Applications of the Internet of Things in Renewable Power Systems: A Survey

Abstract

The integration of the Internet of Things (IoT) with renewable energy technologies is revolutionizing modern power systems by enhancing efficiency, reliability, and sustainability. This paper examines the role of the IoT in optimizing the integration and management of renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind power, into the electrical grid. The IoT enables real-time monitoring, data analysis, and automation, facilitating advanced load management, demand response, and energy storage solutions. Key advancements in IoT technologies, including smart grids and energy management systems, are discussed, highlighting their impact on improving grid stability and promoting the use of renewable energy. The paper also finds some challenges such as data security, privacy, and the need for standardized communication protocols. Furthermore, it finds how the IoT optimizes electric vehicle performance through advanced battery management, real-time energy consumption monitoring, and improved interaction with the electrical grid. Future research directions emphasize the potential of the IoT to further enhance renewable energy integration through artificial intelligence and machine learning, driving the transition towards a more sustainable and resilient energy future.

1. Introduction

1.1. Background

The integration of the Internet of Things (IoT) with renewable energy technologies and modern power systems is a transformative development in the energy sector. The IoT enables real-time monitoring, data analysis, and automation, facilitating the efficient management and integration of renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, and biomass into the electrical grid. This seamless integration is crucial for enhancing the stability, reliability, and sustainability of power systems [1,2].

Renewable energy technologies have seen significant advancements in recent years. Solar power, wind power, and biomass energy are increasingly cost-effective and efficient, driven by technological innovations and the growing global demand for clean energy. The IoT plays a pivotal role in optimizing the performance of these renewable energy systems by providing real-time data and advanced analytics for energy production and consumption. For instance, IoT-enabled smart grids can balance energy loads, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and enhance the overall efficiency of power distribution networks [3,4].

In the context of electric vehicles (EVs), the IoT facilitates improved interaction between vehicles and the electrical grid, primarily through load management and demand response. By enabling the real-time monitoring and control of charging processes, the IoT helps optimize energy consumption based on grid demand and availability. Additionally, Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology allows EVs to communicate with the grid, providing stored energy during peak demand times or emergencies, thus supporting grid stability and offering additional revenue streams for EV owners [5,6].

Moreover, IoT applications in microgrid technology enhance the design, optimization, and operation of localized energy systems. These systems can operate independently or in conjunction with the main power grid, integrating various distributed energy resources (DERs) such as solar panels, wind turbines, and battery storage systems. The IoT enables precise energy scheduling, improves grid reliability, and promotes sustainable energy solutions through real-time data collection and analysis [7,8,9].

Power system protection and control are also significantly enhanced by the IoT. Real-time monitoring and fault detection capabilities improve the responsiveness of power systems to anomalies, ensuring reliable and safe operations. Advanced IoT technologies, such as smart meters and sensors, provide detailed insights into energy consumption, facilitating dynamic pricing models and efficient energy use [10,11,12].

The future of the IoT in renewable energy integration looks promising, with ongoing advancements in artificial intelligence and machine learning expected to further enhance decision-making processes in energy management. However, challenges such as data security, privacy, and the need for standardized communication protocols must be addressed to fully realize the potential of the IoT in transforming the energy sector. Collaborative efforts between researchers, industry stakeholders, and policymakers are essential to drive the transition towards a more sustainable and resilient energy future [13].

1.2. Research Methodology and Purpose

This study conducts a literature review across several popular scientific databases, including Web of Science and Scopus. These databases are renowned for their extensive collections of scholarly articles and provide a robust foundation for conducting a comprehensive review of the relevant literature. We selected keywords pertinent to this work, including “internet of things”, “renewable energy”, “smart grids”, “microgrid”, “power system protection”, “large-scale energy storage”, and “electric vehicle”, to ensure a thorough exploration of the field. By employing these keywords, we aim to capture a wide array of research studies that address the integration of emerging technologies and renewable energy sources within modern power systems. This approach allows us to assess recent advancements and identify prevailing trends and challenges in the field.

In this survey, we have comprehensively surveyed 74 papers that are tightly relevant to the subject, and the number of the papers over years is indicated in Figure 1.

The purpose of this research is to investigate how the IoT enhances the real-time monitoring, data analysis, and automation of renewable energy systems, facilitating advanced load management and demand response. It aims to explore the applications of the IoT across various forms of renewable energy and to evaluate its impact on the stability, security, and efficiency of the electrical grid. As renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, and biomass become increasingly integrated into power systems, IoT technologies offer critical tools for optimizing their performance and ensuring seamless operation within the grid. By examining the role of the IoT in smart grids, microgrids, and energy management systems, this research seeks to understand how these technologies contribute to grid stability, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and improve overall energy efficiency.

Furthermore, this research will address the challenges and opportunities associated with IoT integration in renewable energy systems, including data security, privacy concerns, and the need for standardized communication protocols. By analyzing current advancements and prospects, this study will provide insights into how the IoT can support the transition to a more sustainable and resilient energy infrastructure, fostering the widespread adoption of renewable energy sources and enhancing the reliability and security of modern power grids.

