1. Introduction
Entrepreneurship significantly contributes to economic dynamism by driving innovation, job creation, and wealth generation [
1]. This study focuses on Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University (PNU)’s role in encouraging entrepreneurship among female students, aligning with Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030. It evaluates PNU’s resources, policies, and support systems to suggest improvements or new strategies, aiming to address student needs within Saudi Arabia’s entrepreneurial framework [
2]. Additionally, this research explores PNU students’ entrepreneurial intentions, examining their impact on economic growth in the context of Vision 2030. The outcomes are anticipated to guide policymakers, educational bodies, and other stakeholders in nurturing a vibrant entrepreneurial environment [
1].
Despite existing efforts, a knowledge gap persists regarding the factors influencing PNU students’ entrepreneurial intentions and the university’s role in furthering Vision 2030 objectives. This research intends to fill these gaps, offering crucial insights to strengthen entrepreneurial advocacy at PNU. It also contributes to wider discussions on female entrepreneurship in Saudi Arabia, emphasizing its significance in achieving Vision 2030 goals [
3].
The theory of planned behavior (TPB) offers a comprehensive framework for understanding entrepreneurial intentions. This theory posits that three core elements—attitudes towards entrepreneurship, perceived societal norms, and perceived behavioral control—collectively influence these intentions and subsequent entrepreneurial activities [
4,
5]. Research has consistently confirmed TPB’s effectiveness in predicting entrepreneurial intentions among students across various cultures [
6,
7,
8]. A critical aspect of TPB is the role of positive attitudes towards entrepreneurship, derived from its perceived desirability and feasibility, in fostering entrepreneurial intentions [
9]. Furthermore, supportive subjective norms from social circles such as family and peers play a crucial role in nurturing entrepreneurial aspirations [
10]. Enhanced perceived behavioral control, which includes factors like self-efficacy and resource availability, also significantly contributes to the development of entrepreneurial intentions [
11]. While TPB is widely applied, its explanatory scope can be influenced by contextual factors [
12,
13]. Therefore, an analysis of Saudi Arabia’s unique sociocultural context and its impact on female students’ entrepreneurial intentions through the lens of TPB is of considerable importance.
Entrepreneurship significantly contributes to economic growth, job creation, and market competitiveness, particularly among the youth in nations like Saudi Arabia. Central to fostering these entrepreneurial skills are universities, such as PNU, whose roles, though diverse, are crucial for sustainable economic progress. Encouraging youth entrepreneurship can simultaneously spur economic development and enhance community well-being. Existing studies, including those by Alshrari et al., 2021 [
1], have examined students’ entrepreneurial intentions worldwide, but Saudi Arabia and PNU, amidst their societal and cultural shifts, offer unique insights. Recognizing PNU students’ entrepreneurial goals is essential for developing strategies that align with Vision 2030’s aims [
1,
2]. Evaluating PNU students’ entrepreneurship readiness is fundamental to establishing beneficial programs and structures [
4]. This assessment provides valuable perspectives on future entrepreneurs’ ambitions, motivations, and their inclination towards innovation and risk [
5,
6]. Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030 underscores the significance of youth entrepreneurship in achieving economic diversity and resilience, advocating the development of entrepreneurial ecosystems [
1]. PNU has actively fostered an entrepreneurial mindset, as evidenced by the founding of the Innovation and Entrepreneurship Institute [
7].
Saudi Arabia’s notable ascent in the ease of doing business ranking, advancing from 62nd in 2020 to 24th in 2021 [
14], highlights its entrepreneurial progression. This success stems from improved business registrations, streamlined tax systems, and better credit availability. Initiatives like the Misk Innovation Program and the Small and Medium Enterprises General Authority exemplify the nation’s investment in its entrepreneurial environment. Furthermore, the Saudi Venture Capital Company plays a crucial role in financing startups, propelling their growth [
15].
A youthful, well-educated, and technologically proficient population contributes to the thriving entrepreneurial culture in Saudi Arabia [
16]. This demographic benefits from government-sponsored educational and training programs. Advances in digital infrastructure further empower technology startups. In 2020, venture capital investments in Saudi Arabia soared to
$548 million, marking a 270% increase from the previous year. Government support, demographic trends, and Saudi Arabia’s advantageous location in the Middle East are the primary drivers of this growth. The success stories of startups such as Careem, Jahez, Noon, STC Pay, and Tawseela exemplify the vibrant entrepreneurial landscape of the nation [
17].
