Academic Performance and the Link with Depressive Symptoms among Rural Han and Minority Chinese Adolescents
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Ethical Approval
2.2. Sampling Selection
2.3. Data Collection
2.3.1. Depressive Symptoms
2.3.2. Academic Performance
2.3.3. Demographic Characteristics
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Descriptive Statistics
3.2. Prevalence of Depression among the Sample
3.3. Correlation between Academic Performance and Depressive Symptoms
3.4. Heterogeneous Analysis
3.4.1. Ethnicity
3.4.2. Gender, Boarding Student, and Only Child Status
3.4.3. Parental Migration Status
3.4.4. Parent Educational Attainment
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Variables/Groups | Whole Sample (N = 8392) | Han (N = 7029) | Tibetan (N = 302) | Yi (N = 979) | Han vs. Tibetan | Han vs. Yi | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Obs | Mean (SD) | Obs | Mean (SD) | Obs | Mean (SD) | Obs | Mean (SD) | Difference | p-Value | Difference | p-Value | |
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9) = (4) − (6) | (9) | (10) = (4) − (8) | (10) | |
Math score (SD) | 8392 | 0.01 | 7029 | 0.05 | 302 | −0.12 | 979 | −0.22 | 0.17 ** | 0.003 | 0.27 ** | <0.001 |
(0.99) | (0.98) | (0.98) | (0.99) | (0.06) | (0.03) |
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Variables/Groups | Whole Sample (N = 8392) | Han (N = 7029) | Tibetan (N = 302) | Yi (N = 979) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean/Percent | SD | Mean/Percent | SD | Mean/Percent | SD | Mean/Percent | SD | ||
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | ||
Student characteristics (Panel A) | |||||||||
(1) | Ethnicity (1 = Han) | 0.84 | 0.37 | - | - | - | - | - | - |
(2) | Female (1 = yes) | 0.51 | 0.50 | 0.50 | 0.50 | 0.52 | 0.50 | 0.54 | 0.50 |
(3) | Age (years) | 11.35 | 1.05 | 11.26 | 0.97 | 11.53 | 1.13 | 11.95 | 1.37 |
(4) | Only child (1 = yes) | 0.17 | 0.37 | 0.18 | 0.39 | 0.14 | 0.34 | 0.06 | 0.23 |
(5) | Boarding status (1 = yes) | 0.09 | 0.29 | 0.05 | 0.22 | 0.25 | 0.43 | 0.37 | 0.48 |
Household characteristics (Panel B) | |||||||||
(6) | Paternal migration (1 = yes) | 0.43 | 0.49 | 0.43 | 0.50 | 0.33 | 0.47 | 0.39 | 0.49 |
(7) | Maternal migration (1 = yes) | 0.22 | 0.42 | 0.23 | 0.42 | 0.22 | 0.41 | 0.18 | 0.39 |
(8) | Father completed high school or above (1 = yes) | 0.18 | 0.38 | 0.20 | 0.40 | 0.10 | 0.30 | 0.06 | 0.24 |
(9) | Mother completed high school or above (1 = yes) | 0.20 | 0.40 | 0.22 | 0.42 | 0.10 | 0.30 | 0.03 | 0.18 |
(10) | Asset index (PCA score) | 0.01 | 1.31 | 0.16 | 1.28 | −0.16 | 1.26 | −1.03 | 1.03 |
Variables/Groups | Whole Sample (N = 8392) | Han (N = 7029) | Tibetan (N = 302) | Yi (N = 979) | Han vs. Tibetan | Han vs. Yi | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Obs | Mean (SD) | Obs | Mean (SD) | Obs | Mean (SD) | Obs | Mean (SD) | Difference | p-Value | Difference | p-Value | ||
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9) = (4) − (6) | (9) | (10) = (4) − (8) | (10) | ||
(1) | Depression score | 8392 | 5.95 | 7029 | 5.88 | 302 | 5.96 | 979 | 6.46 | −0.08 | 0.749 | −0.56 ** | <0.001 |
(4.27) | (4.26) | (4.30) | (4.30) | (0.25) | (0.15) | ||||||||
(2) | Mild depressive symptoms (5 ≤ Depression score ≤ 9; 1 = yes) | 6804 | 0.48 | 5732 | 0.47 | 247 | 0.49 | 758 | 0.51 | −0.02 | 0.538 | −0.04 * | 0.040 |
(0.50) | (0.50) | (0.50) | (0.50) | (0.03) | (0.02) | ||||||||
(3) | Moderate depressive symptoms (10 ≤ Depression score ≤ 14; 1 = yes) | 4818 | 0.26 | 4064 | 0.26 | 170 | 0.26 | 541 | 0.32 | 0.00 | 1.000 | −0.06 ** | 0.003 |