1.3. Structure of This Paper

This paper is organized into several sections. Section 2 provides an overview of renewable energy technologies and discusses how the IoT enhances their integration and management through real-time monitoring and data analysis. Section 3 explores the impact of the IoT on smart grids, detailing advancements in smart meters, distribution systems, and demand response, while addressing security and privacy concerns. Section 4 examines the application of the IoT in microgrid technology, highlighting its role in optimizing and managing various types of microgrids. Section 5 delves into IoT advancements in power system protection and control, focusing on real-time monitoring and fault detection. Section 6 discusses different energy storage technologies, emphasizing the IoT’s role in optimizing these systems for peak shaving and grid stability. Section 7 focuses on the impact of the IoT on electric vehicle (EV) technology, including battery performance and charging infrastructure, and explores the collaboration between the IoT and EV storage systems, as well as challenges and future research opportunities. Section 8 concludes with a summary of key findings and future prospects of IoT applications in the energy sector.

2. IoT Applications in Renewable Energy Integration and Management

2.1. Overview of Renewable Energy Technologies

Renewable energy technologies such as solar power, wind power, and biomass energy have seen significant advancements in recent years. Solar power harnesses energy from the sun using photovoltaic cells or solar thermal systems, and it is becoming increasingly cost-effective and efficient. The increasing global population and the limited supply of non-renewable resources have heightened the demand for diverse energy sources and reduced emissions.

In this context, recent research has explored the potential of hybrid solar technologies in Bangladesh by modeling a solar-aided power generation plant using parabolic trough collectors and an integrated solar combined cycle (ISCC) plant. Both models were simulated using THERMOFLEX version 31 software to assess their feasibility and potential impact on energy production and emission reduction [14]. In addition to advancements in solar power technologies, the integration of the IoT has further enhanced the efficiency and functionality of photovoltaic systems. A recent study presents a low-cost IoT system designed for the real-time monitoring of climatic variables and photovoltaic generation. This system plays a crucial role in smart grid applications by providing continuous data acquisition, which allows for optimized energy management and the improved performance of solar power plants. By leveraging IoT technology, solar power systems can achieve greater efficiency and reliability, contributing to a more sustainable energy infrastructure [15].

Addressing the energy supply gap in Indian smart cities, recent studies have proposed the use of distributed generation systems based on solar photovoltaic (PV) technology. These systems aim to provide a cost-effective energy supply by leveraging solar energy. One study identified potential challenges associated with solar PV waste disposal, introducing the concept of “dumping cost” to manage the soil pollution resulting from discarded solar panels. Additionally, the study presented a control mechanism designed to deliver power at a unit power factor, which reduces power loss and alleviates congestion in the power grid. This approach was validated using MATLAB Simulink version 2020 simulations and prototype testing, demonstrating its effectiveness in optimizing energy supply from solar PV systems [16].

Wind power utilizes wind turbines to convert kinetic energy into electrical energy, with modern turbines designed to effectively capture even low-speed winds. Recent research has focused on the performance of small wind turbines in low-speed wind regions, using the WERA model to compare 5 kW rated turbines from four manufacturers. Conducted at four sites in Kerala, India, the study found that reducing the cut-in and rated wind speeds significantly improves energy output in areas with low wind velocity. This finding underscores the crucial role of turbine velocity power response in enhancing system performance and maximizing energy capture in low-wind conditions [17].

Biomass energy converts organic materials into electricity, heat, or biofuels, offering a versatile and renewable energy source. A study explored the potential of a standalone 80 kW biomass-fueled power plant in Sailchapra, Bangladesh, emphasizing the importance of biomass energy in addressing the power crisis in rural areas. Sailchapra produces thousands of tons of straw and hundreds of tons of husk from paddy every season, providing an ample source of biomass fuel. By gasifying this biomass, the region can generate substantial electric power. The researchers utilized HOMER Pro version 3.1.4 to simulate the power plant, demonstrating the feasibility and benefits of implementing a biomass power plant to electrify Sailchapra and improve the local economy [18].

Table 1. Comparative development and application of renewable energy technologies in different regions.

Region/Country	Solar Power	Wind Power	Biomass Energy
Bangladesh [19,20,21]	Focus on hybrid solar thermal power plants	Limited development in wind energy due to low wind speeds	Implementation of biomass-fueled power plants in rural areas
India [22,23]	Emphasis on distributed solar PV generation in urban areas	Optimizing wind turbine performance for low-speed wind regions	Limited development but some utilization of agricultural residues
Denmark and Germany [24]	Extensive deployment of both solar PV and solar thermal technologies	Lead in offshore wind technology for large-scale energy production	Use of biomass for heating and power generation, integrated into national energy strategies
Sweden [25]	Adoption of solar PV in residential and commercial sectors	Moderate development in onshore wind farms	Well-established biomass energy systems integrated into national grids
China [26]	Large-scale solar PV projects and solar thermal plants	Rapid expansion of both onshore and offshore wind farms	Utilization of agricultural residues and forestry waste, expanding biomass power plants
United States [27]	Leading in solar PV installations, diverse applications across states	Extensive onshore wind farms, emerging offshore projects	Varied applications including biofuels, waste-to-energy plants
Australia [28]	Significant investment in solar PV, solar thermal projects in development	High potential for wind energy, growing number of wind farms	Biomass energy from agricultural and forestry residues, waste management
Singapore [29]	Widespread adoption of rooftop solar PV, limited space for large-scale solar farms	Minimal wind energy development due to geographic and space constraints	Exploration of waste-to-energy technologies, limited by small land area

provides a comparative overview of the development and application of renewable energy technologies across various regions and countries. It highlights the specific focus areas and advancements in solar power, wind power, and biomass energy within each region.