Saudi Arabian universities, particularly in their support of female students, play a vital role in nurturing entrepreneurship. For instance, in 2016, King Saud University inaugurated the Entrepreneurship Institute to cultivate entrepreneurial skills, with a focus on women’s involvement [
18]. Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University (PNU), the world’s largest women-only university, operates the ‘Dah’ Innovation Center, offering workshops and support for women-led ventures. Effat University has established the Entrepreneurship Center, dedicated to equipping its female students with entrepreneurial competencies. These initiatives are pivotal in bridging the gender gap in Saudi Arabia’s entrepreneurial sector [
19].
Understanding the entrepreneurial aspirations of Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University (PNU) students is essential for devising effective educational strategies and support mechanisms. Discerning their needs allows for the optimization of academic curricula and programs. Aligning these goals with those of Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030 also facilitates assessing PNU’s alignment with this transformative plan and identifies areas where additional support for entrepreneurs is needed [
8].
Insights into the entrepreneurial intentions of Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University (PNU) students provide valuable insights into their aspirations and pave the way for impactful educational programs. Furthermore, these insights ensure that university initiatives are aligned with the goals of Vision 2030, which emphasizes economic diversification and innovation in Saudi Arabia. Established in 1970 as the Riyadh University for Women and rebranded in 2019, PNU has evolved into the world’s largest women’s university, playing a pivotal role in Saudi Arabia’s commitment to women’s education and empowerment. This study aims to explore the entrepreneurial intentions of PNU students, aligning their aspirations with Vision 2030’s emphasis on entrepreneurship and economic diversification. Given the increasing involvement of Saudi women in various sectors, including entrepreneurship, there is a keen interest in understanding the role that institutions like PNU play in fostering entrepreneurship among female students [
20].
The study encompasses three key objectives. The first objective is to assess the attitudes and perceptions of female university students in Saudi Arabia towards entrepreneurship and the influence of a dynamic business environment on their entrepreneurial intentions. The second objective involves an examination of the impact of societal norms on female students’ entrepreneurial intentions, utilizing the theory of planned behavior as a guiding framework [
21]. The third objective seeks to identify opportunities and potential challenges within the university system that may affect entrepreneurial intentions. These include factors such as the nature of academic programs and support mechanisms. The study addresses three essential questions: First, what are the prevailing attitudes and perceptions of female university students in Saudi Arabia concerning entrepreneurship? Second, how do societal norms and cultural expectations in Saudi Arabia impact the entrepreneurial intentions of these students? Third, what opportunities within the Saudi Arabian university system contribute positively to the development of entrepreneurial intentions among female students?
Saudi Arabia has recently implemented policy changes aimed at enhancing women’s employment opportunities, including their inclusion in the retail and hospitality sectors (AlMunajjed, 2021) [
19]. Despite these efforts, significant challenges persist, primarily due to restrictive guardianship laws and entrenched gender norms (Koyame-Marsh, 2016) [
18].
In the past five years, Saudi Arabia has taken substantial steps to increase women’s participation in the workforce and entrepreneurship. However, notable gender disparities persist, particularly in labor force participation and unemployment rates. Recent statistics from the Saudi General Authority for Statistics (2022) [
17] indicate that in Q3 2022, the labor force participation rate for Saudi women aged 15 and above was 31.2%, contrasting with the 75.3% rate for Saudi men. Additionally, the unemployment rate for women stood at 22.2%, significantly higher than the 5.7% rate for men.
These disparities underscore the enduring cultural and logistical barriers to women’s employment, as well as gender segregation in higher education, which limits women’s access to degrees in high-demand fields (Alsubaie and Jones, 2017) [
16]. Nevertheless, initiatives aimed at boosting female educational attainment in STEM and business fields are gradually reshaping this landscape (Alghamdi and Jones, 2019) [
22].
