Real World Operation of a Complex Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle: Analysis of Its CO2 Emissions and Operating Costs
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methodology
3. Case Study
Complex plug-in hybrid | ||
---|---|---|
Vehicle: mid-size European passenger car | Vehicle mass (kg) | 1,760 |
Frontal area (m2) | 2.3 | |
Drag coefficient (-) | 0.3 | |
Pdmd@100 km/h (kW) | 12.8 | |
Electric generator: permanent magnet | Max power (kW) | 40 |
Max torque (N∙m) | 100 | |
Max speed (rpm) | 14,000 | |
τ1 = ωGEN/ωICE | 2 | |
EM: permanent magnet | Max power (kW) | 60 |
Max torque (N∙m) | 300 | |
Max speed (rpm) | 6,000 | |
τ1 = ωGEN/ωICE | 1 | |
Battery data: Li-ions | Energy | 6 kW∙h |
ICE: spark ignition engine | Displacement (cm3) | 2,000 |
Max torque (N∙m) | 168@5,500 rpm | |
Max power (kW) | 104@6,500 rpm |
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. CO2 Minimization: Reference Case
Driving cycle | Vehicle CO2 emissions (g/km) | ||
---|---|---|---|
Engine | Battery | Total | |
NEDC | 61 | 16 | 77 |
WLTP | 74 | 16 | 90 |
Aachen | 69 | 23 | 92 |
Arco-Merano | 96 | 4 | 100 |
- Condition A: which is carried out with a fully charged electrical energy storage device;
- Condition B: which is carried out with an electrical energy storage device in the minimum SOC (maximum discharge of battery capacity).
Driving cycle | Condition A | Condition B | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Final SOC | Dtest1 (km) | De (km) | M1 (g/km) | Final SOC | Dtest2 (km) | Dav (km) | M2 (g/km) | |
NEDC | 0.68 | 11 | 30 | 0 | 0.23 | 11 | 25 | 80 |
WLTP | 0.31 | 23 | 21 | 4 | 0.22 | 23 | 25 | 93 |
Overall results | ||||||||
M (g/km) | ||||||||
NEDC | 36 | |||||||
WLTP | 52 |
4.2. Energy Mix Influence: A Parametric Analysis of CO2 Rate
Country | 2003 | 2004 | 2005 | 2006 | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | Average of 2007–2009 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
World | 495 | 500 | 500 | 503 | 508 | 504 | 500 | 504 |
US | 571 | 571 | 570 | 542 | 549 | 535 | 508 | 531 |
Japan | 444 | 427 | 429 | 418 | 452 | 438 | 415 | 435 |
France | 81 | 79 | 93 | 87 | 90 | 87 | 90 | 89 |
Germany | 434 | 436 | 406 | 404 | 468 | 441 | 430 | 447 |
Italy | 511 | 459 | 449 | 468 | 440 | 421 | 386 | 416 |
The United Kingdom | 478 | 486 | 485 | 507 | 499 | 490 | 450 | 480 |
EU 27 | 374 | 366 | 358 | 362 | 373 | 355 | 339 | 356 |
China | 776 | 804 | 787 | 787 | 758 | 744 | 743 | 748 |
India | 892 | 931 | 923 | 921 | 943 | 954 | 951 | 950 |
Final SOC(-) | 0.22 | 0.22 | 0.24 | 0.62 | 0.88 | 0.89 | 0.89 |
Energy provided by the ICE (kW∙h) | 7.2 | 7.2 | 7.3 | 9.2 | 11 | 11 | 11 |
Total CO2 Emission (battery + engine) (g/km) | 76 | 90 | 93 | 96 | 108 | 108 | 108 |
4.3. Customer Perspective: The Operating Cost Approach
Driving cycle | End user cost (€) | CO2 emission (g/km) | End user cost (€) | CO2 emission (g/km) | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fuel cost | Electricity cost | Total cost | CO2 engine | CO2 grid | Total CO2 | Fuel cost | Electricity cost | Total cost | CO2 engine | CO2 grid | Total CO2 | |
NEDC | 2.48 | 0.48 | 2.96 | 61 | 15 | 76 | 2.48 | 0.48 | 2.96 | 61 | 16 | 77 |
WLTP | 3.07 | 0.49 | 3.56 | 74 | 16 | 90 | 3.07 | 0.49 | 3.56 | 74 | 16 | 90 |
Aachen | 2.31 | 0.49 | 2.8 | 69 | 23 | 92 | 2.31 | 0.49 | 2.8 | 69 | 23 | 92 |
Arco-Merano | 11.4 | 0.29 | 11.71 | 96 | 4 | 100 | 11.4 | 0.29 | 11.71 | 96 | 4 | 100 |
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Definitions/Abbreviations
BSFC | Brake Specific Fuel Consumption |
DP | Dynamic Programming |
EMS | Energy Management System |
EU | European Union |
EV | Electric Vehicle |
HEV | Hybrid Electric Vehicle |
HPC | High Performance Computer |
ICE | Internal Combustion Engine |
IEA | International Energy Agency |
IPCC | Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |
NEDC | New European Driving Cycle |
OECD | Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development |
pHEV | Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle |
SOC | State of Charge |
US | United States |
WLTP | Worldwide Harmonized Light vehicles Test Procedure |
Symbols
Celec | Electricity cost |
Cfuel | Fuel cost |
CO2 | Carbon dioxide |
CO2,pr | CO2 production rate |
Dav | Average distance between two battery recharges |
De | Electric range |
Ebatt | Energy of the battery |
J | Cost Function |
mf | Fuel mass flow rate |
M1 | CO2 emissions calculated through the Condition A of the European regulation |
M2 | CO2 emissions calculated through the Condition B of the European regulation |
T | Trip duration |
t | Time |
u(t) | Control vector |
ΔSOC | State of charge variation |
ηchg | Average battery charging efficiency |
ηgrid | Transmission and distribution efficiency |
μCO2 | CO2 molar mass |
μfuel | Fuel molar mass |
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
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Millo, F.; Rolando, L.; Fuso, R. Real World Operation of a Complex Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle: Analysis of Its CO2 Emissions and Operating Costs. Energies 2014, 7, 4554-4570. https://doi.org/10.3390/en7074554
Millo F, Rolando L, Fuso R. Real World Operation of a Complex Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle: Analysis of Its CO2 Emissions and Operating Costs. Energies. 2014; 7(7):4554-4570. https://doi.org/10.3390/en7074554
Chicago/Turabian StyleMillo, Federico, Luciano Rolando, and Rocco Fuso. 2014. "Real World Operation of a Complex Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle: Analysis of Its CO2 Emissions and Operating Costs" Energies 7, no. 7: 4554-4570. https://doi.org/10.3390/en7074554