2.2. Role of IoT in Renewable Energy Integration

The IoT can significantly enhance the integration of renewable energy sources into the power grid. The IoT enables the real-time monitoring, data analysis, and optimization of renewable energy systems. IoT devices, such as ESP32 controllers, are instrumental in collecting data from voltage and current sensors and transmitting this data to the cloud. This real-time monitoring capability enables the efficient management of energy loads, reduces greenhouse gas emissions, and optimizes the performance of renewable energy systems. By integrating the IoT with solar photovoltaic systems, energy production and distribution can be managed more effectively, ensuring a stable and reliable energy supply. This approach enhances the overall efficiency and sustainability of energy management in solar-driven systems [30].

In addition to solar energy, IoT technologies are also being applied to other renewable energy vectors, such as hydrogen production. Recent developments in the industrial IoT have enabled sophisticated data acquisition and monitoring systems for Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) hydrogen generators. These systems utilize the IoT to monitor operational parameters, optimize the hydrogen production process, and ensure efficient integration with renewable energy sources. By providing real-time data and analysis, IoT applications in hydrogen generation facilitate improved energy management and contribute to the development of sustainable energy infrastructures [31].

A recent project on IoT-based energy optimization and demand response systems has further emphasized the role of the IoT in enhancing the integration of renewable energy sources. The system efficiently manages energy-consuming devices, facilitating load balancing, demand prediction, and the reduction in peak load. By leveraging IoT technologies, this approach supports the seamless integration of renewable energy into the grid, optimizing energy use and improving the overall efficiency of power systems [32].

2.3. IoT in Renewable Energy Management

The IoT plays a crucial role in the management of renewable energy through advanced energy scheduling and optimization techniques. Recent studies have highlighted that IoT-enabled renewable energy solutions enhance productivity, control, and cost-efficiency by supporting real-time decision making [33]. IoT-based energy management systems have the potential to revolutionize the energy sector, especially in the context of smart grids. These systems allow utility companies to optimize energy usage, balance the grid, integrate renewable resources, and improve reliability by leveraging data, connectivity, and automation [34].

To ensure the stability and reliability of renewable energy integration, robust control strategies are essential. A robust cooperative load frequency control (LFC) strategy has been proposed for multi-area power systems using model predictive control (MPC) and an event-triggered scheme (ETS) to effectively manage the intermittent power output of wind energy [35]. Additionally, integrating wind turbines into conventional LFC frameworks has been explored to enhance system resilience against false data injection (FDI) attacks through resilient MPC and an intensified ETS [36].

Furthermore, recent research demonstrated the use of an IoT-based home energy management system designed to minimize energy consumption costs during peak demand hours. This system offers the real-time monitoring, remote control, and cost analysis of appliances, enhancing both energy efficiency and user convenience. By integrating hardware and software, the system provides users with the ability to monitor and operate devices remotely, optimize energy consumption, and achieve cost savings through automated load scheduling and proactive user notifications [3].

The potential applications of the Internet of Energy (IoE) in the Brazilian energy system were discussed in another study, addressing the challenges of increasing energy demand, the need for a more sustainable energy matrix, and the integration of renewable energy sources. The IoE optimizes the generation, transmission, and consumption of energy, offering promising solutions for a more reliable and efficient energy system [37].

Lastly, the potential of the IoT in smart cities is profound. Nandhini et al. [38] proposed a unified strategy for green energy management and environmental monitoring, leveraging the IoT to enhance resource efficiency, reduce environmental impact, and promote sustainable urban development. IoT-enabled sensor networks gather real-time data on energy consumption, renewable energy generation, and environmental conditions, driving significant progress in energy efficiency, carbon emission reduction, and ecological awareness.

In summary, the application of the IoT in renewable energy integration and management is transformative. It facilitates the real-time monitoring, optimization, and efficient management of energy resources, thereby supporting the transition to a more sustainable and resilient energy future.

3. IoT Applications in Smart Grids

3.1. Overview of Smart Grid Technologies

Smart grid technologies integrate advanced information and communication technologies into the power grid, enhancing its efficiency, reliability, and sustainability. Key components include smart meters, smart distribution systems, and demand response mechanisms. Smart meters record real-time electricity consumption and facilitate two-way communication between consumers and utilities. They support dynamic pricing, real-time monitoring, and accurate billing. Smart meters, which incorporate advanced hardware and software for measurement, communication, and data management, are essential for efficient power management and optimization within the smart grid [10]. Similarly, smart distribution systems leverage sensors, automated controls, and real-time data analytics to optimize electricity distribution. Distribution management systems play a crucial role in ensuring the reliable control of the distribution grid by integrating real-time operations and advanced optimization functions, thereby enhancing grid stability and supporting renewable energy integration [39].

Advanced IoT technologies facilitate real-time monitoring and control, enhancing the stability of smart grids integrating renewable energy sources. For instance, recent studies demonstrate the effectiveness of MPC and event-triggered schemes (ETS) in maintaining frequency stability and addressing cybersecurity threats in multi-area power systems [35,36]. Additionally, a resiliency enhancement framework for distributed load frequency control (DLFC) has been proposed, taking into account IoT faults [40]. Hu et al. explore a distributed fuzzy load frequency control approach under cross-layer attacks [41,42]. These studies collectively highlight the pivotal role of the IoT in ensuring the reliability and security of modern power systems.

