Nutritional and Environmental Assessment of Increasing the Content of Fruit and Vegetables in the UK Diet
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
2.1. Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Consumption in the UK
2.2. Evolution of Nutrient Intakes
2.3. Recommended Nutrient Intake Ratios
2.4. Food Consumption and CO2 Equivalent Emission
3. Methods
3.1. Ex-Ante Evaluation of Increasing Fruits and Vegetables
3.2. Estimation of Demand Elasticities
3.3. Consumer Purchase Data
3.4. Nutritional Information
3.5. Information on CO2-eq Emission
3.6. Simulation
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Price and Expenditure Elasticities
4.2. Price Adjustments
4.3. Consumption of Other Foods
4.4. Impact on Greenhouse Gas Emissions
4.5. Impact on Net Nutrient Composition
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Goods | Quantities | Initial | Total | Food |
---|---|---|---|---|
100 g/ mL | Prices | Expenditure | Shares | |
Cap/Day | GBP/100 g or mL | (GBP) | (%) | |
Vegetables and vegetable products | 1.17 | 0.20 | 0.24 | 3.3 |
Fruit, fruit products, and fruit and vegetable juices | 1.61 | 0.25 | 0.41 | 5.7 |
Grains and grain-based products | 2.00 | 0.24 | 0.48 | 6.7 |
Starchy roots, tubers, legumes, nuts, and oilseeds | 1.16 | 0.35 | 0.40 | 5.6 |
Beef, veal, and lamb | 0.23 | 0.79 | 0.18 | 2.5 |
Pork | 0.08 | 0.60 | 0.05 | 0.6 |
Poultry, eggs, and other fresh meat | 0.36 | 0.65 | 0.23 | 3.3 |
Processed and other cooked meats | 0.30 | 0.62 | 0.19 | 2.6 |
Fish and other seafood | 0.26 | 0.90 | 0.23 | 3.3 |
Milk, dairy products, and milk product imitates | 1.70 | 0.10 | 0.17 | 2.4 |
Cheese | 0.17 | 0.76 | 0.13 | 1.8 |
Sugar and confectionary and prepared desserts | 0.32 | 0.33 | 0.11 | 1.5 |
Soft drinks | 2.34 | 0.09 | 0.22 | 3.0 |
Animal fats | 0.03 | 0.44 | 0.01 | 0.2 |
Plant-based fats | 0.10 | 0.26 | 0.03 | 0.4 |
Tea, coffee, cocoa, and drinking water | 10.51 | 0.18 | 1.92 | 26.9 |
Alcoholic beverages | 2.65 | 0.49 | 1.29 | 18.1 |
Composite dishes (animal and vegetable) | 1.26 | 0.49 | 0.62 | 8.7 |
Snacks and other foods | 0.12 | 0.72 | 0.09 | 1.2 |
Residual category | 0.32 | 0.46 | 0.15 | 2.1 |
Nutritional Coefficients | Vegetables and Vegetable Products | Fruit, Fruit Products, and Fruit and Vegetable Juices | Grains and Grain-Based Products | Starchy Roots, Tubers, Legumes, Nuts, and Oilseeds | Beef, Veal, and Lamb | Pork | Poultry, Eggs, and Other Fresh Meat | Processed and Other Cooked Meats | Fish and Other Seafood | Cheese |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Energy (kcal/100 g) | 30.85 | 52.48 | 248.71 | 130.14 | 199.71 | 216.78 | 163.56 | 225.64 | 177.51 | 361.65 |
