Maternal Aerobic Exercise, but Not Blood Docosahexaenoic Acid and Eicosapentaenoic Acid Concentrations, during Pregnancy Influence Infant Body Composition
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design
2.1.1. Participant Recruitment and Randomization
2.1.2. Participant Retention
2.2. Maternal Submaximal Treadmill Test
2.3. Exercise Intervention
2.3.1. Aerobic Exercise Group
2.3.2. Stretching and Breathing Comparison Group
2.3.3. Exercise Dose and Adherence
2.4. Maternal Blood Sample Collection and Analysis
2.5. Infant Body Composition Measures
2.6. Maternal Descriptors and Covariates
2.7. Statistical Analysis
Statistical Power Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Study Population
3.2. Maternal DHA and EPA Concentrations
3.3. Infant Body Composition Measures
3.4. Correlations and Regression Analysis
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
ACN | Acetonitrile |
ACOG | American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology |
ACSM | American College of Sports Medicine |
AHA | American Heart Association |
BF% | Body Fat Percentage |
CDC | Center for Disease Control |
DHA | Docosahexaenoic Acid |
EPA | Eicosapentaenoic Acid |
GA | Gestational Age |
GWG | Gestational Weight Gain |
H2O | Water |
HPLC | High Performance Liquid Chromatography |
HR | Heart Rate |
IPA | Isopropanol |
LC/MS/MS | Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry |
LOD | Limit of Detection |
LOQ | Limit of Quantification |
MeOH | Methanol |
MET | Metabolic Equivalent |
PT | Physical Therapy |
PUFA | Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid |
RBC | Red Blood Cell |
RPE | Rating of Perceived Exertion |
S/N | Signal-to-Noise ratio |
SPE | Solid Phase Extraction |
THR | Target Heart Rate |
VO2peak | Peak Volume of Oxygen Consumption |
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Intention-to-Treat | Per Protocol | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Control (n = 10) | Exercise (n = 25) | p-Values | Control (n = 10) | Exercise (n = 19) | p-Values | |
Maternal Measures | ||||||
Maternal Age (years) | 30.5 ± 4.5 | 32.0 ± 4.5 | 0.37 | 30.5 ± 4.5 | 31.3 ± 4.0 | 0.62 |
Gravida (# of pregnancies) a | 2 (1, 4) | 2.5 (1, 4) | 0.26 | 2 (1, 4) | 2 (1, 4) | 0.20 |
Parity (# of births) a | 1 (0, 2) | 0.5 (0, 2) | 0.22 | 1 (0, 2) | 1 (0, 2) | 0.15 |
Pre-Pregnancy BMI (kg/m2) | 28.2 ± 5.0 | 25.5 ± 4.4 | 0.13 | 28.2 ± 5.0 | 25.5 ± 4.6 | 0.15 |
Pre-Intervention VO2peak (mL∙kg−1∙min−1) | 21.6 ± 3.3 | 24.2 ± 5.7 | 0.17 | 21.6 ± 3.3 | 25.6 ± 5.4 | 0.04 * |
GWG (kg) | 10.9 ± 4.2 | 14.0 ± 4.4 | 0.06 | 10.9 ± 4.2 | 14.1 ± 4.4 | 0.08 |
GA (weeks) | 39.2 ± 0.7 | 40.0 ± 1.7 | 0.20 | 39.2 ± 0.7 | 40.0 ± 1.1 | 0.048 * |
Infant Measures | ||||||
Infant Sex (%male) | 75.0% | 50.0% | 75.0% | 46.2% | ||
Birth weight (kg) | 3.4 ± 0.4 | 3.7 ± 0.1 | 0.20 | 3.4 ± 0.4 | 3.7 ± 0.3 | 0.11 |
Intention-to-Treat | Per Protocol | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Control (n = 10) | Exercise (n = 25) | p-Values | Control (n = 10) | Exercise (n = 19) | p-Values | |
16 Week | ||||||
DHA (ng/mL) | 1926 ± 1120.2 | 2572.5 ± 2576.5 | 0.45 | 1926 ± 1120.2 | 2493.3 ± 2786.8 | 0.55 |