The paper delves into women’s entrepreneurship in Saudi Arabia, with a focus on the interplay between the country’s sociocultural and legal frameworks, particularly concerning university students. It highlights the role of educational institutions, notably Princess Noura University (PNU), in nurturing entrepreneurial skills among young Saudi women, aligned with the national emphasis on economic development and job creation. The study also underscores how the evolving legal and regulatory environment is gradually opening more opportunities for women’s enterprises, influenced by shifting cultural norms regarding gender roles and women’s participation in business. Despite the challenges posed by legal restrictions and societal attitudes, the paper acknowledges a positive trend characterized by educational initiatives and policy reforms. This offers a balanced perspective on the dynamic landscape of female entrepreneurship within Saudi Arabia’s unique cultural and legal setting.
The research hypotheses:
Considering the study’s literature, primary objectives, and insights gleaned from the data, the following research hypotheses are proposed:
Null Hypothesis 1: Attitude towards entrepreneurship does not determine entrepreneurial intentions.
Alternate Hypothesis 1: Attitude towards entrepreneurship positively determines entrepreneurial intentions.
This hypothesis helps in understanding the impact of individual attitudes towards entrepreneurship and can help in tailoring educational and policy interventions to enhance positive attitudes, thus, fostering entrepreneurial intentions among individuals.
Null Hypothesis 2: Social norms do not determine entrepreneurial intentions.
Alternate Hypothesis 2: Social norms positively impact entrepreneurial intentions.
This hypothesis explores the role of societal expectations and norms in shaping entrepreneurial aspirations. Recognizing this relationship can aid in developing strategies to create a more supportive social environment for entrepreneurship.
Null Hypothesis 3: Perceived behavioral control does not determine entrepreneurial intentions.
Alternate Hypothesis 3: Perceived behavioral control positively affects entrepreneurial intentions.
This hypothesis investigates how individuals’ perceptions of their ability to perform entrepreneurial activities influence their intentions and can inform efforts to enhance entrepreneurial skills and self-efficacy, thereby encouraging more individuals to pursue entrepreneurial ventures.
3. Methodology
This study employs a quantitative approach, integrating the theory of planned behavior (TPB) proposed by Ajzen (1991) [
4]. The selection of TPB is justified as it is a well-established model in entrepreneurial studies, particularly effective in examining the intentions behind entrepreneurial activities. TPB’s relevance lies in its focus on three key constructs: attitude toward behavior (A), subjective norm (SN), and perceived behavioral control (PBC). These constructs are pivotal in understanding entrepreneurial intention (EI) among emerging entrepreneurs (Shanti and Soepatini, 2018) [
39]. The TPB framework’s comprehensive coverage of these psychological aspects makes it particularly suitable for exploring entrepreneurial intentions among potential entrepreneurs, as validated by Agolla et al. (2019) [
40].
In applying the TPB model, our study expands upon previous research by concentrating on a unique demographic—female students at Princess Nourah University, a significant yet underexplored group in entrepreneurial studies. The inclusion of gender-related entrepreneurial issues in the TPB-based questionnaire aligns with the standard TPB format, providing a nuanced understanding of the factors influencing female students’ entrepreneurial intentions. This methodological choice acknowledges the growing interest in women’s entrepreneurship, particularly in the context of Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030.
The primary data collection tool was a TPB-based questionnaire, featuring 20 statements rated on a five-point Likert scale. These statements were meticulously designed to capture the three TPB constructs (attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control) and their influence on the entrepreneurial intentions of the respondents. The questionnaire’s alignment with the standard TPB format and inclusion of demographic data facilitated a comprehensive data collection strategy that integrates both primary and secondary data on entrepreneurship in Saudi Arabia.
Our research model posits attitude toward behavior (F1), subjective norm (F2), and perceived behavioral control (F3) as independent variables, with entrepreneurial intention (F4) as the dependent variable. The latent variables, inferred from respondents’ perceptions, are essential for a thorough understanding of entrepreneurial intentions. Operationalizing these variables through specific statements allows for a nuanced exploration of factors such as the determination to initiate a venture, the perception of entrepreneurship as a viable livelihood, and societal approval of entrepreneurial endeavors.
The research population consisted of female students from Princess Nourah University in Saudi Arabia, viewed as potential entrepreneurs. This sampling strategy, representing approximately 27% of the student population, aligns with previous studies exploring entrepreneurial intentions among university students. This emphasis on female students, potential future entrepreneurs, aligns with numerous studies conducted in Saudi Arabia, contributing to a broader comprehension of entrepreneurial intentions in this demographic. This approach is particularly relevant considering the national focus on female empowerment and economic participation under Vision 2030.