Protein (g/100 g) | 1.30 | 0.58 | 7.07 | 3.58 | 26.83 | 28.92 | 24.97 | 19.13 | 19.63 | 22.72 |
Fibre (g/100 g) | 1.49 | 0.83 | 2.59 | 2.36 | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.79 | 0.24 | 0.01 |
Carbohydrates (g/100 g) | 4.44 | 12.73 | 46.37 | 20.74 | 0.42 | 0.53 | 0.38 | 4.75 | 5.37 | 0.97 |
Sugar (g/100 g) | 3.55 | 12.21 | 7.09 | 1.92 | 0.07 | 0.28 | 0.31 | 0.95 | 0.28 | 0.88 |
Fats—Monounsaturated (g/100 g) | 0.32 | 0.10 | 1.68 | 1.76 | 3.65 | 4.44 | 2.99 | 6.06 | 3.40 | 7.04 |
Fats—Saturated (g/100 g) | 0.23 | 0.06 | 1.85 | 0.87 | 4.43 | 3.86 | 1.89 | 5.46 | 1.87 | 18.66 |
Fats—Polyunsaturated (g/100 g) | 0.34 | 0.07 | 1.03 | 1.26 | 0.56 | 1.89 | 1.17 | 1.95 | 2.36 | 0.66 |
Lipids (g/100 g) | 1.00 | 0.27 | 5.19 | 4.23 | 10.08 | 11.08 | 6.91 | 14.55 | 8.76 | 29.69 |
Cholesterol (g/100 g) | 0.29 | 0.01 | 6.46 | 0.50 | 90.64 | 81.56 | 144.92 | 60.80 | 71.38 | 84.72 |
Free sugar (g/100 g) | 0.18 | 5.47 | 4.55 | 0.69 | 0.03 | 0.24 | 0.28 | 0.16 | 0.05 | 0.11 |
Minerals—Sodium (mg/100 g) | 38.49 | 16.85 | 298.21 | 83.28 | 106.96 | 108.20 | 117.19 | 1005.65 | 357.42 | 678.59 |
Minerals—Magnesium (mg/100 g) | 9.78 | 10.88 | 32.81 | 26.61 | 21.66 | 24.92 | 25.71 | 18.85 | 28.23 | 25.97 |
Minerals—Phosphorus (mg/100 g) | 33.58 | 14.73 | 128.35 | 70.39 | 202.95 | 225.72 | 237.70 | 223.65 | 220.23 | 459.49 |
Minerals—Potassium (mg/100 g) | 195.58 | 169.58 | 162.60 | 407.43 | 310.26 | 357.02 | 311.59 | 255.54 | 308.01 | 91.63 |
Minerals—Calcium (mg/100 g) | 22.33 | 11.36 | 102.57 | 18.41 | 12.89 | 14.77 | 18.87 | 52.31 | 60.30 | 628.59 |
Minerals—Iron (mg/100 g) | 0.55 | 0.22 | 1.93 | 0.96 | 2.45 | 1.00 | 0.83 | 1.17 | 0.90 | 0.26 |
Minerals—Zinc (mg/100 g) | 0.21 | 0.08 | 0.92 | 0.49 | 5.32 | 2.54 | 1.18 | 2.11 | 0.80 | 3.35 |
Vitamins—Retinol (mg/100 g) | 0.42 | 0.01 | 11.35 | 1.84 | 350.42 | 0.89 | 34.99 | 143.69 | 14.45 | 308.49 |
Vitamins—Carotene (mg/100 g) | 1603.49 | 58.27 | 10.51 | 59.14 | 10.98 | 2.62 | 2.04 | 2.67 | 6.44 | 141.62 |
Vitamins—A (mg/100 g) | 310.06 | 11.10 | 13.31 | 11.91 | 352.19 | 1.32 | 35.35 | 144.14 | 15.56 | 332.41 |
Vitamins—D (mg/100 g) | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.13 | 0.01 | 0.58 | 0.88 | 0.56 | 0.75 | 2.55 | 0.31 |
Vitamins—E (mg/100 g) | 0.73 | 0.29 | 0.65 | 0.75 | 0.18 | 0.08 | 0.42 | 0.36 | 1.67 | 0.48 |
Vitamins—C (mg/100 g) | 16.05 | 23.10 | 0.66 | 8.00 | 0.48 | 0.10 | 0.02 | 2.57 | 0.06 | 0.04 |
Vitamins—B1 (mg/100 g) | 0.07 | 0.04 | 0.22 | 0.19 | 0.08 | 0.73 | 0.09 | 0.43 | 0.09 | 0.04 |
Vitamins—B2 (mg/100 g) | 0.03 | 0.03 | 0.13 | 0.03 | 0.30 | 0.21 | 0.19 | 0.17 | 0.13 | 0.37 |
Vitamins—B6 (mg/100 g) | 0.11 | 0.11 | 0.15 | 0.28 | 0.34 | 0.46 | 0.38 | 0.33 | 0.25 | 0.09 |
