The Peer Effect on Dietary and Nutritional Cognition among Primary School Students
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
Variables | Definition | Mean | Min | Max | SD | Obs |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Score of dietary and nutritional cognition | student’s cognition of diet and nutrition | 2.52 | 0 | 7 | 1.504 | 11,384 |
Gender dummy | Dummy; 1 = boy; 0 = girl | 0.53 | 0 | 1 | 0.499 | 11,384 |
Age | Age measured by year | 11.26 | 9 | 16 | 0.838 | 11,384 |
Score of unhealthy eating behavior | Types of unhealthy food consumed in the past 24 h | 2.76 | 0 | 4 | 1.518 | 11,384 |
Standardized height-for-age z-score | Standardized height-for-age z-score | 0.32 | −7.55 | 4.74 | 1.199 | 11,384 |
Score of peer’s dietary and nutritional cognition | peer’s cognition of diet and nutrition | 2.22 | 0 | 7 | 1.66 | 11,384 |
Score of peer parents’ dietary and nutritional cognition | peer parents’ cognition of diet and nutrition | 1.15 | 0 | 7 | 1.834 | 11,384 |
Peer father’s education | Educational years of peer’s father | 9.4 | 0 | 16 | 2.7 | 11,384 |
Peer mother’s education | Educational years of peer’s mother | 8.75 | 0 | 16 | 3.196 | 11,384 |
Peer parental average education | Average educational years of peer’s parents | 9.07 | 0 | 16 | 2.566 | 11,384 |
Score of parents’ dietary and nutritional cognition | parents’ cognition of diet and nutrition | 1.33 | 0 | 7 | 1.905 | 11,384 |
Father’s education | Educational years of father | 9.32 | 0 | 16 | 2.982 | 11,384 |
Mother’s education | Educational years of mother | 8.67 | 0 | 16 | 3.559 | 11,384 |
Father’s age | Age of father | 38.91 | 29 | 55 | 4.933 | 11,384 |
Mother’s age | Age of mother | 37.16 | 29 | 55 | 4.791 | 11,384 |
Household assets (a index of durable consumer goods used the principal component analysis method [32]) | Household durable asset index | 0.02 | −3.17 | 0.67 | 0.43 | 11,384 |
3. Results
3.1. Empirical Model
3.1.1. Theoretical Basis
3.1.2. Econometric Model
- The relationship between peers’ and students’ dietary and nutritional cognition.
- 2.
- The effects of peers’ dietary and nutritional cognition on students’ dietary and nutritional cognition.
- In China, generally, there is only one central primary school in a township or district. For rural and migrant children, the educational administrative system, which is related to the household registration system, guides students to choose schools nearby [37]. Most students will choose the Central Primary School in their township or district to enroll nearby. Otherwise, they need to pay an expensive school-selection fee to go to schools from other townships or districts. However, it is rare for rural and migrant children to pay the fees for choosing a school. Thus, there was no self-selection problem in school choice. In addition, few students indicated diet as the reason for choosing their best friend in the questionnaire. In this study, we designed a question “why choose him/her as your best friend?” We found that when choosing the best friend, 45.38% of the students only considered the friend’s character, 12.71% of the students only considered the friend’s study, 6.04% of the students only considered the friend’s sports ability, 3.02% of the students only considered the friend’s appearance, 11.27% of the students considered the friend’s character, study, sports and appearance at the same time and 21.58% of the students considered other reasons. We then asked, “what other reasons specifically mean”. In the students’ answers, none of the students chose their best friend because of diet. Therefore, there was no self-selection problem in friend choice.
- To address the simultaneity bias, this study used the nutritional cognitive score of peers’ parents as an instrumental variable using the following model:
- 3.
- Effects of Peers’ Dietary and Nutritional Cognition on Dietary Behavior and Physical Attributes.