To ensure the validity of the scale if it is reused again to yield consistent results, the test was administered to a survey sample from the study population and outside of it, consisting of 20 students. Cronbach’s alpha [
41] is a quantification of the internal consistency or reliability of a scale or test, measuring the degree of correlation between its items. It can calculate according to this formula:
Let xj = tj + ej, where each ej is independent of tj and all the ej are independent of each other. Also, let x0 = and t0 = . Then the reliability of x0 ≥ α where α is Cronbach’s alpha. Here, we perceive the xj as the measured values, the tj as the true values, and the e j as the values.
Cronbach’s alpha is a reliable measure, typically ranging between 0 and 1, with higher values indicating greater internal consistency. An alpha of 0.7 (some argue 0.6) suggests acceptable reliability, while 0.8 or higher suggests good reliability. Extremely high values above 0.95 may indicate item redundancy, which is not ideal. It is important to consider specific factors as alpha values can vary, e.g., more items can inflate alpha without improving internal consistency.
The data were analyzed using different statistical methods. A student’s t-test was used to verify if the average score of the statements was 3, indicating a neutral response. The relationship among variables—attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, and entrepreneurial intention—was assessed using a structural equation model (SEM).
The observed variables in this study are assessed through the perceptions of the respondents. Each construct, namely, attitude, social norms, perceived behavioral control, and entrepreneurial intentions, is evaluated using four distinct statements. The model measures the direct impact of attitude, social norms, and perceived behavioral control on the inclination to become an entrepreneur through specific paths. Additionally, it considers the covariance among the three explanatory variables: attitude, social norms, perceived behavioral control, and entrepreneurial intention. The study tests three null hypotheses: (1) attitude toward entrepreneurship does not determine entrepreneurial intentions; (2) social norms do not determine entrepreneurial intentions; and (3) perceived behavioral control does not determine entrepreneurial intentions. Fit indices, such as the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) and comparative fit index (CFI), are utilized to assess the model’s performance. AMOS 20 software is employed for estimating the model.
Table 1 presents variances, a critical output derived from a structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis. These variances provide estimates for factors and error terms within the model. In the table’s ‘Estimate’ column, you can find variances for each factor (F1, F2, and F3), which are standardized to 1 in accordance with SEM conventions for scaling latent variables. Additionally, the table lists variances for error terms (e5 to e19), representing unexplained variances in the observed variables. The standard error column, ‘S.E.’, offers insights into the reliability of these estimates, while the critical ratio column, ‘C.R.’, indicates the ratio of the estimate to its error, used to assess the parameters’ significance. The ‘P’ column displays
p-values, signifying statistical significance, typically at the 0.001 level. This table plays a crucial role in evaluating the model’s reliability and validity. It is worth noting that the variances of the factors are standardized, and the error terms exhibit varying but significant variances, underscoring the model’s statistical robustness and explanatory capacity.
4. Results
We have introduced a new section within the results chapter dedicated to providing a comprehensive overview of the key empirical findings. This expansion involves enhancing the clarity of
Table 2’s descriptive statistics, delving deeper into the outcomes of the hypothesis tests and structural equation modeling within the narrative, emphasizing the significance of the results in relation to attitudes and perceived control, and elucidating the practical implications of the data analysis. Furthermore, we have incorporated additional subsections that succinctly summarize the principal empirical findings associated with each hypothesis and objective. To enhance the comprehensibility of the study’s insights, we have also improved the visual representation of statistical information using charts and path models.
Table 2 plays a pivotal role in evaluating the effectiveness of the questionnaire utilized in this study. It offers a comprehensive analysis that not only substantiates the questionnaire’s reliability and validity but also ensures the consistency and accuracy of the obtained results. Additionally, the table furnishes descriptive statistics, shedding light on overarching trends, patterns, and variations inherent in the collected dataset. This holistic presentation underscores not only the methodological rigor of the research but also establishes a robust foundation for confident result interpretation.
