State-of-the-Art Review on Engineering Uses of Calcium Phosphate Compounds: An Eco-Friendly Approach for Soil Improvement
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Existing Methods of Soil Improvement
2.1. Conventional Methods
2.2. Ecofriendly Methods
2.2.1. MICP
Advantages of MICP
- -
- MICP can solve a range of important geotechnical and environmental challenges such as soil reinforcement, reducing the risk of ground degradation to landslides, preventing liquefaction during earthquakes, stabilizing oil, the production of bio-concrete materials, heavy metal and radionuclide retention, sewage treatment, concrete repair, the modification of mortar, tunnel wall stabilization, enhance oil recoverability and reservoir profile control as well as water plugging, CO2 capture, and storage [4,19,22,23,27].
- -
- This method is superior to conventional methods since traditional methods are more complex in terms of construction and are time-consuming, energy-intensive, and low productive [28].
- -
- -
- By applying some species of bacteria to the soil, atmospheric CO2 levels can be reduced. These bacteria do not produce nitrogen-based by-products, making them more environmentally friendly [19]. The following bacteria have the potential to be used: sulfate-reducing bacteria increases the transformation rate of CO2 into solid minerals [30], cyanobacteria during MICP absorb CO2 from the air and utilize it to precipitate CaCO3 [31], and bacillus mucilaginous produces carbonic anhydrase, which can remove CO2 from the air to precipitate CaCO3 [32].
- -
- Unlike conventional methods, MICP leaves the soil structure unaffected throughout the entire period of treatment [23].
Limitations of MICP
- -
- Ammonium and ammonia produced by the enzymatic reaction are dangerous and harmful substances, and in large concentrations, causes toxic effects on human health and has impacts on the flora and deposition of nitrogen in the atmosphere [12,21,24]. Figure 3 illustrates the percentage dependence of free ammonia and ionized ammonia in solution when the pH is changed from 0 to 14 at 25 °C. According to Figure 3, under pH 6, almost 99% of all ammonia remains in ionized form, whereas after pH 7, it rapidly converts to free ammonia and contaminates the environment. At pH 7.15, the percentage of ammonia passes the 1% level, and increases rapidly after pH 8, reaching the equilibrium point of 50% at pH 9.15. At pH 11.15, the percentage of ammonium passes the 99% level and the increase slows down considerably.
- -
- The reaction pathway is slower and more complicated than in the case of chemicals [21].
- -
- -
- -
2.2.2. EICP
Advantages of EICP
- -
- -
- The UCS of soils treated with EICP can reach 6.5 MPa [16].
- -
- EICP requires less monitoring than MICP and is less energy consuming [41].
- -
- Urease extracted from plants can be a cost-effective alternative to chemical purified urease [34].
- -
- In comparison to the MICP method, the EICP method is biologically safer since it does not involve bacteria [48].
Limitation of EICP
- -
- The cost of EICP is prohibitive because 57–98% of the cost of the treatment solution comes from the enzyme urease [49]. The price of urease from Canavalia ensiformis (Jack bean) is 12.8 US $/g with a urease activity of 1 U/mg [50]. According to our approximate calculations, the use of urease in the open field will cost about 100,000 to 200,000 $US/m3.
- -
- -
- Using the enzyme instead of bacteria results in the removal of binding points, potentially reducing the efficacy of the method and the strength [16].
3. Calcium Phosphate Compounds
3.1. Mechanisms of Soil Improvements Using CPCs
- i.
- Reaction between calcium phosphate compounds alone
- ii.
