Variable
Population Migration Characteristics
Parent-Child Relation Types
3.2.3. Controlled Variable
3.3. Statistical Analysis
4. Results
4.1. Parent-Child Relation Types and Combinations of Parent-child Relation Type
4.1.1. Parent-Child Relation Types
4.1.2. Combinations of Parent-Child Relation Type
4.2. Correlation of Parent-Child Relation Types and Psychological Resilience
4.3. Impact of Population Migration and Parent-Child Relation Types
4.3.1. Impact of Controlled Variables
4.3.2. Impact of Population Migration
4.3.3. Impact of Father-Child Relation Types
4.3.4. Impact of Mother-Child Relation Types
4.3.5. Difference in Impact of Parent-Child Relation Types
4.3.6. Impact of Combinations of Parent-Child Relation Type
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variables | Cases (n) | Frequency (%) |
---|---|---|
Sex | ||
Female | 311 | 48.10 |
Male | 335 | 51.90 |
Grade | ||
7 | 213 | 33.00 |
8 | 231 | 35.80 |
9 | 202 | 31.30 |
Only Child (dushengzinv) | ||
No | 481 | 74.50 |
Yes | 165 | 25.50 |
Living in School | ||
No | 253 | 39.20 |
Yes | 393 | 60.80 |
Region | ||
Ningqiang county | 197 | 30.50 |
Chenggu county | 146 | 22.60 |
Ye county | 303 | 46.90 |
Variables | Description | n | % |
---|---|---|---|
Spatial Characteristics of Father’s Migration | |||
Working place | 0 = other cities of local province | 118 | 18.27 |
1 = other province | 528 | 81.73 | |
Temporal Characteristics of Father’s Migration | |||
First migration occurred when child aged 1–3 | 0 = no | 218 | 40.30 |
1 = yes | 323 | 59.70 | |
First migration occurred when child aged 4–6 | 0 = no | 181 | 30.63 |
1 = yes | 410 | 69.37 | |
First migration occurred when child aged 7–10 | 0 = no | 132 | 21.96 |
1 = yes | 469 | 78.04 | |
Spatial Characteristics of Mother’s Migration | |||
Working place | 0 = other cities of local province | 128 | 19.81 |
1 = other province | 518 | 80.19 | |
Temporal Characteristics of Mother’s Migration | |||
First migration occurred when child aged 1–3 | 0 = no | 291 | 58.79 |
1 = yes | 204 | 41.21 | |
First migration occurred when child aged 4–6 | 0 = no | 219 | 42.03 |
1 = yes | 302 | 57.97 | |
First migration occurred when child aged 7–10 | 0 = no | 171 | 30.70 |
1 = yes | 386 | 69.30 | |
Spatial Characteristics of Child’s Migration | |||
Has been to father’s working place | 0 = no | 303 | 46.90 |
1 = yes | 343 | 53.10 | |
Has been to mother’s working place | 0 = no | 248 | 42.32 |
1 = yes | 338 | 57.68 | |
Temporal Characteristics of Child’s Migration | |||
Living in other cities or provinces | 0 = no | 439 | 67.96 |
1 = yes | 207 | 32.04 |
Variables | Description |
---|---|
Parent-Child Emotional Attachment | |
How much do you love parents | 1 = not at all; 2 = not quite; 3 = moderate; 4 = quite; 5 = very |
How much do parents care about you | 1 = not at all; 2 = not quite; 3 = moderate; 4 = quite; 5 = very |
You love parents very much | 0 = no; 1 = yes |
Parents care about you very much | 0 = no; 1 = yes |
Parent-Child Communication | |
How often parents contact you | 1 = never; 2 = sometimes; 3 = frequently |
How do you like talking to parents | 1 = dislike; 2 = moderate; 3 = like |
Parents contact you frequently | 0 = no; 1 = yes |
You like talking to parents | 0 = no; 1 = yes |
Parenting Function | |
Supervise and urge you study most frequently | 0 = no; 1 = yes |
Help and support you the most | 0 = no; 1 = yes |
Variables | Definition | n | % | Mean | S.D. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sex | 0 = female | 311 | 48.14 | ||
1 = male | 335 | 51.86 | |||
Age | [7,16] | 645 | 13.44 | 1.112 | |
Parental Relationship | 0 = not good | 469 | 75.89 | ||
1 = good | 149 | 24.11 | |||
Grandparents Guardianship | 0 = no | 124 | 20.95 | ||
1 = yes | 468 | 79.05 | |||
Only Child | 0 = no | 481 | 74.46 | ||
1 = yes | 165 | 25.54 | |||
Weekly Cost of Living | 0 = no | 33 | 5.14 | ||
