Comparison of VOC Emissions Produced by Different Types of Adhesives Based on Test Chambers
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Emission Testing
2.2. Temperature Tests
3. Results
3.1. Comparison of Adhesives Concerning Their Application
3.2. Comparison of Adhesives by Base Materials
4. Discussion
4.1. VOC Emissions Produced by Adhesives
4.2. Temperature Tests
- qA—area-specific emission rate [µg/m2 h].
- T—chamber temperature.
- A, B—parameters calculated using experimental data [32] for predicting emission at other temperatures.
5. Conclusions
- Analysing the data obtained, one might conclude that adhesives for walls and ceilings, regardless of the base material used, are low-emission products. Flooring and finishing adhesives are characterised by high emission values, which vary within their group depending on the base material used.
- Solvent-based adhesives and acrylic-based adhesives proved to produce the longest lasting emissions (highest concentrations after 28 days of testing).
- Comparing groups of chemical compounds derived from the tested types of adhesives, the most frequently identified were aliphatic hydrocarbons (including cyclic ones) from the C6–C14 range, glycols, their ethers and acetates, and alcohols.
- VOC emissions increase with increasing temperature, which means that ln(qA/T0.25) values are directly proportional to temperature.
- The highest decrease of ln(qA/T0.25) value was observed for all investigated compounds at 45 °C. The most dynamic decrease could be observed after 77 h of experiments.
- Characterisation of the material emitting VOCs is important for manufacturers, contractors and building designers to ensure a healthy environment for building occupants. Moreover, manufacturers of adhesives expect information on VOC content to improve product quality, while consumers expect to make informed choices when purchasing them.
- Verification of finishing materials and products, such as adhesives, is important, as the use of low-emission components will enable erecting low-emission buildings.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Product Name | Main Compounds Emitted | Emission after 3 Days (μg/m3) | Emission after 28 Days (μg/m3) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Finishing adhesives KW Loading Factor L = 0.05 m2/m3 | R 3 | 2-methylhexane 3-methylhexanen-heptane | 844 ± 304 | 91 ± 16 |
1,3-dimethylcyclopentane methylcyclohexane ethylcyclopentane 1,2,4-trimethylcyclopentane 1,2,3-trimethylcyclopentane | 429 ± 154 | 288 ± 51 | ||
R 4 | n-hexane 2-methylhexane 3-methylhexane n-heptane | 993 ± 179 | 257 ± 46 | |
1,3-dimethylcyclopentane methylcyclohexane ethylcyclopentane | 432 ± 83 | 202 ± 36 | ||
R 5 | 2,3-dimethylbutane | 95 ± 14 | 3 ± 1 | |
3-methylpentane | 41 ± 6 | <1 | ||
2-methylhexane | 363 ± 54 | 23 ± 3 | ||
3-methylhexane | 374 ± 56 | 34 ± 5 | ||
2-ethylbutan-1-ol | 62 ± 9 | <1 | ||
PH 1 | 2-(2-butoxyethoxy)ethanol | 10 ± 2 | <1 | |
2-(2-butoxyethoxy)ethyl acetate | 40 ± 6 | <1 | ||
PH 2 | aliphatic hydrocarbons C6-C14 incl n-hexane | 244 ± 37 129 ± 19 | <1 <1 | |
PH 3 | aliphatic hydrocarbons C6-C14 incl n-hexane methylcyclopentane | 817 ± 123 526 ± 79 11 ± 2 | <1 <1 <1 | |