(0.44) | (0.44) | (0.44) | (0.47) | (0.03) | (0.02) | ||||||||
(4) | Moderately severe depressive symptoms (15 ≤ Depression score ≤ 19; 1 = yes) | 3786 | 0.06 | 3219 | 0.06 | 132 | 0.05 | 403 | 0.09 | 0.01 | 0.638 | −0.03 * | 0.020 |
(0.25) | (0.24) | (0.22) | (0.28) | (0.02) | (0.01) | ||||||||
(5) | Severe depressive symptoms (Depression score ≥ 20; 1 = yes) | 3610 | 0.02 | 3070 | 0.02 | 128 | 0.02 | 380 | 0.03 | 0.00 | 1.000 | −0.01 | 0.180 |
(0.13) | (0.13) | (0.15) | (0.18) | (0.01) | (0.01) | ||||||||
(6) | Major depression (Depression score ≥ 10; 1 = Yes) | 8392 | 0.19 | 7029 | 0.19 | 302 | 0.18 | 979 | 0.22 | 0.01 | 0.660 | −0.03 * | 0.026 |
(0.39) | (0.39) | (0.39) | (0.42) | (0.02) | (0.01) |
Variables | Depression Score | Mild Depressive Symptoms | Moderate Depressive Symptoms | Moderately Severe Depressive Symptoms | Severe Depressive Symptoms | Major Depression | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | ||
(1) | Math score (SD) | −0.47 ** | −0.03 ** | −0.06 ** | −0.02 ** | −0.00 | −0.04 ** |
(0.05) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | ||
(2) | Ethnicity (1 = Han) | 0.08 | −0.03 | 0.01 | 0.02 | −0.02 * | 0.03 |
(0.16) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.01) | (0.02) | ||
(3) | Female (1 = yes) | −0.06 | 0.03 | 0.01 | −0.02 * | −0.01 * | −0.01 |
(0.12) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | ||
(4) | Age (years) | −0.05 | −0.01 | −0.02 ** | 0.01 ** | 0.01 | −0.00 |
(0.06) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.01) | ||
(5) | Only child (1 = yes) | −0.02 | 0.01 | −0.03 | −0.00 | 0.01 | −0.02 |
(0.12) | (0.02) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | ||
(6) | Boarding status (1 = yes) | 0.05 | 0.04 | 0.03 | −0.03 | 0.01 | −0.00 |
(0.20) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.02) | (0.01) | (0.02) | ||
(7) | Father completed high school or above (1 = yes) | 0.03 | 0.00 | −0.01 | 0.01 | −0.00 | −0.01 |
(0.15) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | ||
(8) | Mother completed high school or above (1 = yes) | 0.08 | 0.01 | 0.00 | −0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
(0.13) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | ||
(9) | Paternal migration (1 = yes) | 0.24 * | 0.04 ** | 0.04 ** | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 |
(0.10) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | ||
(10) | Maternal migration (1 = yes) | 0.43 ** | 0.02 | 0.04 * | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.03 * |
(0.11) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | ||
(11) | Richer household (1 = yes) | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
(0.04) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | ||
(12) | School fixed effects | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
(13) | Observations | 8392 | 6804 | 4818 | 3786 | 3610 | 8392 |
(14) | R-squared | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.08 | 0.06 | 0.05 | 0.04 |
Variables | Depression Score | Mild Depressive Symptoms | Moderate Depressive Symptoms | Moderately Severe Depressive Symptoms | Severe Depressive Symptoms | Major Depression | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | ||
Ethnicity | |||||||
(1) | Math score (SD) a | −0.38 ** | −0.03 * | −0.08 ** | −0.01 | 0.00 | −0.04 ** |
(0.09) | (0.01) | (0.02) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | ||
(2) | Ethnicity (1 = Han) | 0.06 | −0.03 | 0.02 | 0.02 | −0.02 | 0.03 |
(0.15) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.01) | (0.02) | ||