EPA (ng/mL) | 957.9 ± 252.6 | 1073.9 ± 394.5 | 0.36 | 957.9 ± 252.6 | 1044.0 ± 348.7 | 0.27 |
36 Week | ||||||
DHA (ng/mL) | 2019.1 ± 1676.3 | 2815.7 ± 2492.0 | 0.40 | 2019.1 ± 1676.3 | 3096.5 ± 2782.3 | 0.50 |
EPA (ng/mL) | 1424.4 ± 1201.2 | 1269.4 ± 1259.4 | 0.74 | 1424.4 ± 1201.2 | 1405.7 ± 1422.6 | 0.97 |
Difference | ||||||
DHA (ng/mL) | 93.0 ± 2188.2 | 243.2 ± 3030.2 | 0.88 | 93.0 ± 2188.2 | 603.2 ± 3341.2 | 0.67 |
EPA (ng/mL) | 466.6 ± 1283.1 | 195.5 ± 1239.4 | 0.57 | 466.6 ± 1283.1 | 361.6 ± 1374.2 | 0.84 |
Intention-to-Treat | Per Protocol | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Control (n = 10) | Aerobic (n = 25) | p-Value | Control (n = 10) | Aerobic (n = 19) | p-Value | |
Height (cm) | 53.9 ± 2.7 | 54.4 ± 3.7 | 0.73 | 53.9 ± 2.7 | 54.3 ± 2.9 | 0.73 |
Weight (kg) | 4.6 ± 0.6 | 4.5 ± 0.5 | 0.66 | 4.6 ± 0.6 | 4.5 ± 0.5 | 0.43 |
BMI | 15.9 ± 1.5 | 15.5 ± 2.0 | 0.53 | 15.9 ± 1.5 | 15.2 ± 1.9 | 0.31 |
Skinfolds | ||||||
Triceps (mm) | 8.9 ± 1.2 | 7.3 ± 1.6 | 0.01 * | 8.9 ± 1.2 | 7.2 ± 1.6 | 0.008 ** |
Subscapular (mm) | 7.8 ± 1.7 | 6.8 ± 1.9 | 0.17 | 7.8 ± 1.7 | 6.3 ± 1.8 | 0.04 * |
Bicep (mm) | 6.2 ± 1.7 | 5.7 ± 1.6 | 0.48 | 6.2 ± 1.7 | 5.6 ± 1.7 | 0.43 |
Sum of Skinfolds (mm) | 22.8 ± 3.3 | 19.8 ± 3.6 | 0.03 * | 22.8 ± 3.3 | 19.1 ± 3.5 | 0.01 * |
Body Fat % | 16.1 ± 2.2 | 13.7 ± 2.9 | 0.02 * | 16.1 ± 2.2 | 13.1 ± 2.7 | 0.006 ** |
Lean Body Volume (cm3) | 3948.3 ± 443.4 | 3922.6 ± 416.5 | 0.87 | 3948.3 ± 443.4 | 3873.6 ± 365.9 | 0.63 |
Circumferences | ||||||
Abdominal (cm) | 39.0 ± 2.3 | 38.7 ± 2.8 | 0.76 | 39.0 ± 2.3 | 38.4 ± 3.0 | 0.56 |
Head (cm) | 37.1 ± 1.4 | 37.7 ± 2.6 | 0.36 | 37.1 ± 1.4 | 37.5 ± 2.1 | 0.53 |
Mid-Upper Arm (cm) | 11.7 ± 1.4 | 11.3 ± 1.0 | 0.32 | 11.7 ± 1.4 | 11.3 ± 1.1 | 0.38 |
Head/Abdominal | 0.95 ± 0.03 | 0.98 ± 0.1 | 0.32 | 0.95 ± 0.03 | 0.98 ± 0.1 | 0.29 |
Lengths | ||||||
Femur (cm) | 10.3 ± 1.1 | 11.0 ± 1.6 | 0.21 | 10.3 ± 1.1 | 11.2 ± 1.7 | 0.17 |
Leg (cm) | 21.9 ± 1.9 | 22.5 ± 1.9 | 0.37 | 21.9 ± 1.9 | 22.4 ± 2.1 | 0.46 |
Humeral (cm) | 8.8 ± 0.7 | 9.0 ± 1.2 | 0.60 | 8.8 ± 0.7 | 9.2 ± 1.3 | 0.40 |
β (95% CI) | p-Value | ||
---|---|---|---|
MET∙min∙week−1 | Height (cm) | 0.015 (−0.004, 0.005) | 0.93 |
Weight (kg) | −0.229 (−0.001, 0.000) | 0.19 | |
BMI (kg/m2) | −0.240 (−0.004, 0.001) | 0.16 | |
Triceps Skinfold (mm) | −0.522 (−0.005, −0.001) | 0.001 ** | |
Subscapular Skinfold (mm) | −0.440 (−0.005, 0.001) | 0.008 ** | |
Biceps Skinfold (mm) | −0.230 (−0.003, 0.001) | 0.18 | |
Sum of Skinfolds (mm) | −0.548 (−0.012, −0.004) | 0.001 ** | |
Body Fat % | −0.563 (−0.009, −0.003) | 0.000 *** | |
Lean Body Mass (volume-cm3) | −0.157 (−0.791, 0.300) | 0.37 | |
Abdominal Circumference (cm) | −0.165 (−0.005, 0.002) | 0.34 | |
Head Circumference (cm) | 0.166 (−0.001, 0.003) | 0.34 | |
Arm Circumference (cm) | −0.335 (−0.003, 0.000) | 0.049 * | |
Femur Length (cm) | 0.333 (0.000, 0.004) | 0.051 | |
Leg Length (cm) | 0.018 (−0.002, 0.003) | 0.92 | |
Humeral Length (cm) | −0.031 (−0.002, 0.001) | 0.86 | |
Head/Abdominal Circumference | 0.295 (0.000, 0.000) | 0.09 | |
36 Week DHA Concentration | Height (cm) | −0.003 (−0.001, 0.001) | 0.99 |