- Reaction between calcium and carboxylic acid
Precipitation Source | Ca and P Source | Soil Type | Addition | Chemical Concentration | Treatment Duration (Days) | Precipitation Type | Crystal Morphology | UCS (kPa) | Reference | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Microbially mediated reaction between calcium phosphate compounds | ||||||||||
Acidotolerant urease-producing bacteria (Staphylococcus saprophyticus) | Feed bone meal | Cracked stone | - | 1:1 (Ca/Urea) | 2 | Hydroxyapatite | Rod-like and plate-like microparticles | ND | [68] | |
Dimorphic phytase-active (Arxula adeninivorans) | Calcium phytate | Glass beads | - | - | 3 | Monetite, whitlockite and hydroxyapatite | Needle-like crystals | ND | [69] | |
Soil-derived bacteria | Ca2+ and PO43− | Alluvial topsoil | - | 1:1 (Ca2+/PO43−) | 5 | Hydroxyapatite and calcite | Bacteria-like hydroxyapatite and rhombohedral calcite | ND | [70] | |
Enzymatically mediated reaction between calcium phosphate compounds | ||||||||||
Acid urease (Nagapshin) | Bone meal powder (Cows) | Toyoura sand | - | 0.25:1 (Ca/Urea) | 16 | Brushite | Amorphous-like | 1620 | [71] | |
Phytase enzyme | Sodium glycerophosphate (SGP) | Lead-zinc tailings pond sample | Mg2+ | 1.5 M SGP | 3 | Newberyite and lead phosphate | ND | 2700 | [73] | |
Enzymatically mediated reaction between calcium phosphate compounds | ||||||||||
Urease (watermelon seeds (Citrullus vulgaris) extract) | Chemicals (DPP and CA) | Toyoura sand | - | 1.5:0.75 M (DAP:CA) + urease (solid—liquid ratio of 0.005) | 28 | ND | Specific crystal structure could not be identified | 125.6 | [72] | |
Chemical reaction between calcium phosphate compounds | ||||||||||
Chemicals (diammonium phosphate (DAP) and calcium acetate (CA)) | Toyoura sand | 10% of tricalcium phosphate (TCP) powder | 1.5:0.75 (DAP:CA) | 28 | ND | Whisker-like crystal | 261.4 | [74,75] | ||
Chemicals (dipotassium phosphate (DPP) and CA) | Toyoura sand | 10% of scallop shell (SS) powder | 1.2 M: 0.6 M (DPP:CA) | 56 | ND | Not clearly identify a crystal formation among sand particles | 156.9 | [76,77] | ||
Chemicals (DAP and CA) | Toyoura sand | Phosphate powders | 10% of tricalcium phosphate (TCP) powder | 1.5:0.75 M (DAP:CA) | 28 | ND | Whisker-like crystal | 250 | [78] | |
1% magnesium phosphate (MgP) powder | 14 | Numerous 10-μm-long crystals | 75 | |||||||
Carbonate powders | 5% calcium carbonate (CC) powder | 56 | Unified structures of sand particles and CPC precipitation | 250 | ||||||
1% magnesium carbonate (MgC) powder | 28 | Numerous 10-μm-long crystals without unification with sand particles | 110 | |||||||
Chemical reaction between calcium phosphate compounds | ||||||||||
Chemicals (DAP and CA) | Toyoura sand | - | 1.5:0.75 M (DAP:CA) | 14 | Hydroxyapatite | Whisker-like crystal | 63.5 | [79] | ||
Chemicals (DAP and calcium nitrate (CN)) | 1.0 M:0.5 M (DAP:CN) | 14 | Plate-like crystals | 20 | ||||||
Chemicals (DAP and CA) | Toyoura sand | - | 1.5:0.75 M (DAP:CA) | 28 | Hydroxyapatite | Whisker-like crystal | 87.6 | [80] | ||
Reaction between calcium and carboxylic acids | ||||||||||
Chemicals (DAP and CA) | Toyoura sand | Extract from agricultural alkaline and acidic soil (source of microorganisms) and amino acid source (asparagine (Asn), glutamine (Gln) and glycine (Gly)) | 1.5:0.75 M (DA:CA) + 0.1 M amino acid | 28 | ND | Whisker-like crystal | 50–100 | [83] | ||
Chemicals (DAP and CN) | 1.0 M:0.5 M (DAP: CN) + 0.1 M amino acid | Plate-like crystals |
Ca/P Ratio | Compound | Abbreviation | Formula | Solubility at 25 °C, g/L | pH Stability Range in Aquatic Solutions at 25 °C |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
0.5 | Monocalcium phosphate monohydrate | MCPM | ~18 | 0.0–2.0 | |
0.5 | Monocalcium phosphate anhydrate | MCPA | ~17 | a | |
