Comparative Study of Dietary Patterns by Living Arrangements: The Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) 2013–2015
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design
2.2. Data Source and Study Sample
2.3. Measurements
2.3.1. The Food Frequency Questionnaire
2.3.2. Study Variables
2.3.3. Data Procedures
2.4. Data Analysis
2.5. Ethical Considerations
3. Results
3.1. Characteristics of Participants by Living Arrangement
3.2. Identification of Dietary Patterns
3.3. Dietary Patterns and Characteristics of Participants by Living Arrangement
3.4. Factors Associated with Dietary Patterns depending on Living Arrangement
4. Discussion
4.1. Practical Implications
4.2. Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variables | Categories | Total (n = 6719) | Living with Others (n = 6318) | Living Alone (n = 401) | χ2 | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
100.0% | 93.8% | 6.2% | ||||
Age | 19–34 years | 34.6 | 34.0 | 43.2 | 210.67 | 0.001 |
35–49 years | 36.0 | 37.0 | 22.2 | |||
50–64 years | 29.4 | 29.0 | 34.6 | |||
Sex | Men | 50.2 | 49.5 | 61.6 | 130.55 | 0.001 |
Women | 49.8 | 50.5 | 38.4 | |||
Marital status | Single | 27.5 | 25.1 | 63.1 | 4114.93 | <0.001 |
Married | 66.8 | 70.4 | 10.9 | |||
Separated, widowed, or divorced | 5.7 | 4.5 | 26.0 | |||
Economic status | Lowest | 8.4 | 7.5 | 22.0 | 671.70 | <0.001 |
Lower-middle or upper-middle | 56.3 | 56.3 | 56.0 | |||
Highest | 35.3 | 36.2 | 22.0 | |||
Education | Elementary school or less | 6.9 | 6.3 | 14.2 | 208.98 | <0.001 |
Middle and high school | 48.7 | 49.0 | 44.9 | |||
Some college or higher | 44.4 | 44.7 | 40.9 | |||
Smoking | Past smokers or non-smokers | 76.6 | 77.4 | 64.3 | 213.52 | <0.001 |
Current smokers | 23.4 | 22.6 | 35.7 | |||
Drinking | Non-alcohol drinking | 38.0 | 38.4 | 31.1 | 49.76 | 0.008 |
Alcohol drinking | 62.0 | 61.6 | 68.9 | |||
Exercise | Less than one day a week or never | 77.6 | 77.7 | 76.2 | 2.73 | 0.538 |
More than two days a week | 22.4 | 22.3 | 23.8 | |||
Weight control | Never tried to control the weight | 29.3 | 29.3 | 29.3 | 0.01 | 0.978 |
Effort | 70.7 | 70.7 | 70.7 | |||
Dining out | Less than once a month | 2.7 | 2.7 | 3.1 | 243.30 | <0.001 |
1–3 times a month | 13.8 | 13.8 | 12.9 | |||
1–6 times a week | 50.8 | 51.4 | 41.2 | |||
Once a day | 21.1 | 21.1 | 21.7 | |||
More than twice a day | 11.6 | 11.0 | 21.1 | |||
Eating breakfast | None a week | 17.1 | 16.0 | 34.1 | 531.40 | <0.001 |
1–2 times a week | 12.7 | 12.7 | 13.0 | |||
3–4 times a week | 15.1 | 15.4 | 11.0 | |||
5–7 times a week | 55.1 | 55.9 | 41.9 | |||
Sleep | 0–5 h a day | 12.7 | 12.5 | 16.0 | ||
6–8 h a day | 80.9 | 81.0 | 78.7 | 27.59 | 0.169 | |
9 h or more a day | 6.4 | 6.5 | 5.3 |
Food Groups | Factor 1 | Factor 2 | Factor 3 | Factor 4 |
---|---|---|---|---|
Substitute Meal | Traditional Korean Meal | Healthy Dessert | Unhealthy Dessert | |
Fast foods | 0.81 | −0.08 | −0.06 | 0.15 |