Weight (kg) | 0.017 (0.000, 0.000) | 0.93 | |
BMI (kg/m2) | 0.029 (0.000, 0.000) | 0.87 | |
Triceps Skinfold (mm) | −0.048 (0.000, 0.000) | 0.78 | |
Subscapular Skinfold (mm) | −0.036 (0.000, 0.000) | 0.84 | |
Biceps Skinfold (mm) | 0.054 (0.000, 0.000) | 0.76 | |
Sum of Skinfolds (mm) | −0.016 (−0.001, 0.001) | 0.93 | |
Body Fat % | −0.062 (−0.001, 0.000) | 0.73 | |
Lean Body Mass (volume-cm3) | 0.006 (−0.063, 0.066) | 0.97 | |
Abdominal Circumference (cm) | −0.227 (−0.001, 0.000) | 0.19 | |
Head Circumference (cm) | −0.222 (0.000, 0.000) | 0.20 | |
Arm Circumference (cm) | −0.128 (0.000, 0.000) | 0.46 | |
Femur Length (cm) | 0.074 (0.000, 0.000) | 0.67 | |
Leg Length (cm) | 0.159 (0.000, 0.000) | 0.36 | |
Humeral Length (cm) | 0.256 (0.000, 0.000) | 0.14 | |
Head/Abdominal Circumference | 0.061 (0.000, 0.000) | 0.73 | |
36 Week EPA Concentration | Height (cm) | 0.006 (−0.001, 0.001) | 0.97 |
Weight (kg) | −0.160 (0.000, 0.000) | 0.36 | |
BMI (kg/m2) | −0.155 (−0.001, 0.000) | 0.38 | |
Triceps Skinfold (mm) | −0.210 (−0.001, 0.000) | 0.23 | |
Subscapular Skinfold (mm) | −0.236 (−0.001, 0.000) | 0.17 | |
Biceps Skinfold (mm) | −0.189 (−0.001, 0.000) | 0.28 | |
Sum of Skinfolds (mm) | −0.291 (−0.002, 0.000) | 0.09 | |
Body Fat % | −0.273 (−0.001, 0.000) | 0.11 | |
Lean Body Mass (volume-cm3) | −0.112 (−0.158, 0.082) | 0.52 | |
Abdominal Circumference (cm) | −0.137 (−0.001, 0.000) | 0.43 | |
Head Circumference (cm) | 0.124 (0.000, 0.001) | 0.48 | |
Arm Circumference (cm) | −0.147 (0.000, 0.000) | 0.40 | |
Femur Length (cm) | −0.043 (0.000, 0.000) | 0.81 | |
Leg Length (cm) | −0.104 (−0.001, 0.000) | 0.55 | |
Humeral Length (cm) | −0.125 (0.000, 0.000) | 0.48 | |
Head/Abdominal Circumference | 0.208 (0.000, 0.000) | 0.23 |
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Strom, C.J.; McDonald, S.M.; Remchak, M.-M.; Kew, K.A.; Rushing, B.R.; Houmard, J.A.; Tulis, D.A.; Pawlak, R.; Kelley, G.A.; Chasan-Taber, L.; et al. Maternal Aerobic Exercise, but Not Blood Docosahexaenoic Acid and Eicosapentaenoic Acid Concentrations, during Pregnancy Influence Infant Body Composition. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 8293. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148293
Strom CJ, McDonald SM, Remchak M-M, Kew KA, Rushing BR, Houmard JA, Tulis DA, Pawlak R, Kelley GA, Chasan-Taber L, et al. Maternal Aerobic Exercise, but Not Blood Docosahexaenoic Acid and Eicosapentaenoic Acid Concentrations, during Pregnancy Influence Infant Body Composition. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(14):8293. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148293
Chicago/Turabian StyleStrom, Cody J., Samantha M. McDonald, Mary-Margaret Remchak, Kimberly A. Kew, Blake R. Rushing, Joseph A. Houmard, David A. Tulis, Roman Pawlak, George A. Kelley, Lisa Chasan-Taber, and et al. 2022. "Maternal Aerobic Exercise, but Not Blood Docosahexaenoic Acid and Eicosapentaenoic Acid Concentrations, during Pregnancy Influence Infant Body Composition" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 14: 8293. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148293