To bolster the reliability and validity of the questionnaire, rigorous measures were meticulously undertaken. Cronbach’s alpha test, a widely recognized assessment tool, was employed to gauge the internal consistency of statements derived from the theory of planned behavior (TPB). The outcomes of this evaluation reveal robust Cronbach’s alpha values for both part 1 (0.915) and part 2 (0.899), surpassing the conventional threshold of 0.7. These values signify a strong interrelationship among the items within each section of the questionnaire, indicative of substantial internal consistency. The overall Cronbach’s alpha for the entire questionnaire stands at an impressive 0.946, underscoring its high reliability. This result implies that the questionnaire items collectively constitute a dependable and consistent scale. The study’s thorough reliability assessment provides compelling evidence for the questionnaire’s trustworthiness. Furthermore, support for reliability is reinforced by the Spearman–Brown coefficient, computed at 0.858, and the Guttman split-half coefficient, registering at 0.835. These metrics affirm the tool’s reliability, affirming robust consistency across both halves of the questionnaire [
42].
Table 3 provides a systematic summary of the study’s findings, outlining the demographic and academic profiles of the participants. Notably, 95% of the respondents identify as Saudi Arabian nationals, underscoring the localized nature of the survey. In terms of their educational background, a substantial majority, approximately 93.58%, are pursuing undergraduate studies, indicating that the sample predominantly comprises young individuals enrolled in universities. When exploring their academic preferences, the data unveil a diverse landscape: 60% are pursuing fields categorized as ‘other specializations’, which encompass a wide range of unspecified disciplines. Humanities attract 30% of the participants, indicating a pronounced inclination towards arts, languages, and social sciences. Meanwhile, scientific studies and applied sciences, representing more specialized or technical domains, account for 6% and 2%, respectively. Shifting the focus to their professional lives, 49% are employed in the governmental sector, reflecting the prominence of public sector jobs in the region. This is followed by a miscellaneous group categorized as ‘others’ at 31%, self-starting entrepreneurs at 10%, and individuals venturing into the private sector at 9%. These insights, shedding light on the educational and professional choices of the sample, are examined in-depth in subsequent sections.
The study explores gender-specific perspectives within the entrepreneurial culture in Saudi Arabia. A significant 80% of respondents, comprising 48% strongly agreeing and 33% agreeing, express the belief that the current business environment is more favorable for entrepreneurs compared to the past. This highlights notable transformations within the Kingdom to support entrepreneurship. Approximately 70%, with 43% strongly agreeing and 27% agreeing, affirm that women have equal opportunities as men when initiating new businesses. Furthermore, 62%, consisting of 34% strongly agreeing and 28% agreeing, believe that entrepreneurship does not pose gender-specific challenges. In addition, a substantial 83%, comprising 46% strongly agreeing and 37% agreeing, endorse the idea that the current climate is supportive of enterprises led by women entrepreneurs. This reflects an overall favorable perspective among female participants regarding the entrepreneurial landscape and opportunities for women entrepreneurs in the Kingdom.
The study involved 218 participants from various academic backgrounds across the university’s colleges. The largest group came from the Colleges of Humanities, with 67 students, representing 30.73% of the total. The Colleges of Sciences had 15 participants, accounting for 6.88%. Meanwhile, the Applied Colleges had a smaller representation, consisting of only 5 students, which made up 2.29% of the sample. The remaining 131 participants, amounting to 60.9%, represented a variety of other colleges.
The gender difference data presented in
Figure 1 have been transformed from raw frequencies into percentages to enhance clarity. For instance, the previous categories of 48 agreeing and 33 strongly agreeing have been converted to 60% agreeing and 40% strongly agreeing. This percentage representation facilitates easier interpretation and comparison. Additionally, relevant figure-related text has been updated to report statistics as percentages rather than raw numbers.
Table 4 presents an analysis based on the theory of planned behavior (TPB), providing the mean, mode, and standard deviation for each of the 16 statements. Notably, nine statements exhibit a mode of 5, indicating strong agreement. In contrast, four statements demonstrate general agreement, while only three items show a mode of 3, suggesting neutrality. Significantly, none of the statements received a mode of 1 (strongly disagree) or 2 (disagree). The questionnaire’s reliability is supported by Cronbach’s alpha exceeding 0.87 for each statement, even when items are omitted. Additionally, all statements were tested against the null hypothesis, which assumed that responses would tend towards neutrality. The t-statistics, all surpassing 2, suggest that respondents did not hold a neutral perspective on any of the statements.
