COVID-19-Related Financial Hardship, Job Loss, and Mental Health Symptoms: Findings from a Cross-Sectional Study in a Rural Agrarian Community in India
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Data and Sample
2.2. Measures
2.2.1. Mental Health Symptoms during the COVID-19 Pandemic
2.2.2. Financial Hardship
2.2.3. Job Loss
2.2.4. Social Support
2.2.5. Government Monetary Support
2.2.6. Government Resource Support
2.2.7. Household SARS-CoV-2 Infection
2.2.8. SC/ST/OBC
2.2.9. Poverty
2.3. Analysis
2.4. Ethical Approval
3. Results
3.1. Descriptive Analysis
3.1.1. Sample
3.1.2. Mental Health Symptoms during the COVID-19 Pandemic
3.2. Multivariate Analysis
4. Discussion
Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variable | Women (n = 1021) | Men (n = 1020) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n or Mean | % or SD | p * | n or Mean | % or SD | p * | |
Mental health symptoms | 4.05 | 2.84 | 2.82 | 2.3 | ||
Financial hardship | 572 | 56.02% | 0.00 | 620 | 60.78% | 0.53 |
Work for pay prior to COVID-19 pandemic | 350 | 34.28% | 317 | 31.08% | ||
Job loss | 75 | 21.43% | 0.00 | 164 | 51.74% | 0.00 |
Age | 23.96 | 2.97 | 0.72 | 29.60 | 3.69 | 0.74 |
Attended school | 1009 | 98.82% | 0.03 | 1017 | 99.71% | 0.02 |
Education | ||||||
No education/primary | 126 | 12.40% | 0.01 | 134 | 13.20% | 0.07 |
Secondary | 296 | 28.99% | 310 | 30.50% | ||
Higher secondary | 275 | 26.93% | 270 | 26.49% | ||
Post-secondary or higher | 324 | 31.73% | 306 | 29.81% | ||
Number of children | 1.45 | 0.71 | 0.02 | 1.45 | 0.71 | 0.03 |
Caste | ||||||
None/other | 718 | 70.31% | 0.00 | 710 | 69.61% | 0.01 |
SC/ST | 303 | 29.69% | 310 | 30.39% | ||
Income (INR) | 18,003.38 | 20,834.67 | 0.95 | 26,054 | 55,037.59 | 0.48 |
Poverty | 245 | 24.00% | 0.00 | 245 | 24.02% | 0.20 |
Household member tested SARS-CoV-2 positive | 109 | 10.64% | 0.00 | 109 | 10.69% | 0.00 |
Treatment assignment for original trial | ||||||
Control | 515 | 50.59% | 0.70 | 515 | 50.49% | 0.37 |
Intervention | 506 | 49.41% | 505 | 49.51% | ||
Access to health services | ||||||
No need | 691 | 67.77% | 0.00 | 676 | 66.27% | 0.00 |
Yes, had access | 302 | 29.49% | 341 | 33.33% | ||
Yes, unable to access | 28 | 2.73% | 3 | 0.29% | ||
Government monetary support | 114 | 11.13% | 0.50 | 114 | 11.14% | 0.07 |
Government resource support | 900 | 88.18% | 0.01 | 899 | 88.14% | 0.22 |
Social support | 18.85 | 4.82 | 0.00 | 16.31 | 5.99 | 0.55 |
No. | Item | Never | Only during the COVID-19 Pandemic | Only before the COVID-19 Pandemic | Both before and during the COVID-19 Pandemic | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
% Women | % Men | % Women | % Men | % Women | % Men | % Women | % Men | ||
1 | Have you ever in your life had an attack of fear or panic when all of a sudden you felt very frightened, anxious, or uneasy? | 23.21 | 33.82 | 72.67 | 65.78 | 2.06 | 0.29 | 2.06 | 0.1 |
2 | Have you ever in your life had a period of time lasting several days or longer when most of the day you felt sad, empty, or depressed? | 31.44 | 45.29 | 64.74 | 54.12 | 1.47 | 0.39 | 2.35 | 0.2 |
3 | Have you ever had a period of time lasting several days or longer when most of the day you were very discouraged about how things were going in your life? | 49.36 | 56.37 | 47.6 | 43.24 | 1.96 | 0.2 | 1.08 | 0.2 |
4 | Have you ever had a period of time lasting several days or longer when you lost interest in most things you usually enjoy? | 60.82 | 68.43 | 38 | 31.27 | 0.78 | 0.29 | 0.39 | 0 |
5 | Have you ever had a period of time lasting four days or longer when most of the time you were very irritable, grumpy, or in a bad mood? | 51.91 | 80.29 | 41.63 | 19.51 | 3.62 | 0.1 | 2.84 | 0.1 |
6 | Have you ever had a period of time lasting four days or longer when most of the time you were so irritable that you either started arguments, shouted at people, or hit people? | 82.17 | 93.53 | 16.45 | 5.78 | 0.69 | 0.69 | 0.69 | 0 |
7 | Did you ever have a time in your life when you were a “worrier,” that is, when you worried a lot more about things than other people with the same problems as you? | 55.14 | 69.51 | 43.1 | 29.9 | 0.88 | 0.49 | 0.88 | 0.1 |