Vitamins—B9 (mg/100 g) | 26.75 | 10.79 | 30.68 | 28.68 | 20.91 | 5.45 | 12.51 | 4.87 | 12.89 | 29.47 |
Vitamins—B12 (mg/100 g) | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.07 | 0.00 | 3.56 | 0.96 | 0.43 | 1.00 | 3.57 | 2.02 |
Greenhouse gas equivalent (kg CO2/100 g) | 0.12 | 0.08 | 0.12 | 0.08 | 3.88 | 1.05 | 0.60 | 0.56 | 0.46 | 0.83 |
Milk, Dairy Products and Milk Product Imitates | Sugar and Confectionary and Prepared Desserts | Soft Drinks | Animal Fats | Plant Based Fats | Tea, Coffee, Cocoa, and Drinking Water | Alcoholic Beverages | Composite Dishes (Animal and Vegetable Dishes) | Snacks and Other Foods | Residual Category | |
Energy (kcal/100 g) | 58.02 | 342.29 | 16.05 | 732.57 | 586.58 | 1.24 | 47.62 | 159.99 | 386.29 | 146.60 |
Protein (g/100 g) | 3.54 | 3.12 | 0.01 | 0.58 | 0.25 | 0.06 | 0.24 | 7.96 | 5.36 | 2.51 |
Fibre (g/100 g) | 0.04 | 0.60 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 1.07 | 3.53 | 1.09 |
Carbohydrates (g/100 g) | 5.77 | 63.33 | 4.17 | 0.70 | 0.49 | 0.17 | 2.39 | 14.46 | 49.89 | 12.59 |
Sugar (g/100 g) | 5.57 | 60.40 | 4.16 | 0.63 | 0.27 | 0.17 | 2.39 | 2.15 | 3.00 | 6.82 |
Fats—Monounsaturated (g/100 g) | 0.56 | 3.09 | 0.00 | 21.11 | 29.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 3.25 | 11.69 | 4.06 |
Fats—Saturated (g/100 g) | 1.54 | 5.76 | 0.00 | 47.46 | 15.72 | 0.03 | 0.01 | 2.61 | 2.72 | 1.95 |
Fats—Polyunsaturated (g/100 g) | 0.11 | 0.66 | 0.00 | 4.59 | 16.85 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 1.54 | 4.47 | 3.15 |
Lipids (g/100 g) | 2.47 | 10.25 | 0.00 | 80.85 | 64.85 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 8.21 | 19.76 | 9.94 |
Cholesterol (g/100 g) | 8.04 | 10.62 | 0.00 | 221.26 | 20.73 | 0.09 | 0.04 | 48.54 | 1.46 | 10.36 |
Free sugar (g/100 g) | 1.08 | 56.87 | 4.08 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.11 | 2.38 | 0.71 | 1.31 | 4.09 |
Minerals—Sodium (mg/100 g) | 48.24 | 65.02 | 3.92 | 472.82 | 488.21 | 1.33 | 7.48 | 295.67 | 471.05 | 777.96 |
Minerals—Magnesium (mg/100 g) | 11.13 | 19.63 | 1.09 | 2.04 | 2.35 | 1.10 | 7.30 | 16.79 | 40.53 | 16.36 |
Minerals—Phosphorus (mg/100 g) | 100.10 | 77.31 | 11.83 | 24.39 | 40.76 | 2.07 | 15.50 | 102.91 | 120.85 | 53.46 |
Minerals—Potassium (mg/100 g) | 164.04 | 160.87 | 5.60 | 28.83 | 62.47 | 14.84 | 52.13 | 168.86 | 696.12 | 224.64 |
Minerals—Calcium (mg/100 g) | 122.47 | 76.02 | 3.70 | 22.37 | 19.23 | 1.44 | 6.55 | 50.04 | 37.38 | 39.77 |
Minerals—Iron (mg/100 g) | 0.05 | 0.67 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.11 | 0.01 | 0.20 | 1.04 | 1.28 | 1.14 |
Minerals—Zinc (mg/100 g) | 0.43 | 0.45 | 0.00 | 0.09 | 0.14 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.92 | 0.67 | 0.33 |