Demand response programs adjust power demand by incentivizing consumers to reduce or shift their electricity usage during peak periods. These programs play a critical role in balancing the load on the grid and reducing the need for additional generation capacity. IoT-based energy management systems enable utilities to balance the grid and optimize energy use, allowing consumers to participate actively in energy management and contributing to a more resilient and sustainable energy future [34]. Overall, smart grid technologies, through smart meters, smart distribution systems, and demand response, are transforming traditional power grids into more efficient, reliable, and sustainable systems.

3.2. IoT Technologies in Smart Grids

Smart meters play a crucial role in the modernization of power grids. They not only provide detailed insights into energy consumption, but also enable utilities to implement dynamic pricing models, which can lead to more efficient energy use and cost savings for consumers. The two-way communication capability allows for remote disconnects and reconnects, outage notifications, and detailed power quality monitoring, which are essential for maintaining grid reliability and improving customer satisfaction [10].

Smart distribution systems leverage IoT technologies to automate the monitoring and control of electrical distribution networks. By using sensors and automated controls, these systems can quickly isolate faults, reroute power, and restore service, minimizing the impact of outages. The integration of distributed energy resources, such as solar panels and wind turbines, is facilitated by these systems, which help in balancing supply and demand and maintaining grid stability [39].

Demand response programs are enhanced by the IoT through real-time communication and automated control. IoT devices can provide real-time data on energy usage and grid conditions, allowing utilities to send signals to consumers to reduce or shift their electricity usage during peak periods. This not only helps in managing the load on the grid, but also reduces the need for expensive peaking power plants, leading to cost savings and environmental benefits [17,42].

The Smart Grid Architecture Model (SGAM) provides a comprehensive framework for understanding and designing smart grid systems, including layers such as component, communication, information, function, and business. For instance, in the communication network layer, SGAM outlines how IoT devices and smart meters can be integrated with communication protocols to enable seamless data exchange and interoperability across the grid. This architecture supports the development of robust and scalable smart grid infrastructures by ensuring standardized interfaces and enhanced communication capabilities [43].

IoT-enabled real-time monitoring systems are crucial for detecting and addressing faults promptly. Sensors deployed across the grid continuously collect data on various parameters such as voltage, current, and temperature. This data is analyzed in real-time to identify anomalies and trigger automated responses to prevent equipment damage and maintain service continuity. Such systems enhance the reliability and resilience of the power grid [44].

Maintaining optimal voltage and frequency levels is essential for the stable operation of the power grid. IoT devices help in monitoring these parameters continuously and adjusting them automatically based on real-time data. This ensures that power quality is maintained, and the risk of blackouts or equipment damage is minimized. Advanced control algorithms and IoT-enabled communication networks play a key role here [2].

Energy management systems (EMSs) integrate various IoT technologies to monitor, control, and optimize energy flows within the grid. They provide a holistic view of energy production, distribution, and consumption, enabling better decision making and operational efficiency. EMSs can incorporate renewable energy sources, battery storage systems, and demand response strategies to enhance the overall performance and sustainability of the power grid [45].

V2G technology allows electric vehicles (EVs) to interact with the power grid in a bidirectional manner. The IoT plays a pivotal role in enabling this interaction by providing the necessary communication and control infrastructure. V2G can support grid stability by discharging stored energy from EVs during peak demand periods or emergencies and charging them during off-peak times. This not only benefits the grid but also provides EV owners with additional revenue streams and enhances the overall utilization of renewable energy [4].

The IoT plays a crucial role in the development of smart grids by providing the infrastructure for device interconnection, data collection, and analysis. IoT devices such as sensors and smart meters collect real-time data on energy production and consumption, which is then analyzed to optimize energy distribution and usage [2]. This interconnected network of devices allows for enhanced monitoring and control, enabling utilities to manage the grid more effectively and integrate renewable energy sources seamlessly. Bayesian optimization techniques can be employed to refine energy management processes by utilizing historical data and real-time feedback to dynamically adjust energy consumption and distribution [44].

Table 2. IoT applications of different technologies in smart grids.

