Side Streams of Broccoli Leaves: A Climate Smart and Healthy Food Ingredient
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Plant Material
2.2. Water Content Determination and Milling
2.3. Analysis of Dietary Fibere
2.4. Analysis of Phenolic Compounds
2.4.1. Methanol Extraction
2.4.2. Hydrolysis
2.4.3. HPLC Analysis
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Dietary Fiber and Water Content in Broccoli Leaves
3.2. Phenolic Compounds in Broccoli Leaves
3.3. Relationship among Dietary Fiber and Phenolic Compounds in Broccoli Leaves
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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IDF | SDF | TDF | |
---|---|---|---|
[% of DW] | [% of DW] | [% of DW] | |
Field 1 (2017) | 30.6 b ± 4.2 | 1.9 a ± 0.4 | 32.6 a ± 4.4 |
Field 2 (2017) | 25.0 ab ± 0.7 | 1.8 a ± 0.3 | 26.8 a ± 0.5 |
Field 3 (2018) | 25.3 ab ± 1.5 | 2.0 a ± 0.1 | 27.3 a ± 1.6 |
Field 4 (2018) | 23.8 a ± 1.2 | 2.3 a ± 0.2 | 26.0 a ± 1.3 |
Klason lignin | Insol UA | Insol rha | Insol fuc | Insol ara | Insol xyl | Insol man | Insol gal | Insol glc | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Field 1 (2017) | 1.8 a ± 0.6 | 8.1 b ± 0.6 | 0.7 a ± 0.0 | 0.2 a ± 0.0 | 2.6 b ± 0.6 | 2.6 a ± 0.7 | 1.0 a ± 0.0 | 1.5 a ± 0.2 | 12.2 a ± 1.9 |
Field 2 (2017) | 1.7 a ± 0.5 | 7.5 ab ± 0.4 | 0.7 a ± 0.1 | 0.1 a ± 0.0 | 1.6 ab ± 0.1 | 1.7 a ± 0.2 | 0.9 a ± 0.0 | 1.2 a ± 0.1 | 9.6 a ± 0.2 |
Field 3 (2018) | 1.8 a ± 0.4 | 7.3 ab ± 0.4 | 0.7 a ± 0.0 | 0.2 a ± 0.0 | 1.1 a ± 0.1 | 2.1 a ± 0.5 | 0.9 a ± 0.1 | 1.3 a ± 0.1 | 1.0 a ± 0.8 |
Field 4 (2018) | 1.6 a ± 0.4 | 6.9 a ± 0.4 | 0.7 a ± 0.0 | 0.2 a ± 0.0 | 1.4 a ± 0.2 | 1.7 a ± 0.1 | 0.9 a ± 0.1 | 1.3 a ± 0.1 | 9.3 a ± 0.7 |
Fields, 2017 | 1.8 a ± 0.5 | 7.8 a ± 0.6 | 0.7 a ± 0.1 | 0.2 a ± 0.0 | 2.1 a ± 0.7 | 2.1 a ± 0.7 | 1.0 a ± 0.1 | 1.4 a ± 0.2 | 10.9 a ± 1.9 |
Fields, 2018 | 1.7 a ± 0.4 | 7.1 b ± 0.4 | 0.7 a ± 0.0 | 0.2 a ± 0.0 | 1.3 b ± 0.2 | 1.9 a ± 0.4 | 0.9 b ± 0.1 | 1.3 a ± 0.1 | 9.6 a ± 0.8 |
Sol UA | Sol rha | Sol fuc | Sol ara | Sol xyl | Sol man | Sol gal | Sol glc | ||
[10−2] | [10−2] | [10−1] | [10−2] | [10−1] | [10−1] | [10−1] | |||
Field 1 (2017) | 1.0 a ± 0.4 | 5.6 a ± 0.9 | 1.3 a ± 0.6 | 3.3 b ± 0.5 | 2.3 ab ± 0.1 | 1.1 ab ± 0.2 | 3.1 a ± 0.4 | 0.8 ab ± 0.1 | |
Field 2 (2017) | 1.1 a ± 0.2 | 4.1 a ± 0.7 | 1.1 a ± 0.6 | 2.3 a ± 0.4 | 1.6 a ± 0.1 | 1.0 a ± 0.2 | 2.5 a ± 0.5 | 0.7 a ± 0.1 | |
Field 3 (2018) | 1.1 a ± 0.1 | 5.3 a ± 1.2 | 3.1 a ± 0.8 | 2.2 a ± 0.3 | 3.2 b ± 0.4 | 1.4 ab ± 0.1 | 2.9 a ± 0.3 | 1.1 b ± 0.1 | |
Field 4 (2018) | 1.4 a ± 0.2 | 5.9 a ± 0.7 | 2.1 a ± 0.3 | 2.4 ab ± 0.2 | 3.2 b ± 0.4 | 1.4 b ± 0.1 | 2.8 a ± 0.1 | 1.1 b ± 0.3 | |
Fields, 2017 | 1.1 a ± 0.3 | 4.8 a ± 0.1 | 1.2 a ±0.1 | 2.8 a ± 0.5 | 1.9 a ± 0.9 | 1.0 a ± 0.2 | 2.8 a ± 0.4 | 0.8 a ± 0.1 | |
Fields, 2018 | 1.2 a ± 0.2 | 4.7 a ± 1.0 | 2.1 b ± 0.1 | 2.2 a ± 0.3 | 2.4 b ± 0.7 | 1.2 b ± 0.2 | 2.7 a ± 0.4 | 0.9 b ± 0.1 |
Conjugated Phenolics | Phenolic Acids (after Hydrolysis) | |
---|---|---|
[mg/g DW] | [mg/g DW] | |
Field 1, 2017 | 10.8 ab ± 1.8 | 4.4 a ± 1.7 |
Field 2, 2017 | 15.2 b ± 4.8 | 3.6 a ± 1.0 |
Field 3, 2018 | 6.3 a ± 1.1 | 5.3 a ± 1.2 |
Field 4, 2018 | 7.5 a ± 0.6 | 5.7 a ± 1.1 |
Group 1 | Group 2 | Phenolic Acid Derivatives | Flavonoids | Colour Legend | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Klason lignin | −0.41 | −0.05 | 0.04 | 0.02 | ||
Insol UA | −0.47 | −0.59 | 0.36 | 0.11 | ||
Insol rha | −0.18 | −0.11 | 0.01 | −0.18 | ||