1 = yes | 609 | 94.86 | |||
Friends’ Support | [4,28] | 629 | 18.86 | 5.280 | |
Students’ Friendliness | [1,2,3,4,5] | 642 | 4.11 | 0.749 | |
Teachers’ Care | [1,2,3,4,5] | 643 | 4.15 | 0.997 | |
Boarding School | 0 = no | 253 | 39.16 | ||
1 = yes | 393 | 60.84 | |||
Teachers’ Home Visit | 0 = never | 33 | 5.14 | ||
1 = sometimes | 125 | 19.47 | |||
2 = frequently | 484 | 75.39 | |||
Regions | 0 = Chenggu county | 146 | 22.60 | ||
1 = Ningqiang county | 197 | 30.50 | |||
2 = Ye county | 303 | 46.90 |
No. of Classes | Log L. | AIC | BIC | DF | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | −30,312.676 | 60,637.351 | 60,679.041 | 57 | 0.0000 |
2 | −28,031.304 | 56,088.608 | 56,178.937 | 50 | 0.0000 |
3 | −27,784.182 | 55,608.365 | 55,747.331 | 43 | 0.0000 |
4 | −27,621.462 | 55,296.925 | 55,484.530 | 36 | 0.0000 |
5 | −27,549.280 | 55,166.560 | 55,402.803 | 29 | 0.0000 |
6 | −27,520.286 | 55,122.572 | 55,407.453 | 22 | 0.0000 |
Dimensions and Indicators | Type 1 | Type 2 | Type 3 | Type 4 | Type 5 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Emotional Attachment | |||||
You love parents very much | 0.916 *** | 0.877 *** | 1.000 | 0.238 *** | 0.175 *** |
Parents care about you very much | 0.946 *** | 0.862 *** | 0.825 *** | 0.440 *** | 0.162 *** |
Communication Quality | |||||
Parents contact you frequently | 0.839 *** | 0.603 *** | 0.078 | 0.336 *** | 0.110 *** |
You like talking to parents | 0.816 *** | 0.773 *** | 0.368 *** | 0.196 *** | 0.102 *** |
Parenting Function | |||||
Supervise and urge you study most frequently | 0.654 *** | 0.000 | 0.381 *** | 0.583 *** | 0.142 *** |
Help and support you the most | 0.604 *** | 0.082 | 0.276 *** | 0.527 *** | 0.027 |
Variables | n | % |
---|---|---|
Father-Child Relation Types | ||
Intimate Connection and Strong Function (FCRT1) | 100 | 15.80 |
Close Connection but Lacking Function (FCRT2) | 209 | 33.02 |
Moderate Connection and Function (FCRT3) | 92 | 14.53 |
Estranged Connection but Strong Function (FCRT4) | 50 | 7.90 |
Alienation Connection and Weak Function (FCRT5) | 182 | 28.75 |
Mother-Child Relation Types | ||
Intimate Connection and Strong Function (MCRT1) | 172 | 27.26 |
Close Connection but Lacking Function (MCRT2) | 178 | 28.21 |
Moderate Connection and Function (MCRT3) | 65 | 10.30 |
Estranged Connection but Strong Function (MCRT4) | 72 | 11.41 |
Alienation Connection and Weak Function (MCRT5) | 144 | 22.82 |
Combinations | n | % |
---|---|---|
FCRT1-MCRT1 | 35 | 7.45 |
FCRT1-MCRT2 | 53 | 11.28 |
FCRT2-MCRT1 | 94 | 20.00 |
FCRT3-MCRT3 | 42 | 8.94 |
FCRT2-MCRT2 | 90 | 19.15 |
FCRT5-MCRT4 | 50 | 10.64 |
FCRT5-MCRT5 | 106 | 22.55 |
Father-Child Relation Types | Mother-Child Relation Types | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Item | FCRT1 | FCRT2 | FCRT3 | FCRT4 | FCRT5 | MCRT1 | MCRT2 | MCRT3 | MCRT4 | MCRT5 |
PP | 0.102 * | 0.083 * | 0.003 | 0.001 | −0.170 ** | 0.127 ** | 0.035 | −0.007 | −0.050 | −0.130 ** |
SP | 0.157 ** | 0.116 ** | 0.039 | −0.018 | −0.269 ** | 0.172 ** | 0.121 ** | 0.004 | −0.108 ** | −0.236 ** |
PR | 0.138 ** | 0.121 ** | 0.026 | −0.005 | −0.254 ** | 0.165 ** | 0.100 * | 0.002 | −0.090 * | −0.217 ** |
Variables | Regression Coefficient (Significance) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 1 [Beta] | Model 2 [Beta] | Model 3 [Beta] | Model 4 [Beta] | Model 5 [Beta] | Model 6 [Beta] | |
Personal Characteristics | ||||||
Sex (Female) | −0.061 | −0.057 | −0.063 | −0.035 | −0.058 | −0.051 |
Age | −0.064 | −0.113 * | −0.115 * | −0.105 * | −0.115 * | −0.083 |
Region (Ningqiang county) | ||||||
Chenggu county | −0.004 | 0.050 | 0.079 | 0.055 | 0.091 | 0.080 |
Ye county | 0.057 | 0.077 | 0.100 | 0.070 | 0.111 | 0.085 |
Family Characteristics | ||||||
Parental Relation (Not Good) | 0.094 * | 0.104 * | 0.097 + | 0.088 + | 0.092 + | 0.106 + |
Grandparents Guardianship (No) | −0.061 | −0.056 | −0.064 | −0.055 | −0.059 | −0.083 |