SR 2 | aliphatic hydrocarbons C6-C12 n-hexane methylcyclopentane 3-methylheptane 3-methylhexane 1,2,3-trimethylcyclopentane n-heptane methylcyclohexane butyl acetate | 1526 ± 229 116 ± 17 277 ± 41 461 ± 69 282 ± 42 94 ± 14 62 ± 9 115 ± 17 89 ± 13 | 15 ± 2 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 15 ± 2 <1 | |
DA 3 | 2-hydroxybenzaldehyde | 3 ± 1 | <1 | |
1-(2-butoxy-1-methylethoxy)propan-2-ol | 3 ± 1 | <1 | ||
DA 4 | formaldehyde | 10 ± 2 | <1 | |
Flooring adhesive KP Loading Factor L = 0.4 m2/m3 | R 1 | 2,3-dimethylbutane | 239 ± 43 | 15 ± 3 |
3-methylpentane | 149 ± 27 | 14 ± 2 | ||
n-hexane | 816 ± 147 | 11 ± 2 | ||
methylcyclopentane | 823 ± 148 | 66 ± 12 | ||
3-methylhexane | 720 ± 130 | 76 ± 14 | ||
3,4-dimethylheptane | 492 ± 89 | 13 ± 2 | ||
heptanol | 133 ± 24 | 7 ± 1 | ||
1,2-dimethylcyclopentane | 81 ± 15 | 14 ± 3 | ||
n-heptane | 446 ± 80 | <2 | ||
1-methylcyclohexane | 194 ± 35 | 18 ± 3 | ||
ethylcyclopentane | 56 ± 10 | <2 | ||
R 2 | acetone | 458 ± 82 | 174 ± 31 | |
n-hexane | 132 ± 24 | 13 ± 2 | ||
ethyl acetate | 34 ± 6 | < 2 | ||
1-butoxyethoxyethanol | 23 ± 4 | 11 ± 3 | ||
PUR 1 | methylcyclopentane | 64 ± 10 | <1 | |
2-chlorohexane | 63 ± 10 | <1 | ||
3-methylhexane | 21 ± 3 | <1 | ||
heptanol | 20 ± 3 | <1 | ||
1-methylcyclohexane | 15 ± 2 | <1 | ||
PUR 2 | methylcyclopentane | 19 ± 3 | <1 | |
2-chlorohexane | 22 ± 4 | <1 | ||
PUR 3 | 1-methoxypropan-2-ol | 33 ± 5 | <1 | |
1-(2-butoxyethoxy)ethanol | 680 ± 102 | <1 | ||
SR 1 | propylene glycol | 328 ± 49 | 16 ± 2 | |
1-butanol | 13 ± 2 | 6 ± 1 | ||
5-methyl-2-(1-methylethyl)hexan-1-ol | 21 ± 3 | 9 ± 1 | ||
4,8-dimethylnonan-1-ol | 79 ± 12 | 46 ± 7 | ||
6-methyloktan-1-ol | 27 ± 4 | 22 ± 3 | ||
DA 1 | acetic acid | 544 ± 98 | 63 ± 11 | |
alpha-pinene | 152 ± 27 | <1 | ||
dihydro-α-terpineol | 130 ± 23 | 60 ± 11 | ||
2-(2-butoxyethoxy)ethanol | 498 ± 90 | 398 ± 72 | ||
2-(2-butoxyethoxy)ethanol acetate | 631 ± 114 | 596 ± 108 | ||
DA 2 | acetic acid | 74 ± 14 | 3 ± 1 | |
1-butanol | 38 ± 7 | 12 ± 2 | ||
ethylene glycol | 825 ± 149 | 89 ± 16 | ||
alpha-pinene | 50 ± 9 | 6 ± 1 | ||
C 1 | 1-butanol | 18 ± 3 | <2 | |
propylene glycol | 22 ± 3 | 21 ± 3 | ||
C 2 | propylene glycol | 24 ± 4 | <1 | |
Adhesives for finishing walls and ceilings KS Loading factor L = 1 m2/m3 | MC 1 | ethylcyclohexane | 14 ± 2 | <1 |
2,2,5-trimethylhexane | 5 ± 1 | <1 | ||
MC 2 | ethylcyclohexane | 14 ± 2 | <1 | |
formaldehyde | 9 ± 1 | <1 | ||
MC 3 | ethylcyclohexane | 10 ± 2 | <1 | |
2-(2-butoxyethoxy)ethanol acetate | 14 ± 2 | 3 ± 1 | ||
MC 4 | 3,3,5-trimethylheptane 2,3,5-trimethylhexane ethylcyclohexane | 3 ± 1 2 ± 1 30 ± 5 | <1 <1 | |
MC 5 | 2-methylpropan-1-ol | 16 ± 2 | 12 ± 2 | |
propylene glycol | 19 ± 3 | 16 ± 2 | ||
formaldehyde | 19 ± 3 | <1 | ||
MC 6 | unidentified compounds | <5 | <5 |
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Product Type/Symbol | Base Materials | Specific Application (Declared by a Manufacturer) | L (m2/m3) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Flooring adhesive KP | R 1 | synthetic rubber in organic solvents | for parquet gluing | 0.4 |
R 2 | synthetic resin in organic solvents | |||
PUR 1 | polyurethane adhesives | for floor finishes | ||
PUR 2 | ||||