Technology	Description	Application Regions	Implementation Strategies
Smart Meters [10]	Digital devices that record real-time electricity consumption and communicate this information to both the consumer and the utility company. They support two-way communication, optimizing energy distribution and improving customer service.	USA, European countries	Widely adopted in developed countries with extensive infrastructure investments. Gradually increasing deployment in developing countries, focusing on urban areas first.
Smart Distribution Systems [39]	Systems using automated controls, sensors, and advanced communication networks to manage and optimize electricity distribution. They detect and respond to faults, balance loads across the network, and integrate renewable energy sources.	Germany, Denmark	Countries with significant renewable energy resources adopt more advanced smart distribution systems to manage variable energy inputs.
Demand Response [32]	Programs designed to adjust the demand for power instead of adjusting the supply, incentivizing consumers to reduce electricity usage during peak demand periods or shift to off-peak times.	USA, Australia	More prevalent in regions with deregulated electricity markets, where consumers have more flexibility and incentives to participate in DR programs.
Real-Time Monitoring and Fault Detection	IoT-enabled sensors and devices provide the continuous monitoring of the grid’s performance, detecting faults in real-time and enabling swift corrective actions to prevent outages and maintain stability.	Global	Deployed in both developed and developing countries to enhance grid reliability. Utilizes IoT platforms for data collection and analysis.
Automated Voltage and Frequency Control [46]	IoT devices aid in maintaining optimal voltage and frequency levels across the grid, automatically adjusting settings based on real-time data to ensure consistent power quality.	Japan, South Korea	Implemented in regions with advanced grid infrastructure to enhance power quality and stability.
Energy Management Systems (EMSs) [45]	Comprehensive systems that utilize IoT to monitor, control, and optimize the generation, distribution, and consumption of electricity, integrating various energy sources and storage options.	USA, Germany, China	Widely implemented in industrial and commercial sectors, as well as in smart cities, to optimize energy use and reduce costs.
Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) Integration [4]	The IoT facilitates the integration of electric vehicles (EVs) with the power grid, allowing EVs to discharge stored energy back into the grid, supporting grid stability and providing additional revenue streams for EV owners.	USA, Netherlands, Norway	Prominently adopted in countries with high EV penetration and supportive regulatory frameworks. Utilizes the IoT for communication and control between EVs and the grid.

highlights the use of IoT technologies in smart grids, including smart meters, smart distribution systems, demand response, real-time monitoring, automated voltage and frequency control, EMSs, and Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) integration. These technologies optimize energy distribution, improve grid reliability, and enhance energy efficiency, with widespread application in regions such as the USA, Europe, Japan, South Korea, and China. Implementation strategies vary from extensive infrastructure investments in developed countries to gradual deployment in urban areas of developing countries.

3.3. Security and Privacy in Smart Grids

The integration of the IoT into smart grids introduces several security and privacy challenges. The widespread deployment of IoT devices increases the potential attack surface, making smart grids vulnerable to cyber-attacks [47]. Key security concerns include unauthorized access to data, data breaches, and the manipulation of energy management systems. To address these challenges, robust security measures such as encryption, authentication protocols, and real-time monitoring systems must be implemented. Additionally, the use of advanced technologies like 5G NB-IoT frameworks is crucial for ensuring secure transmission and intelligent demand-side data analysis, enhancing the resilience of smart grids against potential threats [48].

Moreover, the privacy of consumers is a significant concern, as smart grids collect vast amounts of personal data related to energy usage patterns. Ensuring the confidentiality and integrity of this data is essential to maintaining consumer trust and compliance with regulatory requirements [49]. Implementing privacy-preserving techniques, such as data anonymization and secure data storage solutions, can mitigate these risks and protect consumer information.

4. IoT Applications in Microgrid Technology

4.1. Overview of Microgrid Technologies

A microgrid is a local energy system that can operate independently or in combination with a core network consisting of various distributed energy sources (DERs), such as solar panels, wind turbines, and battery storage systems. Microgrids can be classified based on their operational modes (grid-connected or islanded) and their scale (campus microgrids, community microgrids, or industrial microgrids). These systems enhance energy resilience, provide reliability during outages, and integrate renewable energy sources effectively [8,50].

Table 3. Characteristics and applications of different types of microgrids.

Type of Microgrid	Characteristics	Applications
Campus Microgrids [51]	Typically found in educational or institutional campuses Integrates various renewable energy sources (solar, wind) Often includes energy storage systems Designed for energy efficiency and sustainability	Provides reliable power for campus facilities Enhances sustainability by using renewable energy Reduces operational costs Can serve as a living lab for energy research and education
Community Microgrids [52]	Serves residential communities or neighborhoods Integrates local renewable energy sources Includes energy storage and demand response capabilities Focuses on resilience and energy independence	Enhances energy security and resilience for the community Reduces dependency on the main grid Supports local renewable energy initiatives Can provide power during grid outages
Industrial Microgrids [53]	Serves industrial facilities or complexes Integrates large-scale renewable energy sources Includes advanced energy management systems Focuses on reliability, cost savings, and sustainability	Ensures continuous power supply for critical industrial operations Reduces energy costs through optimization and self-generation Enhances sustainability by reducing carbon footprint Improves power quality and reliability for sensitive industrial processes

summarizes the characteristics and applications of campus, community, and industrial microgrids. Campus microgrids focus on sustainability and reliable power for educational institutions, community microgrids enhance energy security and support local renewable energy initiatives for residential areas, and industrial microgrids ensure continuous power supply, optimize energy costs, and improve sustainability for industrial facilities by integrating large-scale renewable energy sources and advanced management systems.

4.2. IoT in Microgrid

The design and optimization of microgrids are significantly enhanced by incorporating IoT technologies. The IoT enables the interconnection of various devices and systems within the microgrid, facilitating real-time data collection and analysis. According to Raju et al. [54], a Multi Agent System (MAS) using the IoT and Arduino was developed for autonomous demand side management in a solar microgrid. This system dynamically adapts to environmental changes and load variations, ensuring efficient energy management. Additionally, Rana et al. [55] proposed a distributed dynamic state estimation method using the IoT, which enhances the accuracy and reliability of microgrid operation by accounting for packet losses and optimizing the estimator gains through convex optimization techniques.