Vitamins—Retinol (mg/100 g) | 26.57 | 31.65 | 1.43 | 1479.29 | 545.25 | 0.23 | 0.27 | 28.04 | 3.07 | 15.77 |
Vitamins—Carotene (mg/100 g) | 13.61 | 34.87 | 23.71 | 564.49 | 608.26 | 0.24 | 0.13 | 209.43 | 86.72 | 296.90 |
Vitamins—A (mg/100 g) | 28.92 | 37.57 | 5.47 | 1573.79 | 649.02 | 0.28 | 0.29 | 66.40 | 18.63 | 67.28 |
Vitamins—D (mg/100 g) | 0.03 | 0.11 | 0.00 | 5.55 | 5.25 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.34 | 0.01 | 0.07 |
Vitamins—E (mg/100 g) | 0.13 | 0.63 | 0.01 | 7.42 | 12.95 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 1.08 | 3.62 | 3.02 |
Vitamins—C (mg/100 g) | 1.79 | 1.72 | 1.30 | 0.61 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.00 | 2.60 | 6.92 | 2.66 |
Vitamins—B1 (mg/100 g) | 0.04 | 0.05 | 0.00 | 0.04 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.10 | 0.16 | 0.14 |
Vitamins—B2 (mg/100 g) | 0.22 | 0.16 | 0.00 | 0.07 | 0.03 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.11 | 0.09 | 0.14 |
Vitamins—B6 (mg/100 g) | 0.09 | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.02 | 1.28 | 0.00 | 0.06 | 0.12 | 0.46 | 0.11 |
Vitamins—B9 (mg/100 g) | 7.51 | 6.76 | 0.40 | 1.88 | 128.24 | 0.45 | 7.49 | 16.26 | 30.85 | 33.40 |
Vitamins—B12 (mg/100 g) | 0.68 | 0.24 | 0.03 | 0.24 | 0.86 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.48 | 0.02 | 0.15 |
Greenhouse gas equivalent (kg CO2/100 g) | 0.15 | 0.30 | 0.03 | 0.90 | 0.20 | 0.03 | 0.14 | 0.50 | 0.09 | 0.13 |
Vegetables and Vegetable Products | Fruit, Fruits Products, and Fruit and Vegetable Juices | Grains and Grain-Based Products | Starchy Roots, Tubers, Legumes, Nuts, and Oilseeds | Beef, Veal, and Lamb | Pork | Poultry, Eggs, and Other Fresh Meat | Processed and Other Cooked Meats | Fish and Other Seafood | Milk, Dairy Products, and Milk Product Imitates | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Vegetables and vegetable products | −0.4756 * | −0.0018 | −0.0021 | −0.0017 * | −0.0007 * | −0.0002 * | −0.0010 * | −0.0008 | −0.001 | −0.0008 | |
Fruit, fruit products, and fruit and vegetable juices | −0.001 | −0.7706 * | −0.0021 * | −0.0016 | −0.0007 * | −0.0002 | −0.0009 * | −0.0007 | −0.001 | −0.0007 * | |
Grains and grain-based products | −0.001 | −0.0018 * | −0.9272 * | −0.0017 | −0.0007 * | −0.0002 | −0.0009 | −0.0007 | −0.001 | −0.0007 | |
Starchy roots, tubers, legumes, nuts, and oilseeds | −0.0012 * | −0.002 | −0.0024 | −0.7996 * | −0.0008 | −0.0002 * | −0.0011 * | −0.0009 | −0.0011 * | −0.0009 * | |
Beef, veal, and lamb | −0.0015 * | −0.0026 * | −0.0030 * | −0.0024 | −0.5092 * | −0.0002 | −0.0013 * | −0.0011 | −0.0014 * | −0.0011 | |
Pork | −0.0014 * | −0.0024 | −0.0029 | −0.0023 * | −0.0009 | −0.9193 * | −0.0013 | −0.001 | −0.0014 | −0.001 | |