The structural equation model is illustrated in the path diagram (
Figure 2) and elaborated in
Table A2. The coefficient for attitude, which stands at 2.54 (
p = 0.017), plays a pivotal role in comprehending the relationship between individual attitudes and entrepreneurial intentions. A positive coefficient implies more favorable attitudes towards entrepreneurship, corresponding to an increase in entrepreneurial intentions. Individuals with a more positive attitude are likely to exhibit stronger entrepreneurial intentions. Given that the
p-value is less than 0.05, we reject the null hypothesis suggesting that attitude does not significantly impact entrepreneurial intentions and accept the alternative hypothesis.
Conversely, the coefficient for social norms is −2.92 (p = 0.045), signifying a significant inverse relationship between prevailing social norms and entrepreneurial intentions. This suggests that non-supportive societal norms may deter individuals from pursuing entrepreneurial ventures, emphasizing the profound impact of societal perceptions on entrepreneurial aspirations. Since the p-value is less than 0.05, we reject the null hypothesis proposing that social norms do not significantly impact entrepreneurial intentions and accept the alternative hypothesis.
Our focused analysis on societal norms impeding women’s entrepreneurial aspirations, despite a positive business environment, is detailed in the Discussion section. This examination, supported by work in the literature such as Haque et al. (2022) [
38] and Alzamel et al. (2022) [
43], explores the nuances of these norms and their direct impact on female students at Princess Nourah University. It clarifies the complex relationship between societal attitudes and female entrepreneurship in Saudi Arabia, enhancing the depth of our study.
Lastly, the coefficient for perceived behavioral control, at 1.69 (p = 0.006), provides insights into how an individual’s perceived control over their behavior influences entrepreneurial intentions. A positive coefficient suggests that individuals who believe they possess the necessary skills, knowledge, and resources for entrepreneurship are more likely to engage in such ventures. This underscores the importance of self-efficacy in entrepreneurial success. As the p-value is less than 0.05, we reject the null hypothesis that perceived behavioral control does not significantly impact entrepreneurial intentions and accept the alternative hypothesis.
The covariances between the three explanatory constructs are detailed in
Figure 2 and
Table A4. The coefficient of covariance between attitude and social norms is 0.92; between social norms and perceived behavioral control is 0.82; and between attitude and perceived behavioral control is 0.53. These covariances, significant at the 1% level, indicate a systematic and positive relationship among the constructs of attitude social norms, and perceived behavioral control.
In terms of percentage, a one-standard deviation changes in statement A1, A2, A3, and A4 is associated with 73%, 88%, 79%, and 30% change in attitude towards entrepreneurship, respectively. Similarly, a one-standard deviation changes in statement S1, S2, S3, and S4 is associated with 51%, 23%, 65%, and 51% changes in social norms, respectively. Also, a one-standard deviation changes in statement P1, P2, P3, and P4 is associated with 82%, 77%, 66%, and 63% changes in perceived behavioral control, respectively. Lastly, a one-standard deviation changes in statement E1, E2, E3, and E4 is associated with 85%, 89%, 78%, and 59% changes in entrepreneurial intentions, respectively.
The model-fit summary statistics are provided in
Table A5. The absolute fit index, represented as CMIN/Df, yields a value of 2.644, indicating a strong congruency between the theoretical model and the sample data (Alsubaie and Jones, 2017) [
16]. A value below 5 is considered favorable, suggesting that the model accurately represents the observed data. The root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) stands at 0.08, which falls below the acceptable threshold (Ali et al., 2019) [
44]. RMSEA measures the discrepancy between the observed covariance matrix and the model’s predicted covariance matrix. A value of 0.08 or lower signifies a reasonable fit of the model to the data, further validating the model’s integrity.
The comparative fit index (CFI) and incremental fit index (IFI) are 0.899 and 0.90, respectively (Naushad, 2018) [
45]. These values, approaching 1, indicate a strong fit between the model and the data. CFI and IFI values near 1 suggest that the model offers a highly accurate representation of the observed data. Additionally, the parsimonious comparative fit index (PCFI) and parsimonious normed fit index (PNFI) have values of 0.74 and 0.7, respectively (Rauch & Hulsink, 2015) [
10]. Values above 0.50 are considered acceptable, indicating a satisfactory model fit, even with a simpler structure (Moriano et al., 2011) [
11].