The IoT plays a crucial role in the operation and control of microgrids, particularly through advanced EMSs and control strategies. The application of IoT-based EMSs in microgrids, such as those in university campuses, integrates dispatchable and non-dispatchable energy sources along with battery energy storage systems. These systems use advanced linear programming to optimize energy usage and reduce costs by incorporating demand response strategies [7]. Additionally, the use of blockchain technology within IoT-enabled microgrids facilitates efficient energy management, particularly in rural areas, by emphasizing the importance of community engagement and sustainable development [8].

The integration of the IoT in microgrid operation allows for the real-time monitoring, control, and optimization of energy resources. It enables precise energy scheduling, improves grid reliability, and enhances the overall efficiency of the microgrid system. By leveraging data analytics and machine learning algorithms, IoT-based systems can predict energy demand, optimize resource allocation, and reduce operational costs, thereby promoting sustainable and resilient energy solutions [34].

5. IoT Applications in Power System Protection and Control

5.1. Overview of Power System Protection Technologies

Power system protection technologies are essential for ensuring the reliability and safety of electrical grids. Traditional protection technologies include electromechanical relays and circuit breakers, which have been widely used for fault detection and system isolation. Modern protection technologies, on the other hand, incorporate digital relays, microprocessor-based devices, and advanced communication systems, enhancing the accuracy and speed of fault detection and isolation. These modern systems provided better coordination and integration with renewable energy sources, thus improving the overall efficiency and reliability of power systems [53].

To enhance the protection and control of power systems, resilient control strategies are crucial. Hu et al. propose a general resiliency enhancement framework for DLFC, addressing IoT faults like sensor aging and cyber-attacks [40]. Furthermore, a distributed fuzzy load frequency control approach for multi-area power systems is presented, which mitigates the impact of cross-layer denial-of-service (DoS) attacks [41]. Additionally, a resilient distributed frequency estimation strategy for plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) is introduced, enhancing load frequency regulation under cyber-attacks [42].

Table 4. Evolution and improvement of power system protection and control technologies.

Historical Period	Key Technologies and Features	Improvements and Innovations
Early 20th Century	Electromechanical Relays, Simple Circuit Breakers [56], Utilized mechanical movements to operate switches based on electromagnetic principles.	Basic fault detection Manual resetting and maintenance
Mid-20th Century	Static Relays, Analog Control Systems: Used semiconductor devices, offering improved reliability and reduced maintenance needs [57].	Improved reliability and speed Reduced maintenance needs
Late 20th Century	Digital Relays, Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) Systems [58], Microprocessor-based systems enabled advanced functionalities and better data processing capabilities.	Enhanced monitoring and control Integration of microprocessors
Early 21st Century	Numerical Relays [59], Advanced SCADA and EMSs: Digital technology for high-speed fault detection and isolation with advanced algorithms	High-speed fault detection and isolation Real-time data acquisition and processing
Present Day	IoT-enabled Devices Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs) Wide Area Monitoring Systems (WAMS) Comprehensive systems for real-time monitoring and enhanced grid stability [60].	Comprehensive real-time monitoring Enhanced grid stability and resilience Predictive maintenance and advanced fault analysis
Future Trends	AI and Machine Learning Blockchain for Protection and Control Autonomous Grid Management Systems Promise autonomous grid management and enhanced cybersecurity measures.	Self-healing grids Decentralized control and protection Enhanced cybersecurity and data integrity

outlines the historical progression of power system protection and control technologies, from early 20th-century electromechanical relays to present-day IoT-enabled devices and phasor measurement units (PMUs). Each era shows advancements in fault detection speed, reliability, and integration with renewable energy sources, culminating in modern systems that offer real-time monitoring, enhanced grid stability, and predictive maintenance. Future trends include the use of AI and blockchain for autonomous grid management and improved cybersecurity.

5.2. IoT in Power System Protection and Control

The integration of the IoT in power system protection enables real-time monitoring and fault detection, significantly enhancing the system’s responsiveness to anomalies. IoT devices, such as sensors and smart meters, collect real-time data on various parameters like voltage, current, and temperature. This data is then analyzed to detect faults and initiate protective measures promptly. An IoT application framework for intelligent energy protection and control at the park level employs edge perception and hybrid communication networking to support real-time monitoring and fault management [61]. Additionally, a zero-trust framework to power IoT security has been proposed, which ensures continuous identity authentication and dynamic access control to protect against unauthorized access and cyber threats [13].

IoT technologies also play a crucial role in power system control, including automatic voltage control and frequency control. Automatic voltage control maintains the desired voltage levels within the power system, while frequency control ensures the stability of the system by balancing supply and demand. IoT-enabled devices provide real-time data, which is used to implement control strategies that optimize system performance and enhance reliability. The application of the IoT in the electric power industry includes the protection of source code in IoT applications through advanced encryption methods, ensuring the integrity and security of control systems [62]. Additionally, a circuit concept in microgrids has been demonstrated, integrating the IoT with power system control to enhance operational efficiency and support the transition to more sustainable energy systems [1].

In summary, the application of the IoT in power system protection and control offers significant improvements in real-time monitoring, fault detection, and system control. These advancements contribute to the development of more reliable, efficient, and secure power systems, supporting the broader integration of renewable energy sources and the evolution of smart grids.