Poultry, eggs, and other fresh meat | −0.0013 * | −0.0023 * | −0.0027 | −0.0021 * | −0.0008 | −0.0002 | −0.8261 * | −0.0010 * | −0.0013 * | −0.001 | |
Processed and other cooked meats | −0.0013 | −0.0022 | −0.0026 | −0.0021 | −0.0008 | −0.0002 | −0.0012 * | −0.6388 * | −0.0012 * | −0.0009 | |
Fish and other seafood | −0.0011 | −0.0019 | −0.0022 | −0.0018 * | −0.0007 | −0.0002 | −0.0010 * | −0.0008 * | −0.4408 * | −0.0008 | |
Milk, dairy products, and milk product imitates | −0.0009 | −0.0016 * | −0.0019 | −0.0015 * | −0.0006 | −0.0002 | −0.0009 * | −0.0007 | −0.0009 | −0.8892 * | |
Cheese | −0.0011 * | −0.0019 | −0.0023 | −0.0018 * | −0.0007 | −0.0002 | −0.0010 * | −0.0008 | −0.0011 | −0.0008 * | |
Sugar and confectionary and prepared desserts | −0.0011 | −0.0019 * | −0.0022 * | −0.0018 | −0.0007 * | −0.0002 * | −0.001 | −0.0008 * | −0.0011 | −0.0008 | |
Soft drinks | −0.0014 | −0.0025 | −0.0029 * | −0.0023 * | −0.0009 | −0.0002 | −0.0013 | −0.0011 | −0.0014 | −0.0011 | |
Animal fats | −0.0011 | −0.0018 | −0.0021 * | −0.0017 | −0.0007 | −0.0002 | −0.0010 * | −0.0008 * | −0.001 | −0.0008 | |
Plant-based fats | −0.001 | −0.0018 | −0.0021 * | −0.0017 | −0.0007 | −0.0002 | −0.0009 * | −0.0008 | −0.001 | −0.0008 | |
Tea, coffee, cocoa, and drinking water | −0.001 | −0.0017 | −0.0020 * | −0.0016 * | −0.0006 | −0.0002 | −0.0009 | −0.0007 | −0.001 | −0.0007 | |
Alcoholic beverages | −0.0018 * | −0.0031 * | −0.0036 | −0.0029 | −0.0012 | −0.0003 | −0.0016 | −0.0013 | −0.0017 | −0.0013 | |
Composite dishes (animal and vegetable) | −0.0011 * | −0.0019 * | −0.0022 | −0.0017 | −0.0007 | −0.0002 | −0.0010 * | −0.0008 * | −0.001 | −0.0008 * | |
Snacks and other foods | −0.0014 | −0.0024 | −0.0029 * | −0.0023 * | −0.0009 | −0.0002 | −0.0013 | −0.001 | −0.0014 | −0.0010 * | |
Residual category | −0.0012 | −0.002 | −0.0023 | −0.0019 | −0.0007 | −0.0002 | −0.001 | −0.0008 | −0.0011 | −0.0008 | |
Cheese | Sugar and Confectionary and Prepared Desserts | Soft Drinks | Animal Fats | Plant-Based Fats | Tea, Coffee, Cocoa, and Drinking Water | Alcoholic Beverages | Composite Dishes (Animal and Vegetable Dishes) | Snacks and Other Foods | Residual Category | Expenditure Elasticity | |
Vegetables and vegetable products | −0.001 * | 0 | −0.001 * | 0 | 0 | −0.009 | −0.004 * | −0.003 * | 0 | −0.001 | 0.309 * |
Fruit, fruit products, and fruit and vegetable juices | −0.001 | 0.000 * | −0.001 | 0 | 0 | −0.008 | −0.004 * | −0.003 * | 0 | −0.001 | 0.296 * |
Grains and grain-based products | −0.001 | 0 | −0.001 * | 0.000 * | 0.000 * | −0.008 * | −0.004 * | −0.003 * | 0.000 * | −0.001 | 0.298 * |
Starchy roots, tubers, legumes, nuts, and oilseeds | −0.001 * | −0.001 | −0.001 * | 0 | 0 | −0.010 * | −0.005 * | −0.003 | 0.000 * | −0.001 | 0.345 * |