Meat | 0.70 | 0.33 | 0.01 | 0.07 |
Processed fish products | 0.70 | 0.15 | −0.01 | 0.11 |
Poultry | 0.67 | 0.23 | −0.01 | 0.03 |
Grains | 0.55 | 0.19 | 0.12 | 0.07 |
Noodles | 0.54 | 0.24 | 0.09 | 0.08 |
Bread | 0.49 | −0.11 | 0.45 | 0.23 |
Rice cakes | 0.47 | 0.03 | 0.45 | −0.03 |
Eggs | 0.43 | 0.29 | 0.22 | −0.05 |
Vegetables | 0.18 | 0.78 | 0.29 | 0.05 |
Beans | 0.09 | 0.71 | 0.19 | 0.00 |
Fish | 0.13 | 0.70 | 0.22 | 0.06 |
Soup | 0.31 | 0.64 | 0.11 | 0.07 |
Seaweeds | 0.10 | 0.61 | 0.19 | 0.06 |
Stew | 0.36 | 0.60 | −0.04 | 0.07 |
Hardy plants | −0.08 | 0.23 | 0.71 | −0.08 |
Fruits | 0.07 | 0.30 | 0.68 | −0.06 |
Healthy drinks | 0.27 | 0.14 | 0.54 | 0.08 |
Nuts | −0.14 | 0.34 | 0.52 | 0.02 |
Saturated fats | −0.08 | 0.07 | −0.07 | 0.87 |
Beverages | 0.17 | 0.14 | −0.07 | 0.75 |
Sugar-based desserts | 0.39 | −0.03 | 0.20 | 0.75 |
Total % of variance explained | 17.7% | 15.6% | 10.4% | 9.2% |
Dietary Types | Cluster 1 (22.0%) | Cluster 2 (35.6%) | Cluster 3 (42.4%) | F | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Substitute meal | −0.66 | 1.07 | −0.37 | 23,473.10 | <0.001 |
Traditional Korean meal | 0.41 | 0.31 | −0.52 | 4651.37 | <0.001 |
Healthy dessert | 0.84 | −0.13 | −0.47 | 8245.33 | <0.001 |
Unhealthy dessert | −0.45 | −0.13 | 0.41 | 3098.75 | <0.001 |
Living Arrangement | Living with Others (n = 6318) | Living Alone (n = 401) | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variables/Categories | Traditional Meal with Healthy Dessert (n = 1768) | Meal Only (n = 2018) | Unhealthy Dessert (n = 2532) | χ2 | p | Traditional Meal with Healthy Dessert (n = 107) | Meal Only (n = 87) | Unhealthy Dessert (n = 207) | χ2 | p |
Total Weighted % | 22.3% | 35.9% | 41.8% | 17.4% | 30.9% | 51.7% | ||||
Age | ||||||||||
19–34 years | 12.4 | 49.2 | 32.6 | 6306.88 | <0.001 | 4.5 | 73.3 | 38.1 | 650.73 | <0.001 |
35–49 years | 28.2 | 40.6 | 38.5 | 21.3 | 17.5 | 25.3 | ||||
50–64 years | 59.4 | 10.2 | 28.9 | 74.2 | 9.2 | 36.6 | ||||
Sex | ||||||||||
Men | 26.8 | 54.9 | 56.9 | 2133.62 | <0.001 | 37.3 | 64.9 | 67.8 | 128.06 | 0.002 |
Women | 73.2 | 45.1 | 43.1 | 62.7 | 35.1 | 32.2 | ||||
Marital status | ||||||||||
Single | 8.7 | 34.0 | 26.3 | 1887.21 | <0.001 | 19.4 | 89.6 | 61.9 | 576.85 | <0.001 |
Married | 85.4 | 64.0 | 67.9 | 25.1 | 5.1 | 9.6 | ||||
Separated, widowed, or divorced | 5.9 | 2.0 | 5.8 | 55.5 | 5.3 | 28.5 | ||||
Economic status | ||||||||||
Lowest | 7.6 | 5.0 | 9.8 | 503.95 | <0.001 | 24.0 | 12.0 | 27.3 | 72.33 | 0.073 |
Lower-middle or upper-middle | 51.5 | 55.3 | 59.6 | 53.8 | 60.4 | 54.2 | ||||
Highest | 40.9 | 39.7 | 30.6 | 22.2 | 27.6 | 18.5 | ||||
Education | ||||||||||
Elementary school or less | 11.1 | 1.2 | 8.3 | 1495.99 | <0.001 | 24.3 | 2.2 | 17.9 | 186.38 | <0.001 |
Middle and high school | 52.8 | 43.9 | 51.3 | 49.0 | 41.8 | 45.4 | ||||
Some college or higher | 36.1 | 54.9 | 40.4 | 26.7 | 56.0 | 36.7 | ||||
Smoking | ||||||||||