PUR 3 | for gluing mosaic parquet, solid parquet, multi-layer parquet, solid planks, industrial mosaic floorings | |||
SR 1 | hybrid adhesive | wooden floor: parquets (also varnished), solid and glued laminated floorboards, OSB boards, chipboards, plywood, mosaics and wood paving | ||
DA 1 | acrylic dispersion | for floor coverings, PVC floor covering rolls, tiles and textile coverings | ||
DA 2 | for gluing textile floor coverings on absorbent surfaces | |||
C 1 | mixture of cement with mineral fillers and modifiers | for fixing ceramic (glazed tiles, terracotta, gres tiles), cement and natural stone tiles | ||
C 2 | portland cement | for fixing ceramic (glazed tiles, terracotta, gres tiles, clinker, stoneware, cotto tiles, ceramic mosaic), natural stone and concrete tiles | ||
Adhesives for finishing walls and ceilings KS | MC 1 | methyl cellulose with synthetic resin | vinyl, paper, nonwoven fabric, woodchip or ingrain wallpapers | 1.0 |
MC 2 | ||||
MC 3 | woodchip, vinyl, paper, embossed, silk and textile, acrylic, ingrain wallpapers | |||
MC 4 | water-based dispersion of methylhydroxyethylcellulose | wall coatings, textile, velvet, and nonwoven wallpapers | ||
MC 5 | water-based dispersion of methyl cellulose with synthetic resin | textile wallpapers, textile wall coatings, thick wallpapers made of fabric, PVC foil, velvet wallpapers, etc. non-standard applications | ||
MC 6 | water-based dispersion of methyl cellulose (starch-based) | wallpaper adhesive for gluing paper wallpapers in dry rooms to mineral surfaces | ||
Finishing adhesives KW | R 3 | synthetic rubber in organic solvents | for assembly and finishing works in the construction industry | 0.05 |
R 4 | ||||
R 5 | brick, ceramic, concrete, metal, wood, stone, plasterboard, fibreboard, plywood, MDF | |||
PH 1 | silyl modified polymer | brick, ceramic, metal, plywood, stone, wood, concrete, plasterboard, fibreboard, MDF, aluminium, mirrors | ||
PH 2 | wood, brick, ceramic, concrete, plasterboard, stone, metal, glass, mirror, plastic, polystyrene foam | |||
PH 3 | ||||
SR 2 | styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) | for gluing mirrors | ||
DA 3 | acrylic dispersion | wood, polystyrene foam, brick, ceramic, concrete, plasterboard, fibreboard, plywood, stone, MDF | ||
DA 4 | dispersion resin without lasticisers | for all types of wallpapers | ||
Base Materials | ||||
R—solvent PUR—polyurethane MC—methyl cellulose | DA—acrylic dispersion C—cement | PH—polymer hybrid SR—synthetic rubber |
Product Type/Symbol | TVOC after 3 Days (μg/m3) | TVOC after 28 Days (μg/m3) | L (m2/m3) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Flooring adhesive KP | R 1 | 4184 ± 753 | 234 ± 42 | 0.4 |
R 2 | 675 ± 122 | 199 ± 36 | ||
PUR 1 | 202 ± 36 | <2 | ||
PUR 2 | 80 ± 14 | <2 | ||
PUR 3 | 760 ± 114 | 22 ± 3 | ||
SR 1 | 482 ± 72 | 71 ± 11 | ||
DA 1 | 2253 ± 406 | 1211 ± 218 | ||
DA 2 | 1047 ± 189 | 119 ± 21 | ||
C 1 | 40 ± 6 | 21 ± 3 | ||
C 2 | 24 ± 4 | <2 | ||
Adhesives for walls and ceilings KS | MC 1 | 59 ± 9 | 18 ± 3 | 1.0 |
MC 2 | 51 ± 8 | 11 ± 2 | ||
MC 3 | 72 ± 11 | 34 ± 5 | ||
MC 4 | 65 ± 10 | <2 | ||
MC 5 | 61 ± 9 | 44 ± 7 | ||
MC 6 | 19 ± 3 | <2 | ||
Finishing adhesives KW | R 3 | 1490 ± 268 | 428 ± 77 | 0.05 |