(3) | Ethnicity × Math score | −0.12 | 0.01 | 0.02 | −0.01 | −0.00 | 0.00 |
(0.12) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | ||
(4) | Ethnicity = (1) + (3) b | −0.49 ** | −0.03 ** | −0.06 ** | −0.02 ** | −0.00 | −0.04 ** |
(0.06) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.00) | (0.01) |
Variables | Depression Score | Mild Depressive Symptoms | Moderate Depressive Symptoms | Moderately Severe Depressive Symptoms | Severe Depressive Symptoms | Major Depression | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | ||
Gender (Panel A) | |||||||
(1) | Math score (SD) a | −0.43 ** | −0.03 ** | −0.05 ** | −0.02 ** | −0.00 | −0.03 ** |
(0.07) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.00) | (0.01) | ||
(2) | Female (1 = yes) | −0.08 | 0.00 | −0.01 | 0.00 | −0.00 | −0.01 |
(0.09) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | ||
(3) | Female × Math score | −0.06 | 0.03 | 0.01 | −0.02 * | −0.01 * | −0.01 |
(0.12) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | ||
(4) | Female = (1) + (3) b | −0.51 ** | −0.03 ** | −0.07 ** | −0.02 ** | 0.00 | −0.04 ** |
(0.07) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.00) | (0.01) | ||
Whether student is a boarding student (Panel B) | |||||||
(5) | Math score (SD) c | −0.49 ** | −0.03 ** | −0.06 ** | −0.02 ** | −0.00 | −0.04 ** |
(0.06) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | ||
(6) | Boarding status (1 = yes) | −0.02 | 0.04 | 0.03 | −0.03 | 0 | −0.00 |
(0.21) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.02) | (0.01) | (0.02) | ||
(7) | Boarding status × Math score | 0.30 * | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.02 * | 0.01 | 0.01 |
(0.12) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | ||
(8) | Boarding status = (5) + (7) d | −0.20 * | −0.02 | −0.06 * | 0.00 | 0.00 | −0.03 * |
(0.11) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | ||
Whether student is an only child (Panel C) | |||||||
(9) | Math score (SD) e | −0.47 ** | −0.03 ** | −0.06 ** | −0.02 ** | −0.00 | −0.04 ** |
(0.05) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | ||
(10) | Only child (1 = yes) | −0.02 | 0.01 | −0.03 | −0.00 | 0.01 | −0.02 |
−0.12 | (0.02) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | ||
(11) | Only child × Math score | 0.00 | −0.01 | −0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.01 |
(0.11) | (0.01) | (0.02) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | ||
(12) | Only child = (9) + (11) f | −0.47 ** | −0.04 ** | −0.06 ** | −0.01 | −0.00 | −0.03 * |
(0.11) | (0.01) | (0.02) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) |
Variables | Depression Score | Mild Depressive Symptoms | Moderate Depressive Symptoms | Moderately Severe Depressive Symptoms | Severe Depressive Symptoms | Major Depression | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | ||
Father migration status (Panel A) | |||||||
(1) | Math score (SD) a | −0.45 ** | −0.03 ** | −0.05 ** | −0.02 ** | −0.00 | −0.04 ** |
(0.06) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.00) | (0.00) | ||
(2) | Paternal migration (1 = yes) | 0.24 * | 0.04 ** | 0.04 ** | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.01 |
(0.10) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | ||
(3) | Paternal migration × Math score | −0.06 | −0.00 | −0.01 | −0.00 | −0.01 | −0.01 |
(0.09) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | ||
(4) | Paternal migration = (1) + (3) b | −0.51 ** | −0.03 ** | −0.07 ** | −0.02 ** | −0.01 | −0.04 ** |