Only Child (No) | 0.085 * | 0.098 + | 0.095 + | 0.085 | 0.091 + | 0.138 * |
Weekly Cost of Living (No) | 0.004 | 0.022 | 0.017 | 0.024 | 0.018 | 0.020 |
School Characteristics | ||||||
Friends’ Support | 0.302 *** | 0.346 *** | 0.343 *** | 0.359 *** | 0.350 *** | 0.364 *** |
Students’ Friendship | 0.144 *** | 0.099 + | 0.073 | 0.074 | 0.065 | 0.069 |
Teachers’ Care | 0.148 *** | 0.155 ** | 0.129 * | 0.117 * | 0.125 * | 0.140 * |
Boarding School (No) | −0.010 | 0.009 | 0.007 | 0.011 | 0.000 | 0.022 |
Family-school Interaction | ||||||
Teachers’ Home Visit (Never) | ||||||
Sometimes | 0.109 ** | 0.084 | 0.098 + | 0.078 | 0.094 + | 0.064 |
Frequently | −0.039 | 0.009 | 0.009 | 0.009 | 0.015 | −0.003 |
Spatial Characteristics of Father’s Migration | ||||||
Working Place (Other Cities of Local Province) | ||||||
Other Province | 0.032 | 0.035 | 0.024 | 0.039 | −0.061 | |
Temporal Characteristics of Father’s Migration | ||||||
First-time migration occurred | ||||||
When child aged 1–3 (No) | 0.070 | 0.052 | 0.057 | 0.054 | 0.052 | |
When child aged 4–6 (No) | −0.054 | −0.042 | −0.060 | −0.054 | −0.147 | |
When child aged 7–10 (No) | 0.071 | 0.041 | 0.069 | 0.037 | 0.106 | |
Spatial Characteristics of Mother’s Migration | ||||||
Working Place (Other Cities of Local Province) | ||||||
Other Province | −0.143 + | −0.149 + | −0.132 + | −0.150 + | −0.054 | |
Temporal Characteristics of Mother’s Migration | ||||||
First-time migration occurred | ||||||
When child aged 1–3 (No) | −0.034 | −0.021 | −0.014 | −0.019 | −0.059 | |
When child aged 4–6 (No) | −0.021 | 0.013 | 0.005 | 0.025 | 0.070 | |
When child aged 7–10 (No) | −0.010 | −0.004 | −0.002 | 0.005 | 0.013 | |
Spatial Characteristics of Child’s Migration in the Latest 6 Months | ||||||
Has been to father’s working place (No) | 0.001 | −0.035 | −0.017 | −0.025 | −0.105 | |
Has been to mother’s working place (No) | −0.004 | 0.006 | 0.000 | −0.002 | 0.060 | |
Temporal Characteristics of Child’s Migration 6 Months ago | ||||||
Lived in other cities or provinces (No) | 0.016 | 0.041 | 0.037 | 0.047 | 0.036 | |
Father-Child Relation Types (FCRT5) | ||||||
FCRT1 | 0.134 * | 0.092 | ||||
FCRT2 | 0.213 *** | 0.143 | ||||
FCRT3 | 0.116 * | 0.085 | ||||
FCRT4 | 0.163 ** | 0.171 ** | ||||
Mother-Child Relation Types (MCRT5) | ||||||
MCRT1 | 0.183 ** | 0.133 | ||||
MCRT2 | 0.097 | 0.037 | ||||
MCRT3 | 0.066 | 0.034 | ||||
MCRT4 | −0.004 | −0.018 | ||||
Combinations of Parent-child Relation Type (FCRT5-MCRT5) | ||||||
FCRT1-MCRT1 | 0.127 * | |||||
FCRT1-MCRT2 | 0.084 | |||||
FCRT2-MCRT1 | 0.203 ** | |||||
FCRT3-MCRT3 | 0.039 | |||||
FCRT2-MCRT2 | 0.082 | |||||
FCRT5-MCRT4 | −0.039 | |||||
R2 | 0.237 | 0.282 | 0.311 | 0.298 | 0.321 | 0.348 |
Adj. R2 | 0.215 | 0.224 | 0.244 | 0.229 | 0.244 | 0.254 |
F | 11.044 *** | 4.827 *** | 4.600 *** | 4.322 *** | 4.168 *** | 3.691 *** |
n | 512 | 332 | 324 | 324 | 324 | 245 |
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Liu, H.; Liu, L.; Jin, X. The Impact of Parental Remote Migration and Parent-Child Relation Types on the Psychological Resilience of Rural Left-Behind Children in China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 5388. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17155388
Liu H, Liu L, Jin X. The Impact of Parental Remote Migration and Parent-Child Relation Types on the Psychological Resilience of Rural Left-Behind Children in China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(15):5388. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17155388
Chicago/Turabian StyleLiu, Hongsheng, Lige Liu, and Xiaoyi Jin. 2020. "The Impact of Parental Remote Migration and Parent-Child Relation Types on the Psychological Resilience of Rural Left-Behind Children in China" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 15: 5388. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17155388