3.2. Empirical Results
3.2.1. Relationship between Peers’ and Students’ Dietary and Nutritional Cognition
3.2.2. Endogenous Analysis
3.2.3. Robustness Check
3.2.4. Heterogeneity Analysis
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Question | Options |
---|---|
1. Which of the following states do you consider to be healthy? (Single topic selection) | 1. someone’s health was nothing wrong 2. someone has good physical performance 3. someone has strong physical strength 4. A person is not only free of disease, but also has good psychological and social adaptability 5. other |
2. What is the best food source of vitamins and minerals? (Single topic selection) | 1. legumes, dairy 2. grains 3. fresh vegetables and fruits 4. meat, eggs 5. unknown |
3. What is the foods with the highest protein content? (Single topic selection) | 1. Dairy 2. grains 3. vegetables and fruits 4. meat and eggs 5. do not know |
4. Which of the following foods are the best sources of calcium? (Single topic selection) | 1. beans, milk 2. grains 3. vegetables and fruits 4. meat, eggs 5. do not know |
5. Which do you think will help growing taller? (Can choose more) | 1. Drink more milk 2. increase exercise time 3. proper exposure to the sun 4. eat more carrots 5. do not know |
6. How to prevent iron deficiency anemia through diet? (Single topic selection) | 1. eat meat and fresh vegetables and fruits 2. drink more milk 3. eat bland food 4. do not know |
7. What disease does salty food often cause easily? (Single topic selection) | 1. Diabetes 2. hypertension 3. gastritis 4. do not know |
References
- World Health Organization. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2019: Safeguarding against Economic Slowdowns and Downturns; Food & Agriculture Organization: Rome, Italy, 2019; Volume 2019, ISBN 92-5-131570-1. [Google Scholar]
- Ctm, V.R.; Ejm, B.R.; Fbc, V.; Beukers, M.; Ham, B.; de Boer, E.J. The Diet of the Dutch. Results of the First Two Years of the Dutch National Food Consumption Survey 2012–2016; The Netherlands National Institute for Public Health and the Environment: Utrecht, The Netherlands, 2016.
- Public Health England. National Diet and Nutrition Survey Results from Years 7 and 8 (Combined) of the Rolling Programme (2014/2015 to 2015/2016); Public Health England and the Food Standards Agency: London, UK, 2018.
- Irish Universities Nutrition Alliance. National Children’s Food Survey II Main Report. 2019. Available online: https://www.iuna.net/surveyreports (accessed on 1 June 2022).
- Wu, Y.; Wang, D.; Zhang, X.; Li, K.; Zhang, Y.; Cao, R. Dietary Behavior of Primary School Children in Haidian District of Beijing and Its Relationship with Family Environment. Chin. J. Sch. Health 2020, 41, 55–57, 61. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- Powell, L.M.; Nguyen, B.T. Fast-Food and Full-Service Restaurant Consumption Among Children and Adolescents: Effect on Energy, Beverage, and Nutrient Intake. JAMA Pediatr. 2013, 167, 14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Robinson, S.M.; Godfrey, K.M. Feeding Practices in Pregnancy and Infancy: Relationship with the Development of Overweight and Obesity in Childhood. Int. J. Obes. 2008, 32, S4–S10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Abdulai, A.; Aubert, D. A Cross-section Analysis of Household Demand for Food and Nutrients in Tanzania. Agric. Econ. 2004, 31, 67–79. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alderman, H. The Response of Child Nutrition to Changes in Income: Linking Biology with Economics. CESifo Econ. Stud. 2012, 58, 256–273. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dasgupta, P.; Ray, D. Inequality as a Determinant of Malnutrition and Unemployment: Theory. Econ. J. 1986, 96, 1011–1034. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Keeley, B.; Little, C.; Zuehlke, E. The State of the World’s Children 2019: Children, Food and Nutrition—Growing Well in a Changing World; UNICEF: New York, NY, USA, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Almond, D.; Currie, J. Killing Me Softly: The Fetal Origins Hypothesis. J. Econ. Perspect. 2011, 25, 153–172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Currie, J.; Rossin-Slater, M. Weathering the Storm: Hurricanes and Birth Outcomes. J. Health Econ. 2013, 32, 487–503. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Li, Y. Comparison and Analysis of Nutrition Policies for Primary and Middle School Students at Home and Abroad. Master’s Thesis, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China, 2017. (In Chinese). [Google Scholar]