(0.08) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.00) | (0.01) | ||
Mother migration status (Panel B) | |||||||
(5) | Math score (SD) c | −0.45 ** | −0.03 ** | −0.06 ** | −0.02 ** | −0.00 | −0.04 ** |
(0.05) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | ||
(6) | Maternal migration (1 = yes) | 0.43 ** | 0.02 | 0.04 * | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.03 * |
(0.11) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | ||
(7) | Maternal migration × Math score | −0.10 | 0.00 | −0.01 | −0.01 | 0.00 | −0.01 |
(0.11) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | ||
(8) | Maternal migration = (5) + (7) d | −0.55 ** | −0.03 * | −0.07 ** | −0.03 * | −0.00 | −0.04 ** |
(0.10) | (0.01) | (0.02) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) |
Variables | Depression Score | Mild Depressive Symptoms | Moderate Depressive Symptoms | Moderately Severe Depressive Symptoms | Severe Depressive Symptoms | Major Depression | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | ||
Father educational attainment (Panel A) | |||||||
(1) | Math score (SD) a | −0.48 ** | −0.03 ** | −0.06 ** | −0.02 ** | −0.00 | −0.04 ** |
(0.05) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | ||
(2) | Father completed high school or above (1 = yes) | 0.03 | −0.00 | −0.02 | 0.02 | −0.00 | −0.01 |
(0.16) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | ||
(3) | Father education × Math score | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.039 | −0.01 | −0.01 | 0.01 |
(0.15) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.01) | (0.01) | ||
(4) | Father education = (1) + (3) b | −0.44 ** | −0.02 | −0.03 * | −0.03 * | −0.01 | −0.03 ** |
(0.14) | (0.02) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | ||
Mother educational attainment (Panel B) | |||||||
(5) | Math score (SD) c | −0.44 ** | −0.03 ** | −0.06 ** | −0.01 * | −0.00 | −0.04 ** |
(0.05) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | ||
(6) | Mother completed high school or above (1 = yes) | 0.10 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
(0.13) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | ||
(7) | Mother education × Math score | −0.19 | −0.01 | −0.01 | −0.04 * | −0.00 | −0.01 |
(0.12) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.01) | (0.01) | ||
(8) | Mother education = (5) + (7) d | −0.63 ** | −0.04 * | −0.06 ** | −0.05 ** | −0.01 | −0.05 ** |
(0.12) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) |
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Feng, T.; Jia, X.; Pappas, L.; Zheng, X.; Shao, T.; Sun, L.; Weisberg, C.; Li, M.L.; Rozelle, S.; Ma, Y. Academic Performance and the Link with Depressive Symptoms among Rural Han and Minority Chinese Adolescents. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 6026. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19106026
Feng T, Jia X, Pappas L, Zheng X, Shao T, Sun L, Weisberg C, Li ML, Rozelle S, Ma Y. Academic Performance and the Link with Depressive Symptoms among Rural Han and Minority Chinese Adolescents. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(10):6026. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19106026
Chicago/Turabian StyleFeng, Tianli, Xiyuan Jia, Lucy Pappas, Xiaojun Zheng, Teresa Shao, Letao Sun, Charlie Weisberg, Madeline Lu Li, Scott Rozelle, and Yue Ma. 2022. "Academic Performance and the Link with Depressive Symptoms among Rural Han and Minority Chinese Adolescents" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 10: 6026. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19106026