Past smokers or non-smokers | 91.8 | 76.2 | 70.8 | 1320.93 | <0.001 | 78.5 | 71.6 | 55.1 | 99.72 | 0.007 |
Current smokers | 8.2 | 23.8 | 29.2 | 21.5 | 28.4 | 44.9 | ||||
Drinking | ||||||||||
Non-alcohol drinking | 54.6 | 28.7 | 38.1 | 1388.85 | <0.001 | 42.8 | 18.6 | 34.7 | 88.12 | 0.002 |
Alcohol drinking | 45.4 | 71.3 | 61.9 | 57.2 | 81.4 | 65.3 | ||||
Exercise | ||||||||||
Less than one day a week or never | 76.6 | 75.6 | 80.1 | 86.07 | 0.004 | 81.8 | 68.6 | 78.9 | 35.15 | 0.102 |
More than two days a week | 23.4 | 24.4 | 19.9 | 18.2 | 31.4 | 21.1 | ||||
Weight control | ||||||||||
Never tried to control the weight | 23.6 | 28.7 | 33.0 | 223.95 | <0.001 | 23.1 | 30.2 | 30.8 | 9.34 | 0.550 |
Effort | 76.4 | 71.3 | 67.0 | 76.9 | 69.8 | 69.2 | ||||
Dining out | ||||||||||
Less than once a month | 4.6 | 0.3 | 3.7 | 2348.96 | <0.001 | 4.7 | 0.0 | 4.4 | 379.71 | <0.001 |
1–3 times a month | 23.7 | 5.6 | 15.6 | 33.7 | 0.7 | 13.3 | ||||
1–6 times a week | 51.5 | 54.5 | 48.8 | 45.3 | 41.3 | 39.7 | ||||
Once a day | 14.2 | 24.8 | 21.5 | 7.4 | 26.9 | 23.3 | ||||
More than twice a day | 6.0 | 14.8 | 10.4 | 8.9 | 31.1 | 19.3 | ||||
Eating breakfast | ||||||||||
None a week | 8.0 | 15.0 | 21.1 | 1896.77 | <0.001 | 9.9 | 39.9 | 38.7 | 301.99 | <0.001 |
1–2 times a week | 6.7 | 16.0 | 13.0 | 11.3 | 18.9 | 10.2 | ||||
3–4 times a week | 10.5 | 20.0 | 14.1 | 4.6 | 16.0 | 10.1 | ||||
5–7 times a week | 74.8 | 49.0 | 51.8 | 74.2 | 25.2 | 41.0 | ||||
Sleep | ||||||||||
0–5 h a day | 15.4 | 9.9 | 13.1 | 194.43 | <0.001 | 24.6 | 9.2 | 17.2 | 59.57 | 0.121 |
6–8 h a day | 79.4 | 84.0 | 79.4 | 72.1 | 86.5 | 76.2 | ||||
9 h or more a day | 5.2 | 6.1 | 7.5 | 3.3 | 4.3 | 6.6 |
Variables/Categories | Living with Others | Living Alone | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Meal Only Dietary Pattern | Unhealthy Dessert Dietary Pattern | Meal Only Dietary Pattern | Unhealthy Dessert Dietary Pattern | |||||
OR | 95% CI | OR | 95% CI | OR | 95% CI | OR | 95% CI | |
Sociodemographic characteristics | ||||||||
Age (ref. 19–34 years) | ||||||||
35–49 years | 0.42 *** | 0.30, 0.58 | 0.75 | 0.54, 1.03 | 0.10 ** | 0.02, 0.44 | 0.15 * | 0.03, 0.65 |
50–64 years | 0.06 *** | 0.04, 0.09 | 0.25 *** | 0.18, 0.35 | 0.04 ** | 0.01, 0.23 | 0.08 ** | 0.02, 0.42 |
Sex (ref. Women) | ||||||||
Men | 2.73 *** | 2.17, 3.42 | 3.47 *** | 2.80, 4.29 | 2.37 | 0.83, 6.79 | 2.45 | 0.99, 6.02 |
Marital status (ref. Single) | ||||||||
Married | 0.92 | 0.64, 1.32 | 0.67 * | 0.47, 0.96 | 0.27 | 0.06, 1.21 | 0.52 | 0.16, 1.62 |
Separated, widowed, or divorced | 0.72 | 0.42, 1.25 | 0.89 | 0.56, 1.41 | 0.23 * | 0.07, 0.77 | 0.56 | 0.21, 1.45 |
Economic status (ref. Lower-middle or upper-middle) | ||||||||
Lowest | 1.03 | 0.69, 1.53 | 1.19 | 0.85, 1.67 | 0.81 | 0.27, 2.43 | 1.83 | 0.88, 3.81 |
Highest | 0.81 * | 0.67, 0.98 | 0.68 *** | 0.57, 0.82 | 0.76 | 0.25, 2.27 | 0.61 | 0.23, 1.58 |
Education (ref. Middle and high school) | ||||||||