- Ofori-Asenso, R.; Agyeman, A.A.; Laar, A.; Boateng, D. Overweight and Obesity Epidemic in Ghana—a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. BMC Public Health 2016, 16, 1239. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Pirouznia, M. The Association between Nutrition Knowledge and Eating Behavior in Male and Female Adolescents in the US. Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr. 2001, 52, 127–132. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kandiah, J.; Jones, C. Nutrition Knowledge and Food Choices of Elementary School Children. Early Child. Dev. Care 2002, 172, 269–273. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ronto, R.; Ball, L.; Pendergast, D.; Harris, N.D. Food Literacy at Secondary Schools in Australia. J. Sch. Health 2016, 86, 823–831. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Vaitkeviciute, R.; Ball, L.E.; Harris, N. The Relationship between Food Literacy and Dietary Intake in Adolescents: A Systematic Review. Public Health Nutr. 2015, 18, 649–658. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Joulaei, H.; Keshani, P.; Kaveh, M.H. Nutrition Literacy as a Determinant for Diet Quality amongst Young Adolescents: A Cross Sectional Study. Prog. Nutr. 2018, 20, 455–464. [Google Scholar]
- Velardo, S.; Drummond, M. Qualitative Insight into Primary School Children’s Nutrition Literacy. Health Educ. 2019, 119, 98–114. Available online: https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/HE-08-2018-0039/full/html (accessed on 17 April 2022). [CrossRef]
- Hartup, W.W. Peer Interaction: What Causes What? J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 2005, 33, 387–394. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hartup, W.W.; Lougee, M.D. Peers as Models. Sch. Psychol. Rev. 1975, 4, 11–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Angelucci, M.; Prina, S.; Royer, H.; Samek, A. Incentives and Unintended Consequences: Spillover Effects in Food Choice. Am. Econ. J. Econ. Policy 2019, 11, 66–95. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- McGuigan, N.; Robertson, S. The Influence of Peers on the Tendency of 3-and 4-Year-Old Children to over-Imitate. J. Exp. Child. Psychol. 2015, 136, 42–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schunk, D.H. Peer Models and Children’s Behavioral Change. Rev. Educ. Res. 1987, 57, 149–174. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bruening, M.; Eisenberg, M.; MacLehose, R.; Nanney, M.S.; Story, M.; Neumark-Sztainer, D. Relationship between Adolescents’ and Their Friends’ Eating Behaviors: Breakfast, Fruit, Vegetable, Whole-Grain, and Dairy Intake. J. Acad. Nutr. Diet. 2012, 112, 1608–1613. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Zhang, M.; Xin, Z.; Lin, C. Measures of Cognitive Complexity and Its Development in Chinese Adolescents. J. Constr. Psychol. 2012, 25, 91–111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Krabbe, P.F.M. Item Response Theory. In The Measurement of Health and Health Status; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2017; pp. 171–195. [Google Scholar]
- Yaghi, M.A. Nutritional Knowledge, Attitude and Practices among Lebanese Adolescents in Different Educational Institution Settings. 2022. Available online: http://repository.bau.edu.lb:8080/xmlui/handle/1080/9679 (accessed on 17 April 2022).