Beef, veal, and lamb | −0.001 | −0.001 | −0.001 | 0 | 0 | −0.012 | −0.006 | −0.004 | 0 | −0.001 | 0.432 * |
Pork | −0.001 | −0.001 * | −0.001 | 0 | 0 | −0.012 | −0.006 * | −0.004 | 0 | −0.001 | 0.414 * |
Poultry, eggs, and other fresh meat | −0.001 * | −0.001 | −0.001 | 0.000 * | 0.000 * | −0.011 | −0.005 * | −0.003 * | 0 | −0.001 | 0.382 * |
Processed and other cooked meats | −0.001 | −0.001 * | −0.001 | 0.000 * | 0 | −0.011 | −0.005 * | −0.003 * | 0 | −0.001 | 0.375 * |
Fish and other seafood | −0.001 | 0 | −0.001 | 0 | 0 | −0.009 | −0.005 * | −0.003 | 0 | −0.001 | 0.321 * |
Milk, dairy products, and milk product imitates | −0.001 * | 0 | −0.001 | 0 | 0 | −0.008 | −0.004 * | −0.002 * | 0.000 * | −0.001 | 0.278 * |
Cheese | −0.977 * | 0 | −0.001 | 0 | 0 | −0.009 | −0.005 * | −0.003 | 0 | −0.001 | 0.327 * |
Sugar and confectionary and prepared desserts | −0.001 | −0.921 * | −0.001 | 0.000 * | 0 | −0.009 | −0.005 | −0.003 | 0 | −0.001 | 0.322 * |
Soft drinks | −0.001 | −0.001 | −1.115 * | 0 | 0.000 * | −0.012 * | −0.006 * | −0.004 | 0 | −0.001 | 0.423 * |
Animal fats | −0.001 | 0.000 * | −0.001 | −0.671 * | 0 | −0.009 | −0.004 | −0.003 | 0.000 * | −0.001 | 0.308 * |
Plant-based fats | −0.001 | 0 | −0.001 | 0 | −0.773 * | −0.008 | −0.004 | −0.003 | 0 | −0.001 | 0.302 * |
Tea, coffee, cocoa, and drinking water | −0.001 | 0 | −0.001 * | 0 | 0 | −0.805 * | −0.004 * | −0.003 * | 0.000 * | −0.001 | 0.292 * |
Alcoholic beverages | −0.001 | −0.001 * | −0.001 * | 0 | 0 | −0.015 | −0.899 * | −0.005 * | −0.001 | −0.001 | 0.521 * |
Composite dishes (animal and vegetable) | −0.001 * | 0 | −0.001 | 0 | 0 | −0.009 | −0.004 * | −0.744 * | 0.000 * | −0.001 | 0.314 * |
Snacks and other foods | −0.001 * | −0.001 | −0.001 | 0.000 * | 0.000 * | −0.012 * | −0.006 | −0.004 * | −1.124 * | −0.001 | 0.414 * |
Residual category | −0.001 | −0.001 | −0.001 | 0 | 0 | −0.009 | −0.005 | −0.003 | 0 | −0.923 | 0.337 |
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Dogbe, W.; Revoredo-Giha, C. Nutritional and Environmental Assessment of Increasing the Content of Fruit and Vegetables in the UK Diet. Sustainability 2021, 13, 1076. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13031076
Dogbe W, Revoredo-Giha C. Nutritional and Environmental Assessment of Increasing the Content of Fruit and Vegetables in the UK Diet. Sustainability. 2021; 13(3):1076. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13031076
Chicago/Turabian StyleDogbe, Wisdom, and Cesar Revoredo-Giha. 2021. "Nutritional and Environmental Assessment of Increasing the Content of Fruit and Vegetables in the UK Diet" Sustainability 13, no. 3: 1076. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13031076