In the concluding section of the questionnaire, the results reveal significant insights into the university’s relationship with entrepreneurship. Notably, 34% of the university’s scholars reported no engagement in entrepreneurship coursework (Yurtkoru et al., 2014) [
28]. This indicates a segment of students lacking exposure to entrepreneurial education, which could potentially influence their entrepreneurial intentions and aspirations. Furthermore, 62% of the students disclosed that their institution had not offered any entrepreneurship-related seminars, workshops, or training in the past year (Yurtkoru et al., 2014) [
28]. This absence of entrepreneurship-focused events may restrict students’ access to essential entrepreneurial resources and networking opportunities, thereby diminishing their interest and motivation in entrepreneurial pursuits.
Alarmingly, 62% of respondents indicated that their university lacked training units or incubator facilities (Yurtkoru et al., 2014) [
28], a shortfall that could deprive aspiring entrepreneurs of practical experience and mentoring. Additionally, 57% of participants reported receiving no support or guidance on entrepreneurship from their university (Yurtkoru et al., 2014) [
28], a factor that could leave students feeling unsupported in their entrepreneurial endeavors and affect their pursuit of entrepreneurship. (
Table 5).
Over half of the respondents, at 52%, expressed dissatisfaction with the absence of entrepreneurship courses in their curriculum (Yurtkoru et al., 2014) [
28], pointing to a potential gap in the university’s offerings. Students are seeking more comprehensive educational programs to equip them with the skills and knowledge necessary for entrepreneurial ventures. The same percentage, 52%, also voiced dissatisfaction with the lack of university-supported entrepreneurship initiatives (Yurtkoru et al., 2014) [
28], suggesting a need for more programs that promote and encourage entrepreneurship within the university setting.
The findings indicate that a significant portion of respondents perceive a positive business environment in Saudi Arabia, free from gender bias against female-led enterprises. They recognize equal business opportunities for both genders and a supportive environment for women’s entrepreneurial endeavors. However, societal norms still negatively impact the entrepreneurial aspirations of female university students. A more profound understanding of the theory of planned behavior reveals that attitudes and perceived behavioral control among female students favor entrepreneurial inclinations. Encouragement from friends, family, and academic faculty plays a vital role in fostering entrepreneurship among women, and society’s acceptance of entrepreneurship as a viable career path should be encouraged.
The study reveals an optimistic trend towards entrepreneurship, with 64% of respondents expressing interest in pursuing entrepreneurship in the future. A small percentage (3.21%) categorically rejected entrepreneurship as a career option, while 32% remained uncertain. This uncertainty presents an opportunity for mentorship programs to nurture future entrepreneurs. Notably, none of the 16 statements derived from the theory of planned behavior scale were categorically rejected. A few statements encountered some disagreement, highlighting areas for potential intervention. The study advocates promoting the benefits of entrepreneurship, providing university-level mentorship, and fostering an entrepreneurial mindset over traditional employment paths.
In our study, we identified that a significant portion, 32%, of the respondents remained undecided about pursuing entrepreneurship. To gain deeper insights into the perspectives of this group, we conduct a more in-depth analysis of this data segment. This detailed examination delves into the factors contributing to their uncertainty and the potential barriers they perceive within the entrepreneurial landscape. Our objective is to gain a better understanding of the hesitations and challenges faced by these individuals, which could, in turn, inform targeted interventions and support mechanisms.
The study’s findings reveal a strong inclination towards entrepreneurship, with over 64% of respondents expressing a desire to pursue entrepreneurial ventures in the future. Only 3.2% unequivocally rejected entrepreneurship as a viable career path, while 32% remained undecided, presenting a significant opportunity for mentorship and guidance in the field of entrepreneurship. The study also sheds light on statements that received neutral or negative scores, signaling areas in need of targeted interventions. Interestingly, none of the 16 statements derived from the theory of planned behavior scale were outright rejected. However, three statements had a mode of three, suggesting that these areas warrant additional focus. Therefore, the study recommends emphasizing the benefits of entrepreneurship and establishing mentoring and support programs at universities to nurture aspiring entrepreneurs.
Furthermore, this study underscores the pivotal role of university ecosystems in cultivating entrepreneurial intentions among students. The primary recommendations include universities introducing entrepreneurship courses, offering a broad array of seminars, workshops, and training programs related to entrepreneurship, and establishing dedicated training units or incubators. These measures will not only facilitate the development of an interest in entrepreneurship among female students but also empower them to become successful entrepreneurs in the future.