- Romanos-Nanclares, A.; Zazpe, I.; Santiago, S.; Marín, L.; Rico-Campà, A.; Martín-Calvo, N. Influence of Parental Healthy-Eating Attitudes and Nutritional Knowledge on Nutritional Adequacy and Diet Quality among Preschoolers: The SENDO Project. Nutrients 2018, 10, 1875. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Filmer, D.; Pritchett, L.H. Estimating Wealth Effects without Expenditure Data—or Tears: An Application to Educational Enrollments in States of India. Demography 2001, 38, 115–132. [Google Scholar]
- Kelman, H.C. Compliance, Identification, and Internalization Three Processes of Attitude Change. J. Confl. Resolut. 1958, 2, 51–60. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Latané, B. The Psychology of Social Impact. Am. Psychol. 1981, 36, 343. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Asch, S.E. Opinions and Social Pressure. Sci. Am. 1955, 193, 31–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wooldridge, J.M. Introductory Econometrics: A Modern Approach; Cengage Learning: Boston, MA, USA, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Wei, J.; Hou, J. The Household Registration System, Education System, and Inequalities in Education for Migrant Children. Chin. Educ. Soc. 2010, 43, 77–89. [Google Scholar]
- Lord, F. Applications of Item Response Theory to Practical Testing Problems; Routledge: London, UK, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Zhao, Q.; Yu, X. Parental Nutrition Knowledge, Iron Deficiency, and Child Anaemia in Rural China. J. Dev. Stud. 2020, 56, 578–595. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zeng, J.; Pang, X.; Zhang, L.; Medina, A.; Rozelle, S. Gender Inequality in Education in China: A Meta-regression Analysis. Contemp. Econ. Policy 2014, 32, 474–491. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shen, X. The Choice of Preschool Education for Migrant Children: The Impact of Family Socio-Economic Background and Migration. Econ. Res. Guide 2017, 14, 58–59. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- Xu, H.; Xie, Y. The Causal Effects of Rural-to-Urban Migration on Children’s Well-Being in China. Eur. Sociol. Rev. 2015, 31, 502–519. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
Model (1) | Model (2) | Model (3) | |
---|---|---|---|
Standardized score of peer’s dietary and nutritional cognition | 0.065 *** | 0.059 *** | 0.049 *** |
(0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | |
Boy | −0.135 *** | −0.115 *** | |
(0.02) | (0.02) | ||
Age | −0.006 | 0.010 | |
(0.01) | (0.01) | ||
Standardized score of parents’ dietary nutrition cognition | 0.248 *** | ||
(0.01) | |||
Father’s education | 0.016 *** | ||
(0.00) | |||
Mother’s education | 0.009 *** | ||
(0.00) | |||
Father’s age | 0.003 | ||
(0.00) | |||
Mother’s age | 0.002 | ||
(0.00) | |||
Household assets | 0.028 | ||
(0.02) | |||
Constant | 0.274 ** | 0.413 ** | −0.056 |
(0.11) | (0.17) | (0.19) | |
School effects | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Observations | 11,384 | 11,384 | 11,384 |
R2 | 0.079 | 0.084 | 0.116 |
adjusted R2 | 0.07 | 0.07 | 0.11 |
Standardized Score of Student’s Dietary and Nutritional Cognition | |
---|---|
Standardized score of peer’s dietary and nutritional cognition | 0.084 ** |
(0.04) | |
Boy | −0.110 *** |
(0.02) | |
Age | 0.010 |
(0.01) | |
Standardized score of parents’ dietary nutrition cognition | 0.246 *** |
(0.01) | |
Father’s education | 0.015 *** |
(0.00) | |
Mother’s education | 0.009 *** |
(0.00) | |
Father’s age | 0.003 |
(0.00) | |
Mother’s age | 0.002 |
(0.00) | |
Household assets | 0.027 |
(0.02) | |
Constant | −0.036 |
(0.18) | |
School effects | Yes |
Observations | 11,384 |
R2 | 0.115 |
adjusted R2 | 0.11 |
Cragg-Donald Wald F statistic | 394.438 |
Sargan test statistic | 2.024 |
Sargan test p value | 0.155 |
OLS | IV | |
---|---|---|
IRT score of peer’s dietary and nutritional cognition | 0.043 *** | 0.079 ** |
(0.01) | (0.03) | |
Boy | −0.088 *** | −0.084 *** |
(0.01) | (0.01) | |
Age | 0.006 | 0.007 |
(0.01) | (0.01) | |
IRT score of parents’ dietary nutrition cognition | 0.219 *** | 0.216 *** |