6. IoT Applications in Large-Scale Energy Storage Technology

6.1. Overview of Energy Storage Technologies

Energy storage technologies play a crucial role in contemporary power systems, offering solutions to balance supply and demand, maintain grid stability, and incorporate renewable energy sources. Leading technologies include lithium-ion batteries, renowned for their high energy density and efficiency, making them suitable for various applications, from portable electronics to electric vehicles and large-scale grid storage. Although lead-acid batteries have a lower energy density, they remain widely used due to their reliability and cost-effectiveness. Supercapacitors, with their ability to charge and discharge rapidly, are ideal for applications that require quick energy bursts. These technologies form the backbone of contemporary energy storage systems, each with distinct advantages and application scenarios [63].

Table 5. Performance and applications of various energy storage technologies.

Energy Storage Technology	Performance Characteristics	Applications
Lithium-Ion Batteries [64]	High energy density Long cycle life Fast charging and discharging High efficiency (90–95%)	Electric vehicles Portable electronics Grid energy storage Renewable energy integration
Lead-Acid Batteries [65]	Low cost High reliability Moderate energy density Shorter cycle life compared to lithium-ion	Uninterruptible power supplies (UPSs) Backup power for telecom Off-grid renewable energy systems
Supercapacitors [66]	Very high power density Extremely fast charging and discharging Long cycle life Lower energy density compared to batteries	Regenerative braking systems in vehicles Power stabilization Short-term energy storage High-power applications
Flow Batteries [67]	Scalable energy capacity Long cycle life Decoupled power and energy capacity Moderate efficiency (70–85%)	Large-scale grid storage Renewable energy integration Load leveling Peak shaving
Nickel–Cadmium Batteries [68]	Robust and reliable Moderate energy density Tolerates deep discharges High self-discharge rate	Industrial applications Aviation Backup power Portable tools
Solid-State Batteries [69]	High energy density Improved safety Long cycle life Still under development and high cost	Next-generation electric vehicles Portable electronics High-energy applications
Flywheels [70]	High power density Very fast response time Long cycle life Low energy density	Frequency regulation Uninterruptible power supplies (UPSs) Grid stability Energy recovery systems

summarizes the performance characteristics and applications of various energy storage technologies, including lithium-ion batteries, lead-acid batteries, supercapacitors, flow batteries, nickel–cadmium batteries, solid-state batteries, and flywheels. Each technology varies in energy density, power density, cycle life, and cost, making them suitable for applications ranging from grid energy storage and electric vehicles to uninterruptible power supplies and renewable energy integration.

6.2. IoT Applications in Energy Storage Systems

The integration of IoT technologies into energy storage systems enhances their functionality and efficiency through real-time monitoring, control, and optimization. The IoT enables peak shaving, which helps to reduce the load on the grid during peak demand times by discharging stored energy. This not only stabilizes the grid but also reduces energy costs for consumers. Emergency backup systems benefit from the IoT by ensuring the availability and reliability of stored energy during power outages, thus enhancing energy security. Additionally, the IoT contributes to grid stability by facilitating seamless communication and coordination between energy storage systems and other grid components, ensuring balanced energy distribution and preventing grid failures [71].

An IoT-based solution for monitoring and controlling battery energy storage systems at residential and commercial levels has demonstrated significant improvements in energy management and reliability [72]. By employing IoT devices for real-time monitoring and control, these systems can optimize the charging and discharging processes, enhance energy efficiency, and reduce operational costs. The integration of the IoT in battery management systems provides users with the ability to remotely monitor energy usage and make informed decisions, ultimately contributing to a more resilient and sustainable energy infrastructure.

The use of the IoT for the control and monitoring of photovoltaic and battery systems involves implementing an interoperable and scalable system that utilizes the Message Queuing Telemetry Transport (MQTT) protocol, which is generally accepted as the standard communication protocol for IoT ecosystems, for real-time data transmission and remote control. This approach optimizes energy management in distribution networks, highlighting the potential of the IoT to enhance the performance and reliability of energy storage systems [45].

6.3. Future Prospects of IoT in Energy Storage Systems

The future of the IoT in energy storage systems is promising, with technological advancements and market forecasts indicating substantial growth. Innovations in battery technology, such as the development of second-life storage systems for LiFePO4 batteries, are expected to reduce waste and extend the lifespan of batteries, offering cost-effective energy storage solutions [63]. As IoT technologies continue to evolve, their integration with energy storage systems will become more sophisticated, enabling advanced predictive maintenance, enhanced energy efficiency, and better integration with renewable energy sources.

Market forecasts predict a significant increase in the deployment of IoT-enabled energy storage systems, driven by the growing demand for renewable energy integration and the need for resilient and efficient energy infrastructure. The advancements in IoT technology, coupled with increasing investments in energy storage, are likely to transform the energy sector, making it more sustainable and robust. The continuous development of IoT applications in this field will contribute to the creation of smarter, more adaptive, and more efficient energy systems capable of meeting future energy demands [71].

7. IoT Applications in Electric Vehicles

7.1. Current Status and Impact of IoT on Electric Vehicle Technology

Electric vehicle (EV) technology has advanced significantly in recent years, driven by improvements in power batteries and charging infrastructure. Lithium-ion batteries are the most commonly used power source for EVs due to their high energy density, efficiency, and long lifespan. Recent advancements have focused on enhancing battery performance, increasing charging speeds, and reducing costs. Charging infrastructure, including public and private charging stations, has expanded to accommodate the growing number of EVs. The development of fast-charging stations and wireless charging technologies further enhances the convenience and feasibility of EVs for everyday use [5].