8 | Did you ever have a time in your life when you were much more nervous or anxious than most other people with the same problems as you? | 67.29 | 78.73 | 30.36 | 20.88 | 1.57 | 0.2 | 0.78 | 0.2 |
9 | Did you ever have a period lasting one month or longer when you were anxious and worried most days? | 47.11 | 87.55 | 50.44 | 12.35 | 0.78 | 0.1 | 1.67 | 0 |
Variable | Model 1 | Model 2 |
---|---|---|
Women (n = 1021) | Women (n = 1020) | |
aIRR | aIRR | |
Financial hardship | 1.29 *** | 0.99 |
(1.21–1.39) | (0.91–1.09) | |
Household SARS-CoV-2 infection status | 1.35 *** | 1.36 *** |
(1.23–1.48) | (1.21–1.52) | |
Age | 1.00 | 1.00 |
(0.99–1.01) | (0.99–1.01) | |
SC/ST/OBC | 1.08 * | 1.12 * |
(1.01–1.16) | (1.03–1.22) | |
Number of children | 1.04 | 0.92 ** |
(0.99–1.10) | (0.87–0.98) | |
Education (reference category: primary or no education) | ||
Secondary | 0.98 | 0.98 |
(0.89–1.09) | (0.86–1.10) | |
Higher secondary | 0.94 | 0.88 |
(0.85–1.05) | (0.77–1.00) | |
Post-secondary or higher | 0.95 | 0.85 * |
(0.85–1.06) | (0.75–0.97) | |
Poverty status | 1.10 * | 1.03 |
(1.02–1.18) | (0.94–1.13) | |
Treatment group | 1.26 | 1.21 |
(0.71–2.24) | (0.78–1.89) | |
Access to health services (reference category: no services needed) | ||
Accessed health services | 1.18 *** | 1.33 *** |
(1.10–1.26) | (1.21–1.45) | |
Unable to access health services | 1.21 | 1.72 |
(1.00–1.46) | (0.99–3.00) | |
Government monetary support | 0.98 | 1.13 |
(0.88–1.08) | (0.98–1.30) | |
Government resource support | 0.92 | 0.96 |
(0.84–1.01) | (0.84–1.11) | |
Social support | 0.98 *** | 1.00 |
(0.97–0.99) | (0.99–1.02) | |
Number of groups | 20 | 20 |
Variable | Model 1 | Model 2 |
---|---|---|
Women (n = 350) | Men (n = 317) | |
aIRR | aIRR | |
Job/wage loss | 1.19 | 1.16 * |
(0.94–1.50) | (1.01–1.34) | |
Financial hardship | 1.30 *** | 1.07 |
(1.15–1.47) | (0.92–1.25) | |
Household SARS-CoV-2 infection status | 1.58 *** | 1.17 |
(1.33–1.87) | (0.95–1.44) | |
Age | 1.00 | 1.01 |
(0.98–1.02) | (0.99–1.03) | |
SC/ST/OBC | 1.04 | 0.98 |
(0.90–1.20) | (0.85–1.14) | |
Number of children | 1.12 ** | 0.95 |
(1.03–1.21) | (0.86–1.05) | |
Education (reference category: primary or no education) | ||
Secondary | 0.95 | 1.01 |
(0.81–1.12) | (0.83–1.24) | |
Higher secondary | 0.93 | 0.86 |
(0.78–1.12) | (0.69–1.08) | |
Post-secondary or higher | 0.85 | 0.89 |
(0.70–1.02) | (0.72–1.11) | |
Poverty status | 1.11 | 1.00 |
(0.98–1.24) | (0.86–1.17) | |
Treatment group | 1.21 | 1.08 |
(0.73–2.00) | (0.74–1.56) | |
Access to health services (reference category: no services needed) | ||
Accessed health services | 1.31 *** | 1.42 *** |
(1.14–1.50) | (1.22–1.67) | |
Unable to access health services | 1.09 | 1.63 |
(0.76–1.56) | (0.62–4.25) | |
Government monetary support | 0.88 | 1.05 |
(0.76–1.03) | (0.79–1.40) | |
Government resource support | 0.76 ** | 0.80 |
(0.61–0.93) | (0.61–1.05) | |
Social support | 0.99 | 1.00 |
(0.98–1.00) | (0.98–1.02) | |
Number of groups | 20 | 20 |
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Chatterji, S.; McDougal, L.; Johns, N.; Ghule, M.; Rao, N.; Raj, A. COVID-19-Related Financial Hardship, Job Loss, and Mental Health Symptoms: Findings from a Cross-Sectional Study in a Rural Agrarian Community in India. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 8647. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168647
Chatterji S, McDougal L, Johns N, Ghule M, Rao N, Raj A. COVID-19-Related Financial Hardship, Job Loss, and Mental Health Symptoms: Findings from a Cross-Sectional Study in a Rural Agrarian Community in India. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(16):8647. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168647
Chicago/Turabian StyleChatterji, Sangeeta, Lotus McDougal, Nicole Johns, Mohan Ghule, Namratha Rao, and Anita Raj. 2021. "COVID-19-Related Financial Hardship, Job Loss, and Mental Health Symptoms: Findings from a Cross-Sectional Study in a Rural Agrarian Community in India" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 16: 8647. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168647