(0.01) | (0.01) | |
Father’s education | 0.010 *** | 0.010 *** |
(0.00) | (0.00) | |
Mother’s education | 0.006 *** | 0.006 *** |
(0.00) | (0.00) | |
Father’s age | 0.002 | 0.001 |
(0.00) | (0.00) | |
Mother’s age | 0.002 | 0.002 |
(0.00) | (0.00) | |
Household assets | 0.019 | 0.019 |
(0.01) | (0.01) | |
Constant | 0.004 | 0.019 |
(0.13) | (0.12) | |
School effects | Yes | Yes |
Observations | 11,384 | 11,384 |
R2 | 0.113 | 0.112 |
adjusted R2 | 0.10 | 0.10 |
Cragg-Donald Wald F statistic | 423.793 | |
Sargan test statistic | 1.736 | |
Sargan test p value | 0.188 |
OLS | IV | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Mutual Friendship | Ego-Perceived Friendship | Mutual Friendship | Ego-Perceived Friendship | |
Standardized score of peer’s dietary and nutritional cognition | 0.068 *** | 0.029 ** | 0.107 | 0.080 * |
(0.02) | (0.01) | (0.08) | (0.05) | |
Boy | −0.105 *** | −0.104 *** | −0.101 *** | −0.099 *** |
(0.03) | (0.02) | (0.03) | (0.02) | |
Age | 0.001 | 0.011 | 0.000 | 0.011 |
(0.02) | (0.01) | (0.02) | (0.01) | |
Standardized score of parents’ dietary nutrition cognition | 0.261 *** | 0.236 *** | 0.259 *** | 0.233 *** |
(0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | |
Father’s education | 0.018 *** | 0.014 *** | 0.017 *** | 0.014 *** |
(0.01) | (0.00) | (0.01) | (0.00) | |
Mother’s education | 0.006 | 0.011 *** | 0.006 | 0.010 *** |
(0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | |
Father’s age | 0.004 | 0.002 | 0.004 | 0.002 |
(0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | |
Mother’s age | 0.000 | 0.004 | 0.000 | 0.004 |
(0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | |
Household assets | 0.064 ** | −0.004 | 0.064 ** | −0.005 |
(0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | |
Constant | −0.132 | −0.051 | −0.132 | −0.011 |
(0.31) | (0.24) | (0.29) | (0.23) | |
School effects | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Observations | 4783 | 6601 | 4783 | 6601 |
R2 | 0.135 | 0.119 | 0.133 | 0.117 |
adjusted R2 | 0.11 | 0.10 | 0.11 | 0.10 |
Cragg-Donald Wald F statistic | 90.947 | 282.140 | ||
Sargan test statistic | 1.705 | 0.541 | ||
Sargan test p value | 0.192 | 0.462 |
OLS | IV | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Girls | Boys | Girls | Boys | |
Standardized score of peer’s dietary and nutritional cognition | 0.077 *** | 0.011 | 0.097 * | 0.081 |
(0.01) | (0.01) | (0.05) | (0.05) | |
Age | 0.012 | 0.008 | 0.012 | 0.009 |
(0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | |
Standardized score of parents’ dietary nutrition cognition | 0.257 *** | 0.247 *** | 0.255 *** | 0.244 *** |
(0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | |
Father’s education | 0.020 *** | 0.012 ** | 0.020 *** | 0.012 ** |
(0.01) | (0.00) | (0.01) | (0.00) | |
Mother’s education | 0.008 * | 0.010 ** | 0.008 * | 0.010 ** |
(0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | |
Father’s age | 0.003 | 0.002 | 0.003 | 0.001 |
(0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | |
Mother’s age | 0.003 | 0.003 | 0.003 | 0.003 |
(0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | |
Household assets | 0.033 | 0.028 | 0.032 | 0.029 |
(0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | |
Constant | 0.047 | −0.226 | 0.063 | −0.184 |
(0.26) | (0.26) | (0.26) | (0.25) | |
School effects | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Observations | 5382 | 6002 | 5382 | 6002 |
R2 | 0.135 | 0.114 | 0.135 | 0.110 |
adjusted R2 | 0.11 | 0.10 | 0.11 | 0.09 |
Cragg-Donald Wald F statistic | 193.080 | 196.966 | ||
Sargan test statistic | 1.423 | 0.453 | ||
Sargan test p value | 0.233 | 0.501 |
OLS | IV | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
10 Years Old | 11 Years Old | 12 Years Old | 10 Years Old | 11 Years Old | 12 Years Old | |
Standardized score of peer’s dietary and nutritional cognition | 0.064 ** | 0.041 *** | 0.048 *** | 0.178 ** | 0.160 *** | 0.025 |
(0.03) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.09) | (0.06) | (0.07) | |