Elementary school or less | 0.65 * | 0.43, 0.98 | 1.73 *** | 1.32, 2.27 | 0.72 | 0.13, 4.08 | 1.75 | 0.72, 4.24 |
Some college or higher | 1.18 | 0.98, 1.43 | 0.95 | 0.79, 1.13 | 0.65 | 0.26, 1.64 | 0.74 | 0.34, 1.63 |
Lifestyle characteristics | ||||||||
Smoking (ref. Past smokers or non-smokers) | ||||||||
Current smokers | 1.53 ** | 1.12, 2.09 | 1.89 *** | 1.43, 2.49 | 0.79 | 0.23, 2.66 | 2.01 | 0.74, 5.44 |
Drinking (ref. Non-alcohol drinking) | ||||||||
Alcohol drinking | 1.74 *** | 1.45, 2.08 | 1.21 * | 1.03, 1.43 | 1.41 | 0.58, 3.42 | 0.79 | 0.41, 1.53 |
Exercise (ref. More than two days a week) | ||||||||
Less than one day a week or never | 1.38 ** | 1.12, 1.71 | 1.68 *** | 1.37, 2.05 | 0.59 | 0.22, 1.54 | 0.63 | 0.27, 1.45 |
Weight control (ref. Effort) | ||||||||
Never tried to control the weight | 1.21 * | 1.00, 1.47 | 1.27 ** | 1.06, 1.52 | 3.13 * | 1.14, 8.54 | 1.74 | 0.73, 4.18 |
Dining out (ref. More than twice a day) | ||||||||
Less than once a month | 0.10 *** | 0.04, 0.27 | 1.02 | 0.64, 1.61 | < 0.001 | 0.47 | 0.10, 2.32 | |
1–3 times a month | 0.29 *** | 0.19, 0.45 | 0.89 | 0.62, 1.28 | 0.02 *** | 0.00, 0.16 | 0.31 | 0.09, 1.08 |
1–6 times a week | 0.73 | 0.51, 1.05 | 0.93 | 0.67, 1.30 | 0.38 | 0.13, 1.13 | 0.40 | 0.15, 1.09 |
Once a day | 0.80 | 0.55, 1.15 | 0.99 | 0.68, 1.43 | 0.79 | 0.15, 4.26 | 1.13 | 0.23, 5.50 |
Eating breakfast (ref. 5–7 times a week) | ||||||||
None a week | 1.37 * | 1.01, 1.86 | 2.55 *** | 1.91, 3.41 | 3.77 ** | 1.39, 10.22 | 4.45 ** | 1.80, 11.02 |
1–2 times a week | 1.83 *** | 1.33, 2.51 | 1.95 *** | 1.43, 2.66 | 0.64 | 0.16, 2.60 | 0.48 | 0.12, 1.98 |
3–4 times a week | 1.62 ** | 1.22, 2.16 | 1.48 ** | 1.14, 1.92 | 6.95 ** | 1.74, 27.81 | 3.97 * | 1.24, 12.76 |
Sleep (ref. 0–5 h a day) | ||||||||
6–8 h a day | 1.45 ** | 1.11, 1.89 | 1.13 | 0.90, 1.43 | 3.63 * | 1.19, 11.12 | 1.51 | 0.69, 3.32 |
9 h or more a day | 1.21 | 0.80, 1.84 | 1.16 | 0.80, 1.69 | 0.76 | 0.05, 11.68 | 0.87 | 0.08, 9.10 |
Cox and Snell R2 | 0.29 | 0.43 | ||||||
Nagelkerke R2 | 0.33 | 0.50 |
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Kim, N.; Kim, G.-U.; Kim, H. Comparative Study of Dietary Patterns by Living Arrangements: The Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) 2013–2015. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 2371. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17072371
Kim N, Kim G-U, Kim H. Comparative Study of Dietary Patterns by Living Arrangements: The Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) 2013–2015. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(7):2371. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17072371
Chicago/Turabian StyleKim, Namhee, Go-Un Kim, and Heejung Kim. 2020. "Comparative Study of Dietary Patterns by Living Arrangements: The Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) 2013–2015" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 7: 2371. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17072371