1.0 | Dicalcium phosphate dihydrate | DCPD | ~0.088 | 2.0–6.0 | |
1.0 | Dicalcium phosphate anhydrate | DCPA | ~0.048 | a | |
1.33 | Octacalcium phosphate | OCP | ~0.0081 | 5.5–7.0 | |
1.5 | α-tricalcium phosphate | α-TCP | ~0.0025 | b | |
1.5 | β-tricalcium phosphate | β-TCP | ~0.0005 | b | |
1.2–2.2 | Amorphous calcium phosphate | ACP | c | 5–12 | |
1.5–1.67 | Calcium-deficient hydroxyapatite | CDHA | ~0.0094 | 6.5–9.5 | |
1.67 | Hydroxyapatite | HA | ~0.0003 | 9.5–12 | |
2.0 | Tetracalcium phosphate | TTCP | ~0.0007 | b |
3.1.1. CPCs from Calcium Phytate
3.1.2. Microbially Induced CPCs Precipitation
- i.
- Monetatite (dicalcium phosphate anhydrate) precipitation by acidotolerant bacteria [27]
- ii.
- iii.
- Hydroxyapatite precipitation by acidic urease [68]
3.2. Prospects and Merits
4. Conclusions
5. Future Perspectives
- i.
- Alternative resources for calcium and phosphate need to be found. Most of the chemicals that are available on the market are aimed at the medical field. These are costly and are not suitable for soil improvement on a large scale. Animal bones are an excellent option, however, since the natural hydroxyapatite needs to be separated from the fatty inclusions, which requires acids, it is not an ideal candidate for use outside the laboratory.
- ii.
- For the deposition of CPCs, the atomic concentration of phosphorus and calcium in the system and the pH of the medium must be taken into account. In field applications, it is challenging to control the pH of the soil in such a small range to obtain the desired compound. Introducing bacteria may simplify this, although the problem of ammonium contamination in the environment will emerge. To overcome such an issue, it is necessary to investigate new methods of incorporating CPCs into the soil and control the parameters accurately.
- iii.
- In a long-term perspective, the low durability problem should be solved. The investigation of the effect of the application of CPCs to the soil could have an impact on the strength of the soil. Since this is a novel approach to ground reinforcement, the combination of the MICP and EICP research results over many decades and the combination of them for applying with CPCs can reveal its potential and make this material an ideal analogue for cement in the future.
- iv.
- In order to improve the existing soil stabilization methods using CPCs, the problem of ammonium must be addressed. Using bacteria or urease in this method, 6% ammonium in a gaseous form contaminates the atmosphere. Therefore, in future studies, this should be taken into account and correlated by adding different additives or by changing the parameters of the precipitation reactions.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Compound | Hydrolysis |
---|---|
Monocalcium phosphate | |
Dicalcium phosphate | |
Octacalcium phosphate | |
Tricalcium phosphate | |
Hydroxyapatite | |
Tetracalcium phosphate |
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Avramenko, M.; Nakashima, K.; Kawasaki, S. State-of-the-Art Review on Engineering Uses of Calcium Phosphate Compounds: An Eco-Friendly Approach for Soil Improvement. Materials 2022, 15, 6878. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15196878
Avramenko M, Nakashima K, Kawasaki S. State-of-the-Art Review on Engineering Uses of Calcium Phosphate Compounds: An Eco-Friendly Approach for Soil Improvement. Materials. 2022; 15(19):6878. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15196878
Chicago/Turabian StyleAvramenko, Maksym, Kazunori Nakashima, and Satoru Kawasaki. 2022. "State-of-the-Art Review on Engineering Uses of Calcium Phosphate Compounds: An Eco-Friendly Approach for Soil Improvement" Materials 15, no. 19: 6878. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15196878