Boy | −0.130 *** | −0.099 *** | −0.130 *** | −0.118 *** | −0.080 *** | −0.133 *** |
(0.04) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.04) | (0.03) | (0.03) | |
Standardized score of parents’ dietary nutrition cognition | 0.215 *** | 0.248 *** | 0.282 *** | 0.210 *** | 0.241 *** | 0.283 *** |
(0.03) | (0.02) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.02) | (0.03) | |
Father’s education | 0.009 | 0.008 | 0.027 *** | 0.008 | 0.007 | 0.027 *** |
(0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | |
Mother’s education | 0.007 | 0.012 *** | 0.008 | 0.007 | 0.012 *** | 0.008 |
(0.01) | (0.00) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.00) | (0.01) | |
Father’s age | 0.003 | 0.002 | 0.000 | 0.004 | 0.002 | 0.001 |
(0.01) | (0.00) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.00) | (0.01) | |
Mother’s age | 0.003 | −0.001 | 0.008 * | 0.002 | −0.000 | 0.008 |
(0.01) | (0.00) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.00) | (0.01) | |
Household assets | 0.037 | 0.035 | 0.067 | 0.033 | 0.033 | 0.066 |
(0.05) | (0.03) | (0.04) | (0.05) | (0.03) | (0.04) | |
Constant | −0.090 | 0.212 | 0.048 | −0.052 | 0.270 | 0.015 |
(0.34) | (0.20) | (0.25) | (0.29) | (0.19) | (0.26) | |
School effects | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Observations | 1982 | 4971 | 3681 | 1982 | 4971 | 3681 |
R2 | 0.188 | 0.127 | 0.132 | 0.178 | 0.115 | 0.132 |
adjusted R2 | 0.13 | 0.10 | 0.10 | 0.12 | 0.09 | 0.10 |
Cragg-Donald Wald F statistic | 78.986 | 168.819 | 105.391 | |||
Sargan test statistic | 2.611 | 1.453 | 0.017 | |||
Sargan test p value | 0.106 | 0.228 | 0.895 |
OLS | IV | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Urban Migrant Children’s School | Rural Public-School | Urban Migrant Children’s School | Rural Public-School | |
Standardized score of peer’s dietary and nutritional cognition | 0.025 | 0.058 *** | 0.343 | 0.075 * |
(0.02) | (0.01) | (0.23) | (0.04) | |
Boy | −0.100 *** | −0.120 *** | −0.077 * | −0.117 *** |
(0.04) | (0.02) | (0.04) | (0.02) | |
Age | 0.019 | 0.007 | 0.039 | 0.007 |
(0.02) | (0.01) | (0.03) | (0.01) | |
Standardized score of parents’ dietary nutrition cognition | 0.000 | 0.247 *** | 0.000 | 0.246 *** |
(0.00) | (0.01) | (0.00) | (0.01) | |
Father’s education | 0.007 | 0.018 *** | 0.007 | 0.018 *** |
(0.01) | (0.00) | (0.01) | (0.00) | |
Mother’s education | 0.015 ** | 0.007 ** | 0.012 | 0.007 ** |
(0.01) | (0.00) | (0.01) | (0.00) | |
Father’s age | 0.009 | 0.001 | 0.005 | 0.001 |
(0.01) | (0.00) | (0.01) | (0.00) | |
Mother’s age | −0.005 | 0.005 | −0.003 | 0.005 |
(0.01) | (0.00) | (0.01) | (0.00) | |
Household assets | −0.011 | 0.067 ** | −0.021 | 0.067 ** |
(0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | |
Constant | −0.276 | −0.459 ** | −0.216 | −0.465 ** |
(0.34) | (0.20) | (0.35) | (0.21) | |
School effects | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Observations | 2788 | 8596 | 2788 | 8596 |
R2 | 0.053 | 0.135 | −0.041 | 0.135 |
adjusted R2 | 0.04 | 0.13 | −0.05 | 0.12 |
Cragg-Donald Wald Fstatistic | 21.342 | 405.893 | ||
Sargan test statistic | 0 | 0.884 | ||
Sargan test p value | 0.347 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Gao, L.; Li, R.; Zhao, P.; Zhang, Y. The Peer Effect on Dietary and Nutritional Cognition among Primary School Students. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 7727. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19137727
Gao L, Li R, Zhao P, Zhang Y. The Peer Effect on Dietary and Nutritional Cognition among Primary School Students. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(13):7727. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19137727
Chicago/Turabian StyleGao, Lei, Ruotong Li, Peiyan Zhao, and Ying Zhang. 2022. "The Peer Effect on Dietary and Nutritional Cognition among Primary School Students" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 13: 7727. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19137727