Integrating the IoT with EVs facilitates the improved interaction between vehicles and the electrical grid, primarily through load management and demand response. IoT-enabled smart grids can monitor and control the charging processes of EVs in real-time, optimizing energy consumption based on grid demand and availability. This real-time interaction helps in peak shaving, reducing the load on the grid during high-demand periods and enhancing grid stability. Blockchain technology plays a crucial role in managing battery systems, enabling secure and efficient energy trading and battery swapping among EVs. These IoT applications ensure that EVs are charged efficiently while minimizing the impact on the grid [73].

7.2. Collaboration between IoT and Electric Vehicle Storage Systems

The collaboration between the IoT and EV storage systems, particularly throughV2G technology, holds significant potential for energy management and grid stability. V2G technology allows EVs to communicate with the grid, providing stored energy back to the grid during peak demand times or emergencies. This bidirectional flow of energy supports grid resilience and offers an additional revenue stream for EV owners. The integration of renewable energy sources, EVs, and the IoT is crucial for sustainable transportation and energy management. This approach emphasizes the importance of V2G technology in reducing its carbon footprint and supporting the transition to a sustainable energy system [4].

V2G technology enables EVs to act as battery management systems, contributing to the overall stability and efficiency of the power grid. The IoT enhances this capability by providing the necessary communication and control infrastructure, allowing for real-time data exchange and automated battery management. This integration optimizes the use of renewable energy sources, reduces dependency on fossil fuels, and supports the development of smart cities with sustainable energy solutions [74].

7.3. Challenges and Prospects of IoT in Electric Vehicle Integration

The integration of the IoT with EVs presents several challenges and opportunities. One major challenge is ensuring data security and privacy, as the vast amount of data exchanged between EVs and the grid can be susceptible to cyber-attacks. Implementing robust cybersecurity measures is essential to protect against potential threats. Additionally, the initial costs of deploying IoT infrastructure and V2G technology can be high, posing a barrier to widespread adoption. However, the long-term benefits, such as improved energy management, reduced greenhouse gas emissions, and enhanced grid stability, outweigh these initial costs.

The prospects of the IoT in EV integration are promising. Continuous advancements in IoT technologies, such as the development of more efficient communication protocols and real-time data analytics, will further enhance the interaction between EVs and the grid. The increasing adoption of renewable energy sources, combined with IoT-enabled V2G systems, will play a crucial role in achieving sustainable energy goals. Policymakers and stakeholders must collaborate to create supportive regulations and incentives to accelerate the adoption of the IoT and V2G technologies in the EV industry.

7.4. Future Directions and Research Opportunities

Future research should focus on addressing the challenges associated with the IoT and EV integration. Developing standardized communication protocols and ensuring interoperability between different IoT devices and EVs is critical for seamless integration. Additionally, research on advanced cybersecurity measures to protect data exchanged between EVs and the grid is necessary. Exploring innovative business models that leverage IoT and V2G technologies can also provide new revenue streams for EV owners and grid operators.

The potential for integrating artificial intelligence (AI) with the IoT in EVs is another exciting area for future research. AI can enhance the decision-making process in energy management, predictive maintenance, and autonomous driving. By harnessing the power of AI and the IoT, the EV industry can achieve greater efficiency, sustainability, and convenience for users. Collaborative efforts between researchers, industry stakeholders, and policymakers are essential to realize the full potential of the IoT in the EV sector and contribute to a greener and more sustainable future.

8. Conclusions and Future Prospects

The integration of the IoT with various energy technologies presents significant opportunities for enhancing the efficiency, reliability, and sustainability of modern power systems. This paper explored the diverse applications of the IoT in renewable energy integration, smart grids, microgrids, power system protection, energy storage, and EVs.

In renewable energy systems, the IoT facilitates real-time monitoring, data analysis, and automation, thereby optimizing the performance of solar, wind, and biomass energy sources. The deployment of the IoT in smart grids enhances the capabilities of smart meters, distribution systems, and demand response mechanisms, while addressing critical security and privacy issues. In microgrids, the IoT enables precise energy scheduling and improves grid reliability by integrating various distributed energy resources.

The IoT also plays a crucial role in power system protection and control, providing real-time fault detection and enhancing system responsiveness. The integration of the IoT in large-scale energy storage systems supports peak shaving, emergency backup, and overall grid stability. Furthermore, the IoT significantly impacts the EV sector by optimizing battery performance, improving charging infrastructure, and facilitating the integration of V2G technology.

Despite the promising benefits, several challenges remain, including data security, privacy concerns, and the high initial costs of IoT infrastructure. Addressing these challenges requires robust cybersecurity measures, standardized communication protocols, and supportive regulations and incentives from policymakers.

Looking ahead, the continuous advancement of IoT technologies, coupled with the integration of AI and machine learning, will further enhance the capabilities of power systems. Future research should focus on developing innovative business models, improving cybersecurity, and exploring new applications of the IoT in the energy sector. Collaborative efforts between researchers, industry stakeholders, and policymakers are essential to fully realize the potential of the IoT in driving the transition towards a more sustainable and resilient energy future.

In conclusion, the convergence of the IoT with energy technologies holds immense potential for transforming the energy sector. By leveraging the power of the IoT, we can achieve greater efficiency, sustainability, and reliability in our power systems, ultimately contributing to a greener and more sustainable future.