Insol fuc | 0.14 | 0.25 | −0.43 | −0.61 | p−value | |
Insol ara | −0.42 | −0,65 | 0.44 | 0.16 | > 0.05 | |
Insol xyl | 0.08 | −0.13 | −0.04 | −0.21 | 0.05–0.01 | |
Insol man | −0.36 | −0.59 | 0.48 | 0.27 | 0.01–0.001 | |
Insol gal | −0.12 | −0.22 | 0.10 | −0.23 | <0.001 | |
Insol glc | −0.18 | −0.33 | 0.16 | −0.06 | ||
Sol UA | 0.54 | 0.33 | 0.09 | −0.14 | ||
Sol rha | 0.47 | 0.42 | −0.44 | −0,57 | ||
Sol fuc | 0.39 | 0.72 | −0.76 | −0.56 | ||
Sol ara | −0.29 | −0.46 | 0.23 | 0.00 | ||
Sol xyl | 0.69 | 0.83 | −0.72 | −0.88 | ||
Sol man | 0.56 | 0.71 | −0.73 | −0.56 | ||
Sol gal | −0.02 | 0.02 | −0.21 | −0.35 | ||
Sol glc | 0.74 | 0.84 | −0.72 | −0.66 |
Peak ID | Ret.time [min] | DAD [nm] | MS Scan(−) | MS Sim | Suggested Identification |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
A | 10.37 | 326, 299 | 353, 1138.8 | 353 | caffeoylquinic acid (chlorogenic acid) |
B | 13.06 | 341, 318 | 1157, 609 | K-3-O-(sinapoyl)-sophoroside-7-O-diglucoside | |
C | 13.29 | 346 | 771, 1159 | K-3-O-(sinapoyl)-sophoroside-7-O-glucoside | |
D | 13.66 | 333 | 1538 | isorhamnetin-3-O-(disinapoyl)-sophorotrioside-7-O-diglucoside | |
E | 14.03 | 327 | 963, 1125 | 963.4 | K-3-O-(methoxycaffeoyl)-sophoroside-7-O-diglucoside |
F | 14.267 | 333 | 269 | 933 | Unidentified phenolic compound |
G | 14.35 | 334 | 933, 1097 | 933.4 | K-3-O-caffeoyl-sophoroside-7-O-diglucoside |
H | 14.56 | 340 | 993 | Q-3-O-(sinapoyl)-sophoroside-7-O-glucoside | |
I | 14.74 | 333 | 963 | 963.4 | K-3-O-hydroxyferuloyl-sophoroside-7-O-glucoside |
J | 14.88 | 330 | 1139, 1175 | 933.4 | K-3-O-caffeoyl-sophoroside-7-O-glucoside |
K | 15.05 | 332 | 1139 | K-3-O-sinapoyl-sophorotrioside-7glucoside | |
L | 15.23 | 336 | 977 | 977.5 | K-3-O(sinapoyl)-sophoroside-7glucoside |
M | 15.35 | 339 | 1109 | 1109.5 | K-3-O(feruloyl)sophoroside-7-O-diglucoside |
N | 15.60 | 332 | 947 | 947.5 | K-3-O(feruloyl)sophoroside-7-O-glucoside |
O | 15.70 | 269, 341 | 428.2, 195, 425 | Unidentified phenolic compound | |
P | 20.62 | 330 | 731, 975, 1123, 1367 | Unidentified phenolic compound | |
Q | 20.97 | 332 | 771, 1507 | K-3-O(disinapoyl)sophorotrioside-7-O-diglucoside | |
R | 20.26 | Unidentified phenolic compound | |||
S | 21.33 | 331 | 1538 | isorhamnetin-3-O-(disinapoyl)-sophorotrioside-7-O-diglucoside | |
T | 21.62 | 329 | 1316 | Q-3-O(disinapoyl)sophorotrioside7-O-diglucoside | |
U | 22.71 | 330 | 753 | 1402 | disinapoyl-diglucoside |
V | 23.07 | 327 | 723 | sinapoyl-feruloyl- diglucoside | |
W | 23.33 | 326 | 693 | diferuloyl-diglucoside | |
X | 24.16 | 324 | 959 | trisinapoyl-diglucoside | |
Y | 24.48 | 325 | 617, 653, 1236 | phenolic acid derivate |
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Berndtsson, E.; Andersson, R.; Johansson, E.; Olsson, M.E. Side Streams of Broccoli Leaves: A Climate Smart and Healthy Food Ingredient. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 2406. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17072406
Berndtsson E, Andersson R, Johansson E, Olsson ME. Side Streams of Broccoli Leaves: A Climate Smart and Healthy Food Ingredient. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(7):2406. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17072406
Chicago/Turabian StyleBerndtsson, Emilia, Roger Andersson, Eva Johansson, and Marie E. Olsson. 2020. "Side Streams of Broccoli Leaves: A Climate Smart and Healthy Food Ingredient" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 7: 2406. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17072406