R 4 | 1455 ± 261 | 459 ± 82 | ||
R 5 | 673 ± 101 | 166 ± 25 | ||
PH 1 | 126 ± 19 | 2 ± 1 | ||
PH 2 | 233 ± 35 | 51 ± 8 | ||
PH 3 | 611 ± 92 | 36 ± 5 | ||
SR 2 | 109 ± 16 | 42 ± 6 | ||
DA 3 | 55 ± 8 | 21 ± 3 | ||
DA 4 | 27 ± 4 | 14 ± 2 | ||
Application KP—flooring adhesives KS—adhesives for finishing walls and ceilings KW—finishing adhesives | Base materials R—solvent PUR—polyurethane SR—synthetic rubber DA—acrylic dispersion C—cement MC—methyl cellulose PH—polymer hybrid |
Base Material | Sample Name | qA after 3 Days (µg/m2·h) | The Average Value | qA after 28 Days (µg/m2·h) | The Average Value | L (m2/m3) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Solvent-based adhesives (R) | R 1 | 5230 | 3037 | 8451 | 293 | 271 | 2214 | 0.4 | |
R 2 | 844 | 249 | |||||||
R 3 | 14,900 | 12,060 | 4280 | 3510 | 0.05 | ||||
R 4 | 14,550 | 4590 | |||||||
R 5 | 6730 | 1660 | |||||||
Polymer-based adhesives (P) | Polyurethane adhesives (PUR) | PUR 1 | 253 | 434 | 434 | <1 | 10 | 10 | 0.4 |
PUR 2 | 100 | <1 | |||||||
PUR 3 | 950 | 28 | |||||||
MS Polymer Hybrid adhesives (PH) | PH 1 | 1260 | 3233 | 3233 | 20 | 297 | 297 | 0.05 | |
PH 2 | 2330 | 510 | |||||||
PH 3 | 6110 | 360 | |||||||
Synthetic rubber-based adhesive (SR) | SR 1 | 603 | 603 | 1096 | 89 | 89 | 58 | 0.4 | |
SR 2 | 1589 | 1589 | 26 | 26 | 0.05 | ||||
Acrylic-based adhesive (DA) | DA 1 | 2816 | 2062 | 1236 | 1514 | 832 | 504 | 0.4 | |
DA 2 | 1309 | 149 | |||||||
DA 3 | 550 | 410 | 210 | 175 | 0.05 | ||||
DA 4 | 270 | 140 | |||||||
Water-based adhesives (DW) | Methyl celluose adhesive (MC) | MC 1 | 30 | 28 | 28 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 1.0 |
MC 2 | 26 | 6 | |||||||
MC 3 | 36 | 17 | |||||||
MC 4 | 33 | <1 | |||||||
MC 5 | 31 | 22 | |||||||
MC 6 | 10 | <1 | |||||||
Cement adhesives (C) | C 1 | 50 | 40 | 40 | 26 | 13 | 13 | 0.4 | |
C 2 | 30 | <1 |
Chemical Compound | Temperature (°C) | Concentration Initial Co (µg/m3) | qA (µg/m2·h) | ln (qA/T 0.25) |
---|---|---|---|---|
2-Methylhexane | 25 ± 0.2 | 1010 ± 242 | 1263 | 6.3 |
35 ± 0.2 | 1823 ± 437 | 2279 | 6.8 | |
45 ± 0.2 | 1735 ± 416 | 2168 | 6.7 | |
3-Methylhexane | 25 ± 0.2 | 1622 ± 390 | 2027 | 6.8 |
35 ± 0.2 | 2852 ± 684 | 3566 | 7.3 | |
45 ± 0.2 | 2667 ± 640 | 3333 | 7.2 | |
Ethylcyclopentane | 25 ± 0.2 | 915 ± 220 | 1141 | 6.2 |
35 ± 0.2 | 1505 ± 361 | 1881 | 6.7 | |
45 ± 0.2 | 1616 ± 388 | 2020 | 6.7 | |
Methylcyclohexane | 25 ± 0.2 | 1755 ± 421 | 2193 | 6.9 |
35 ± 0.2 | 3113 ± 747 | 3891 | 7.4 | |
45 ± 0.2 | 3324 ± 798 | 4155 | 7.4 |
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Kozicki, M.; Guzik, K. Comparison of VOC Emissions Produced by Different Types of Adhesives Based on Test Chambers. Materials 2021, 14, 1924. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14081924
Kozicki M, Guzik K. Comparison of VOC Emissions Produced by Different Types of Adhesives Based on Test Chambers. Materials. 2021; 14(8):1924. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14081924
Chicago/Turabian StyleKozicki, Mateusz, and Katarzyna Guzik. 2021. "Comparison of VOC Emissions Produced by Different Types of Adhesives Based on Test Chambers" Materials 14, no. 8: 1924. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14081924