This study aims to assess the potential of the entrepreneurial ecosystem in fostering entrepreneurial intentions among students. Key recommendations emerging from this research include the introduction of entrepreneurship courses in university curricula, the expansion of seminars, workshops, and training sessions focused on entrepreneurship, and the establishment of university-based training units or incubators. These initiatives have the potential to cultivate entrepreneurial interest among female students, thereby nurturing them into future entrepreneurs.
Respondents in the study view Saudi Arabia’s business environment optimistically, with no significant gender bias observed against female-led businesses. They affirm the existence of equal opportunities for both genders and consider the environment conducive to female-led entrepreneurial initiatives. However, societal norms still exert a negative influence on the entrepreneurial aspirations of female university students. Within the framework of the theory of planned behavior, it is evident that the attitudes and perceived behavioral control of female university students are favorable towards entrepreneurial ambitions. Therefore, it is essential to instill societal acceptance of entrepreneurship, with crucial support from friends, families, and faculty members.
The study’s findings reveal a strong inclination towards entrepreneurship, with over 64% of respondents expressing a desire to pursue entrepreneurial ventures in the future. Only 3.2% firmly rejected entrepreneurship as a career path, while 32% remained undecided, presenting a significant opportunity for mentorship and guidance in the field of entrepreneurship. The study identifies statements that received neutral or negative scores, signaling areas requiring intervention. Interestingly, none of the 16 statements derived from the theory of planned behavior scale were entirely rejected. However, three statements had a mode of three, suggesting that these areas require additional focus. Therefore, the study recommends emphasizing the benefits of entrepreneurship and providing mentoring and support programs at universities for aspiring entrepreneurs.
The results of testing the research hypothesis:
The study’s results pertaining to the testing of three research hypotheses are as follows:
Hypothesis 1 (H1). Attitude towards entrepreneurship positively determines entrepreneurial intentions.
The research has identified a significant positive impact of individual attitudes on entrepreneurial intentions. Specifically, the study rejected the null hypothesis, demonstrating that a favorable attitude towards entrepreneurship indeed enhances the likelihood of an individual’s intention to engage in entrepreneurial activities. This finding is crucial as it implies that fostering positive attitudes towards entrepreneurship could be a key factor in encouraging entrepreneurial pursuits among potential entrepreneurs.
Hypothesis 2 (H2). Social norms positively impact entrepreneurial intentions.
The study reveals an inverse relationship between social norms and entrepreneurial intentions, as evidenced by a negative coefficient (−2.92) with a significance level of p = 0.045. This result indicates that unsupportive or negative social norms can act as a significant barrier to entrepreneurial intentions. The rejection of the null hypothesis in this case underscores the strong influence societal expectations and norms have in either fostering or hindering entrepreneurial aspirations. This outcome highlights the necessity of a supportive social environment to cultivate and sustain entrepreneurial intentions.
Hypothesis 3 (H3). Perceived behavioral control positively affects entrepreneurial intentions.
The study found that perceived behavioral control significantly positively affects entrepreneurial intentions, confirming the alternate hypothesis. This was evidenced by a positive coefficient, indicating that individuals who feel confident about their skills, knowledge, and resources in entrepreneurship are more likely to consider entrepreneurial endeavors. The rejection of the null hypothesis in this instance highlights the importance of behavioral control in the entrepreneurial process. It suggests that enhancing individuals’ belief in their entrepreneurial capabilities can play a crucial role in boosting their intentions to initiate and sustain entrepreneurial activities.
The detailed findings derived from this study provide a nuanced understanding of the intricate factors influencing entrepreneurial intentions. The results underscore the significance of individual attitudes, societal norms, and perceived control in shaping the entrepreneurial mindset. These insights can guide the development of more effective strategies and policies aimed at fostering entrepreneurship.
We wish to draw attention to the addition of a new subsection that offers a clear overview of the hypothesis-testing process and its outcomes. Within this subsection, we present three hypotheses and rigorously analyze whether they were supported or rejected through statistical analysis. Furthermore, we thoroughly examine the significance of each hypothesis and compare them to the relevant literature in the field. We also highlight any disparities or agreements with previous studies to establish a meaningful connection with existing research.